Masaryk University
Faculty of Arts
Department of English
and American Studies
English Language and Literature
Jakub Štěrba
Comparative Analysis of Poe’s and Fitzgerald’s Short Prose
Bachelor’s Diploma Thesis
Supervisor: Mgr. Martina Horáková, Ph.D.
2008
I declare that I have worked on this thesis independently,
using only the primary and secondary sources listed in the bibliography.
……………………………………………
Author’s signature
I would like to thank to the supervisor of my Bachelor’s thesis
Mgr. Martina Horáková, Ph.D. for the help, support
and guidance of my work.
Contents
1. Introduction ……………………………………………………………………… 5
2. Biographies ……………………………………………………………………… 8
2.1. Edgar Allan Poe .…………………………………………… ……………… 8
2.2. Francis Scott Key Fitzgerald .……………………………………………… 11
3. Social interaction in Poe’s “The Black Cat” and Fitzgerald’s ”Winter Dreams” 14
4. The notion of Death in Poe’s “The Fall of the House of Usher” and Fitzgerald’s “The
Lees of Happiness” ………………………………………………………. 26
5. Conclusion ...…………………………………………………………………… 37
1. Introduction
The short story genre has its origin in oral story-telling, which goes back to the beginning
of the civilization. Thus, it can be stated that the short story is the oldest genre in
literature. As a result, the genre has gone a long way from the original oral story-telling to
its modern form. Ian Reid claims that the short story genre “is probably the most widely read
of all modern genres [but] even now it seldom receives serious critical attention” (Reid 1).
It is obvious that the genre of short story is a significant part of literature and deserves
sufficient attention. The critical neglect is mostly due to the fact that short story is
sometimes viewed as a minor counterpart to the genre of the novel. One of the prejudices
against the short story is that it is written only because the authors are not able to write a
longer and more complex piece of literature such as novel. However, it remains a fact that the
short story cannot only equal novel in complexity, profoundness and quality, but it also can,
and very often does, excel novel in these aforementioned features, in particular due to the
limited length. Among the variety of short story authors, two writers who significantly
contributed to the development of the genre stand out. The first one, and also the most
influential of all, is Edgar Allan Poe who stood at the birth of the modern short story,
formed its development and gave it a direction. The other author, Francis Scott Key
Fitzgerald, greatly contributed to the short story genre, especially by the fact that he won
an extreme popularity for the genre, and thus greatly extended its readership. These two
authors and their contribution to the genre of the short story are the focus of this thesis.
In this thesis, I analyze two short stories written by Edgar Allan Poe – “The Black Cat” and
“The Fall of the House of Usher” – and two short stories written by Francis Scott Key
Fitzgerald: “Winter Dreams” and “The Lees of Happiness.” These short stories eloquently
represent Poe’s and Fitzgerald’s works as they deal with motifs of social interaction and
death. These two motifs frequently reoccur in Poe’s and Fitzgerald’s writing and can be
therefore viewed as the central topics of their works, both short prose and novels. I want to
compare and contrast the two authors’ short stories in order to point out the potential
material for analysis. In this comparison the main focus is placed on presenting similarities
in the works of these two authors, but, of course, also pointing out certain differences which
are mostly due to the different worlds they lived in. With the help of textual evidence, I
wish to show that although writing in different centuries, Fitzgerald’s and Poe’s view of an
omnipresent motif – the death – is quite similar and forms a basis for several of their short
stories. In contrast, their treatment of the concept of social interaction is inherently
influenced both by a time gap and different life experiences. In this manner, I wish to show
that social interaction as a reoccurring theme is viewed and approached differently by these
two authors. I conclude by assessing the role of the two themes, social interaction and death,
within the framework of Poe’s and Fitzgerald’s short prose.
Poe and Fitzgerald are suitable for a comparative analysis as there are many things that
connect them; such as life experience along with the similar topics that appear in their short
stories. Charles Shain, in his book dealing with Fitzgerald, connects Fitzgerald’s life with
that of Poe’s: “Fitzgerald’s life encompassed enough pathos, irony and final agony to make his
biography by Arthur Mizener one of the saddest records of an American literary life since
Edgar Allan Poe. Before he died he was dead as a writer” (Shain 6). The important fact is that
their literary lives, the term adopted by Shain, can be compared. Within the scope of their
works, they dealt with class issues and described the societies of their times. The assumption
that these two writers have a lot in common is also obvious from many similar topics which
occur in many of their stories, although sometimes these topics are treated differently or are
used to express different points of view. Amongst these themes one can find a disappointment,
ability and inability of coping with people in the character’s social environment, which goes
hand in hand with failures in communication and often ends in tragedy in Poe’s and
Fitzgerald’s prose, difficulties with facing the obstacles that life brings as there is no
social interaction and no safety net of the community; a complicated establishment of any kind
of close relationship, even friendship and problems in connection with consumption of alcohol.
Generally, the two authors either deal with the above-mentioned negative things as such, or
they describe the negative aspects of these things with the feelings of unhappiness, darkness,
and sad, absinth-ridden mood. The connection of these topics can be viewed as being too
general, since similar themes can be found within the frameworks of many other authors.
However, the main connecting points are the concepts of social interaction and death – the
themes that the two authors treat in a specific, not least for the short prose genre, manner
and which present the points of reference of this thesis.
2. Poe’s and Fitzgerald’s Biographies
2.1. Edgar Allan Poe
Edgar Allan Poe was born in Boston, Massachusetts on January 19, 1809 to Elizabeth Arnold, an
English actress, and David Poe, who left his family in order to marry Elizabeth, and who
abandoned his career as a manufacturer in order to become an actor. Two years later Poe’s
mother, already abandoned by her husband, died in Richmond, Virginia and her three children
were separated and taken by various families. Edgar was taken, but never legally adopted, into
a family of a Scottish merchant, John Allan, from whom he took his middle name. Edgar had a
complicated relationship with Allan. Edgar was an exceptionally bright boy and even though he
was quite popular both with his teachers and schoolmates, he did not much participate in the
after-school activities as the other children did. He rather tended to be alone. (Wagenknecht
14-16; Richards 168)
Poe studied at the University of Virginia where he spent just one year. He was an excellent
student who often studied more than what was required by the curriculum. He excelled
especially in Latin and French (Wagenknecht 16). John Allan did not provide Poe with
sufficient amount of money which led Poe to debts and the inability to pay for them made it
impossible for him to continue in his studies at the university. In 1827, before he went to
Boston where under a false name and incorrect age he enlisted in the army, Poe anonymously,
and at his own expense, published the first collection of his poems Tamerlane and Other Poems.
After two years in the army, he left and published his second collection of poems Al Aaraaf,
Tamerlane, and Minor Poems. After Mrs. Allan died, Edgar was accepted, with the help of Mr.
Allan, to the United States Military Academy at West Point, but was expelled for neglecting
military duties. He purposely neglected the duties as he did not want to stay in the army any
longer. However, before being expelled, Edgar was doing so well that he gained the rank of
sergeant-major. To attend West Point Academy was Mr. Allan’s idea and, although Edgar wanted
to continue his education, he went to West Point Academy rather to please Mr. Allan and to
find reconciliation after their many disputes. Nonetheless, the reconciliation turned out to
be impossible. (Wagenknecht 17; Richards 168; Hart 594)
Poe moved to Baltimore and started his career as a short story writer. He won a literary
contest with his story “MS. Found in a Bottle.” This first appreciation of his work helped him
to get employment for the Southern Literary Messenger whose circulation was significantly
increased thanks to Poe (Hart 594). However, Poe was later dismissed because of drinking,
which caused him problems in his following occupations as well. Poe later worked for various
magazines such as Burton’s Gentleman’s Magazine, Grahams’s Magazine and Broadway Journal in
which he published many of his short stories before they were published in a book; usually as
a collection of tales. Among the most famous stories were “The Fall of the House of Usher,”
“The Murders in the Rue Morgue,” “The Masque of the Red Death,” The Black Cat” and “The Pit
and the Pendulum.” In 1839 the first collection of his short stories, Tales of the Grotesque
and Arabesque, was published. In 1845, Poe published his most famous poem, “The Raven,” which
secured him a remarkable recognition. In the same year, he married a daughter of his aunt, his
thirteen-year old cousin, Virginia Clemm. Poe moved with his wife and her mother to the
country where they lived in poverty in a secluded cottage. Virginia died of tuberculosis and
was, after his mother and Mrs. Allan, the third woman that Poe lost during his life. In 1849,
two years after his wife’s death, Poe was found delirious on the street in Baltimore and was
taken to the hospital where he died four days later at the age of forty. (Bradbury, Mottram,
Franco 205; Richards 169; Hart 595; Richards 168)
Poe is well known for his horror tales and for his specifically mysterious and macabre style
of writing. He is regarded as a founder of the detective story, by some critics also as an
originator of the modern short story; and he also influenced the emerging science fiction
genre. In addition to series of reviews published in magazines that he had worked for, Poe
also contributed to the literary theory by writing two critical essays: “The Philosophy of
Composition” and “The Poetic Principle.” (Hart 595; Richards 170)
The facts that can be found in Poe’s biography relate to his writing and are very useful for
analyses of Poe’s work which cannot be truly approached without such knowledge. His
tendencies, while he was still a young boy, for spending time rather alone and also the fact
that he lived for several years only with his wife and his aunt in a cottage at a sequestered
place, can tell the reader something about Poe’s perception of the society and his attitude
toward becoming a member of the society. His unhappy life situation and especially the loss of
the three most important women in his life certainly influenced his perception of death and
the terror it stands for. Also, the problems with drinking of alcohol and the consequences one
has to face afterwards were known to Poe and can be related to his stories as one can see for
example in “The Black Cat.” Thus, Poe’s life experience can be viewed as a direct source for
his writing and the themes of social interaction and death acquire enormous seriousness and
credibility in his work.
2.2. Francis Scott Key Fitzgerald
Francis Scott Key Fitzgerald was born in St. Paul, Minnesota on September 24, 1896 to Edward
Fitzgerald and Mary McQuillan. Fitzgerald’s father came from a very old and respectable
family; among his ancestors was the author of the lyrics of the national anthem of the United
States, Francis Scott Key. His mother’s family emigrated from Ireland because of the
potato-famine in the middle of the nineteenth century, but made a fortune in the grocery
business and became quite wealthy. (Perosa 1-2).
Already at school, Fitzgerald was writing stories which were published in the student paper.
In 1913, Fitzgerald enrolled at Princeton University. The time Fitzgerald spent at the
university is often referred to as the most influential period of his life, at least from what
can be guessed from his work, since he is a very autobiographical author. Sergio Perosa
observes that “these years at Princeton were the most intense and determinant phase of
Fitzgerald’s development” (Perosa 3). Fitzgerald was amongst the boys from wealthy families;
he was not very popular and felt as an outsider. This forced him to work harder to win
recognition. The importance of money and social status, the omnipresence of wealth that he
encountered at the University, but also earlier in his life, influenced him so much that one
practically cannot find these topics missing in any of his novels or short stories. Fitzgerald
helped the university theater group, Princeton Triangle Club, with writing and preparing
plays, and wrote for the university newspaper, Daily Princetonian. Due to illness, Fitzgerald
had to interrupt his studies for a year. After his return, Fitzgerald had problems with
studying and in 1917 left Princeton to join the U.S. Army. He never fought in the First World
War as the war had been over before his training was completed. (Bradbury, Mottram, Franco 95;
Hart 251; Perosa 4).
In 1920, his first novel This Side of Paradise was published. The novel was completed three
years before its publication, but it was refused by the publisher. Fitzgerald had to revise it
significantly before it was accepted for final publishing. Nonetheless, the book was a great
success and Fitzgerald became an external correspondent for significant magazines such as The
Smart Set, The Saturday Evening Post and Scribner’s Magazine. Only after this success could
Fitzgerald marry Zelda Sayre; a girl from a wealthy family who once canceled their engagement
since she did not find Fitzgerald exquisite enough for her. Short stories written for various
magazines served as the major part of Fitzgerald’s income. In 1920, Fitzgerald also published
his first collection of short stories, Flappers and Philosophers, and then in 1922 Tales of
the Jazz Age. The latter collection is of great importance as Fitzgerald’s term gave the
twenties its nickname: “The Jazz Age.” This collection was divided into three parts according
to subject matter and included some of his most famous stories such as ”The Diamond as Big as
the Ritz,” “May Day” and “The Lees of Happiness.” Among his other well-known stories are
”Babylon Revisited,” “The Rich Boy” and “Winter Dreams,” which is generally considered, as
many topics are similar, to be the source for the novel published in 1925, The Great Gatsby –
the best known novel that was written by Fitzgerald. (Kuiper 418-419; Perosa 5-6)
According to Perosa, Fitzgerald’s life “was divided between the pursuit of the artistic ideal
and the continual, too frequent concessions to the taste of the moment or to the lure of easy
success; it was divided between a rigorous application to the craft of fiction and the waste
of precious energy in purely commercial literary activity” (Perosa 1). Although he was paid
well for his short stories, Fitzgerald lived most of the time in debts due to his lavish life
style, which he led with his wife Zelda. One can read about the life of never ending parties
as Fitzgerald apparently used them as an inspiration for the parties that form the setting in
many of his stories. This way of living ended in Fitzgerald’s serious drinking and
consequently fragile health, Zelda’s several mental breakdowns, and consequent sojourn in
mental institutions. Fitzgerald alone moved to Hollywood where he tried to revive his
declining career by working in movie making industry as a writer of screenplays. He did not,
however, gain any significant achievement. From the Hollywood settings he wrote a series of
stories which were posthumously published as The Pat Hobby Stories. Fitzgerald died in
Hollywood in December 1940 of a heart failure at the age of forty four. (Bradbury, Mottram,
Franco 95-96; Hart 251)
In Fitzgerald’s bibliography one can see many issues which occur also in his
writing. Some of his life experiences are directly connected to the theme of social
interaction. No sooner before he got rich could Fitzgerald marry the girl of his dreams, as
this issue appears in his “Winter Dreams.” Also, the lavish life style full of parties as is
described in the story was not unknown to Fitzgerald. Moreover, Fitzgerald became very
successful and popular as that is what is achieved by Dexter in “Winter Dreams.” Fitzgerald
became a very respectable member of the society, but because of his exceptionality and genius
he could not fully integrate into that society. As the biography shows, Fitzgerald’s life was
not a very happy one. In this way, it is connected more to the concept of gradual
deterioration which occurs in “The Lees of Happiness.” Fitzgerald lost his wife, since she,
after her several mental breakdowns, moved permanently to the mental institution, where
Fitzgerald scarcely came to see her. As Fitzgerald is one of the most autobiographical
authors, his bibliography is necessary for analyzing his work. Thanks to his constant
participation in social life and also because of sad events he encountered, the themes of
social interaction and death occurring in Fitzgerald’s writing are veraciously and profoundly
described.
3. The topic of “Social interaction” in Poe’s “The Black Cat” and Fitzgerald’s ”Winter Dreams”
In this section, I compare and contrast Poe’s “The Black Cat” (1843) with Fitzgerald’s “Winter
Dreams” (1922). These two stories, which are often anthologized, are amongst the best known
and much appreciated works of the two authors. One can find parallels between the events and
realities described in the stories, and the lives of the authors. Thus, these very
autobiographical stories can provide a deep insight into the author’s trains of thought and
the ways of writing. In these two stories, I deal with the concept of social interaction. This
term refers to participating in social life, an ability of communicating with other people,
and overall behavior within the society.
The two stories describe the development of two male characters’ personalities – in both
stories the reader is able to trace the development of the main hero from the young years
until around middle age. At the beginning, the protagonists choose, according to their
different predispositions and different natures, directions which they then follow and are
influenced by. Their development in stories can be divided into the several main stages. First
stage describes their youths. The second one traces their growing up, which reflects their
inclusion in and exclusion from the society. The next stage deals with protagonists’
relationships with women and their further progress in the society. And the final stage
depicts how the two main characters conclude their life quests.
In “The Black Cat” the main character undergoes metamorphosis from a delightful boy into a
brute who kills his best friend and consequently his loving wife, without feeling regret. The
major part of this metamorphosis can be attributed to the lack of his ability to socially
interact. The narrator says about himself: “From my infancy I was noted for the docility and
humanity of my disposition. My tenderness of heart was even so conspicuous as to make me the
jest of my companions” (Poe 223). “Docility” and “humanity” are unquestionably positive
features, so what makes this boy to kill his wife later in his life? It is suggested herein
that being viewed as rather peculiar, he is considered by his peers as an outsider or, at
least, as a person that is not being sought after in matters of friendship very often. The
description of his youth and the way he is growing up continues:
I was especially fond of animals, and was indulged by my parents with a great variety of pets.
With these I spent most of my time, and never was so happy as when feeding and caressing them.
This peculiarity of character grew with my growth, and, in my manhood, I derived from it one
of my principal sources of pleasure. (Poe 223)
The narrator seeks social contact, yet because he is unable to find it amongst his peers he
exchanges them for animals that not only become his friends and companions but also the
aforementioned “sources of pleasure.” Thus, at the very beginning, the main character accepts
the exclusion from the society, and, moreover, he does not try to overcome this obstacle.
After this first bad experience with his peers, he abandons any efforts to overturn this
unfavorable situation. This very fact, however, has an impact on the later development of his
life, especially in making him unable of fully functioning in a social life. In this sense,
the first steps leading to his turning into a negative character have been taken.
Fitzgerald’s “Winter Dreams” begins when Dexter Green, the main hero of the story,
is fourteen years old. The story then depicts Dexter’s quest for wealth, admiration and
eminent position within the society. Before the story ends, Dexter successfully achieves all
of these things; he satisfies all his desires but one – he does not gain the girl of his
dreams for whose sake he has done everything. Dexter comes neither from a wealthy nor from a
poor family background, but, in any case, his origin could be perceived as a rather humble
one. He is aware of his difficult situation, but he is, from the very beginning of the story,
strongly determined to overcome all of the obstacles in order to become a member of, not least
the town’s, elite. Young Dexter is described by Mr. Jones, a man for whom Dexter works as a
caddy, as “Willing! Intelligent! Quiet! Honest! Grateful!” (Fitzgerald 365). Such qualities
and virtues are undoubtedly very positive, but they do not fit to a person who wants to become
great and powerful. Thus, Dexter has to abandon his career as a caddy as soon as he realizes
his true ambitions: if he continued to caddy, it could influence him to such a degree that he
would end up as an obedient servant without any higher aspirations than to please his master.
Dexter is exceptional already as a child: “He was a favorite caddy, and the thirty dollars a
month he earned through the summer were not to be made elsewhere around the lake” (Fitzgerald
367). He decides to quit, because, although the “best caddy in the club” (Fitzgerald 365)
Dexter is still being compared only to other caddies – boys from poor families who are by
caddying trying to improve the financial situation of their families, and that is why they
appreciate such a job opportunity. For Dexter, who caddies “only for pocket money” (Fitzgerald
364) this job is not so important. However, the main point herein is that for Dexter there is
nothing more to be gained in the caddy position, since he has already achieved the highest
point. It is time to progress further. In this manner, the concept of social interaction is
present throughout the whole story. Dexter begins his quest for happiness by satisfying his
dreams. He wants to become a prominent, admired and respected member of the society in which
his ability of social interaction plays a crucial role.
To elaborate on Poe’s story, an opportunity to participate in a social life comes for the
narrator in “The Black Cat” when he finds a human being with whom he can spend time: “I
married early, and was happy to find in my wife a disposition not uncongenial with my own.
Observing my partiality for domestic pets, she lost no opportunity of procuring those of the
most agreeable kind” (Poe 223). In this way, the narrator, in fact, finds a partner with whom
he has something in common. Although the fondness of animals makes their living together
easier, it can also be perceived as a negative element. The fact that the wife accepts this
way of life, and moreover, supports her husband by providing more and more animals, she
actually does him more bad than good as it does not encourage him to try to become more active
in a social life. He goes on living in his old way with just one difference: that he does not
live in complete solitude from now on. On the other hand, he does not improve his social
skills either. He is now not alone any more, but his suppressed desire for social contact is
far from being satisfied.
To continue with the fact that the narrator in “The Black Cat” finds a partner with whom he
can share his life makes him more fortunate than Dexter who actually fails at this, and even
though it is probably Dexter’s only failure, it is quite a significant one. Kenneth Eugene
Eble describes “Winter Dreams” as a “story of the provincial boy from the middle class rising
into sufficient wealth and power to claim the rich girl of his dreams” (Eble 33). Dexter
grows, thanks to his ambition and determination, from a small unimportant boy to a rich young
man with a significant position in the society. He becomes a man who is proud of himself for
his enormous achievements. As Eble points out, the claiming of a girl is a very important part
of the story. This girl, and also the neuralgic person of the story, is Judy Jones. Dexter’s
decision to quit his job as a caddy and his determination to become rich are confirmed and
enforced when he first beholds Judy, the girl of his dreams. The scene, as depicted by
Fitzgerald, shows how wisely Dexter tries to behave at the very beginning of his relationship
with Judy: “Dexter stood perfectly still, his mouth slightly ajar. He knew that if he moved
forward a step his stare would be in her line of vision – if he moved backward he would lose
his full view of her face” (Fitzgerald 366). Dexter is fascinated with Judy and falls in love
with her at first sight. He knows that he should not even approach her and so he just wants to
look at her from a distance; from the same distance that exists between him and Judy due to
their very different social status. “Suddenly, involuntarily, he laughed, a short abrupt laugh
– then, startled by himself, he turned and began to walk quickly away” (Fitzgerald 366). It is
quite obvious why Dexter does not want to attract her attention and why, when he makes a
noise, he tries to escape without being noticed. He immediately realizes that he does not want
to be seen as a poor caddy and to be ascribed a rank that would be almost impossible to
improve. Thus, Dexter refuses to take care of Judy’s clubs, although this could be an
opportunity to spend some time with a girl he admires so much. This firm resolution – rather
to quit than to continue being Judy’s caddy – is similar to the reason of not being Mr.
Jones’s caddy any more. Dexter, in both cases, does not wish to be seen as a mere servant,
which in future could lead to the loss of his confidence and dignity, and thus complicate the
realization of his dreams. If he caddies for Judy and obeys her orders, he shall never be able
to gain her love and affection in the future. Either because of being exposed and consequently
overwhelmed by her charismatic personality, he would accept his inferior role and she would
not be interested in him, or he would find, because of being treated poorly and superficially,
that she is not the right girl for him. The maturity of his behavior might seem surprising,
but the fact that he knows what he wants and what he has to do, proves his exceptional skills
in social interaction and in anticipation of society’s requirements, which give him the
opportunity to achieve his goals.
As for Poe’s story, the next stage of the development of the narrator in “The
Black Cat” can be described as “growing bad.” The narrator gets a present from his wife – he
gets a black cat, which immediately becomes his “favorite pet and playmate” (Poe 224). The
significance of the cat as an element which represents in the story more than a mere animal is
apparent from the beginning: its name, Pluto, is the first and also the only name that is
given in the whole story. With this advantage of being more equal to a human being, Pluto can
be more easily perceived as narrator’s best friend. So what makes the narrator, who now has a
wife and a companion that is with him all the time, but, of course, lacks some qualities that
makes their friendship imperfect, change into a mean wicked man? Poe describes the process of
the narrator’s transformation tangibly and ominously: “general temperament and
character—through the instrumentality of the Fiend Intemperance [has] experienced a radical
alteration for the worse. I grew, day by day, more moody, more irritable, more regardless of
the feelings of others” (Poe 224). But still, what stands behind this alteration? The narrator
has now a wife and the best friend and the two creatures both admire and love him. The fact
is, however, that the narrator still lacks social contact, which is, in my view, the reason
for the transformation of his personality. The narrator does not see his wife as an adequate
companion, and neither does he see Pluto as an ideal friend, as he cannot have a full
relationship with a cat. The special position of the wife and Pluto is obvious since, from the
beginning, they are not maltreated as the other animals are by the narrator when he starts
drinking. The element of alcohol in the story is important. Robert Shulman claims in his essay
that “the underlying fear, hatred, and guilt that animate the narrator’s terrified obsession
with a common place animal […] are among the causes of the narrator’s alcoholism, a disease
that finally intensifies and releases his mad, destructive tendencies” (Shulman 256). Thus, it
can be stated “that the madness caused the drinking and not the reverse” (ibid). The
significance of alcohol is obvious here both from the previous as well as from the following
example. After the first manifestation of the narrator’s spoiling character – such as the
“intemperate language” used towards his wife, neglect and ill-usage of the animals – his first
horrible outbreak happens when he comes home “much intoxicated” (Poe 224). Poe describes the
scene in this way: “I took from my waistcoat-pocket a penknife, opened it, grasped the poor
beast by the throat, and deliberately cut one of its eyes from the socket!” (Poe 224). Though
the narrator states in the following sentence that, “I blush, I burn, I shudder, while I pen
the damnable atrocity,” it remains a fact that after this act takes place, the narrator’s
“sentiment half of horror, and half of remorse, for the crime” does not last long (Poe 224).
Shulman suggests that “in cutting out the eye of the black demon, the narrator is also
irrationally slashing and seeking to destroy his own demons” (Shulman 256). This act, however,
does not help him to overcome the “dark powers in his own nature” (ibid), neither does it
prevent him from committing further atrocities. Rather it contributes more to his “alteration
for the worse” (Poe 224). Within the role that the concept of social interaction has in Poe’s
story, the “dark powers” and “demons” that Shulman refers to, are clearly a manifestation of
the narrator’s long-hidden and suppressed anger resulting from his inability to interact
socially. The non-existence of both emotional and social outlet drives the main character to
these violent and brutal outbreaks as shown above. Moreover, the very fact that his regrets
last but a while is a case in point in my argumentation that insufficient social interaction
of the narrator has crippled him and made him unable of acting as a human being.
Getting back to Fitzgerald’s “Winter Dreams,” later on in the story, after gaining enormous
wealth, significant position in the society and winning the admiration and respect he wanted,
Dexter meets Judy again. This time she is a beautiful young lady who has many suitors. Dexter
has an affair with her, but even though he manages to win her affection he fails to maintain
it. He just remains “one of a varying dozen who circulate[s] about her” (Fitzgerald 374). This
upcoming passage precisely depicts Dexter’s desires and his attitude towards satisfying them:
He [Dexter] wanted not association with glittering things and glittering people – he wanted
the glittering things themselves. Often he reached out for the best without knowing why he
wanted it – and sometimes he ran up against the mysterious denials and prohibitions in which
life indulges. It is with one of those denials and not with his career as a whole that this
story deals. (Fitzgerald 367-68)
The denial, the important point of the story according to Fitzgerald himself, is represented
in the satisfaction of Dexter’s dreams in which Judy Jones plays a crucial central role. As
Andre T. Bayan points out, Dexter is “convinced that having wealth would help him win the
girl,” but Dexter does not realize that wealth on its own is not enough. Coming from an old
rich aristocratic family, Judy perceives wealth as a common and necessary thing for everyday
life rather than as something charming and glamorous, as it might be viewed by any girl who
has not been used to such luxury all her life. It means, as Arthur Waldhron claims, that
Dexter is a “materialist who believes in a dream beyond what his money can buy.” This
materialist point of view is, again, a case in point of what Fitzgerald’s treatment of the
concept of social interaction boils down to. Acquiring wealth, prestige, and position equals,
in Fitzgerald’s and Dexter’s world of the twenties, to a main goal in life, and, moreover, it
is synonymous to social interaction. Following this logic, accumulation of money and wealth is
both a means of social interaction as well as its goal.
The final stage of the narrator’s development in “The Black Cat” comes when he kills
first Pluto and then his wife – the metamorphosis into a murderer is thus completed. As
Shulman comments, “[t]he narrator has endowed the black cat with a complex significance he
does not consciously recognize. No wonder, after he hangs the animal, he fears he has
committed an ultimate sin, unforgivable even by the infinite mercy of God, surely an excessive
reaction if the cat is simply a cat” (Shulman 257). As it was stated earlier in the thesis,
the black cat is considered to be more as a human being than an animal. If one takes into the
consideration the positive qualities that the narrator is endowed with while being still a
young boy – the “humanity,” “docility” and “tenderness of heart” (Poe 223) – and assumes that
these virtues are still present in his personality, although in smaller degree, it is obvious
that the narrator has to feel terrible enough for the mere act of taking a life of a living
creature, and the fact that he kills his best and in fact only friend intensifies his guilt.
The subsequent killing of the wife may seem, at a first glance, to be an accident rather than
a planned murder, since the narrator wants to hit the cat – the one he acquires after he kills
Pluto – and the wife simply gets in his way. But still, the way he acts afterwards makes him
undoubtedly an actual murderer who deliberately commits the crime. His deliberate
consideration of how to get rid of the body without drawing any suspicion is one of a profound
murderer. Also, as Edith Smith Krappe holds, “murderer acts with zeal to find who actually did
the deed and thus to draw suspicion from him himself” (Krappe 86). That he “greets the police
cordially and tells them to search well, taking them from corner to corner in the house” can
be viewed in two different ways (ibid). To interpret the narrator’s behavior, there are only
two possible explanations: he either acts foolishly as he is an inexperienced murderer since
he has not done anything like this before, or he is very confident in himself and wants to
prove himself his greatness and invincibility when he is knocking on the very part of the wall
where his wife is bricked in. Notwithstanding what the reason for his behavior is, the result
is that the corpse of his wife “who died by a puncture of the skull is discovered immured in a
basement” (Reilly 94). According to Shulman, the narrator is himself responsible for his own
bitter end: “The feelings of guilt and self-hatred, evident throughout the narrative, become
dominant after the murder, and in the final scene the narrator thus helps to bring about his
own punishment and destruction” (Shulman 258). In this manner, the narrator ends his quest
with having no better prospect in life than to wait for his execution.
In “Winter Dreams,” Dexter, after several years, learns that Judy is married and
her husband “treats her like the devil [and that she is] all right [but not a] pretty girl”
any more (Fitzgerald 382). He is devastated by this information. Michael Zisser ends his essay
with a conclusion that Dexter’s quest is not successful: “Green, as a self-made man of the
American Jazz Age, has failed and his dreams are lost forever; they will ‘come back no more’
(Fitzgerald 505). The sun has gone down on Dexter Green and he is left only with the nostalgic
memories of a lost love and a faded glimmer of hope” (Zisser). Winning the girl of his dreams
is the crucial thing which gives momentum to his life. Having a relationship with Judy should
be Dexter’s climax of his achievements to which he devoted all his life. Now, however, he is
left with nothing, and all he has done is good for nothing. Zisser, in his essay, presents the
idea, using a quotation from Northrop Frye, that “[Dexter’s] ‘obsession about rising in the
world’ (Frye 39) causes him to become a tragic figure who becomes mentally and emotionally
‘isolated from the social group in which he is trying to belong’ (Frye 39)” (Zisser). This
statement suggests that Dexter actually does not become a real member of the society, or at
least not of the one he desires to. Thus, as he is “isolated from” his “social group” In this
sense, Dexter can very easily be compared to the narrator in “The Black Cat,” who never
becomes a member of any group.
To conclude this chapter, the importance of social interaction is apparent from the fact that
this concept is crucial for both of these two stories, and it has a great impact practically
on everything within the stories. From the point of view of the importance and influence, this
concept is approached in a very similar way in both the stories. The abilities in social
interaction of the two protagonists in these stories are abnormal ones or rather two extremes:
in “The Black Cat” there is no ability at all while in “Winter Dreams” this very same ability
is developed to the highest degree of perfection. One of the differences between these stories
is the treatment of the society itself by the authors. In the “The Black Cat,” the narrator,
who is not very popular, does not seek the presence of other people and voluntarily chooses
seclusion and exclusion, which he finds in living alone with his wife and their pets.
Following this train of thought, the society in this story can be viewed as not very
attractive or, at least, as nothing too great to be involved in, since the narrator does not
try enough to succeed in the society – to become its fully participating member. A starkly
different approach is adopted by Fitzgerald in “Winter Dreams.” In this story Dexter does
nothing else but tries to succeed in the society, both of his town and of the United States –
he strives not only to be accepted but to become a prominent member of this society as well.
From this point of view, the society is depicted as being very attractive and magnificent, and
becoming its prominent member is, as it was pointed out, a central aim of the main character.
The autobiographical element is obvious as the protagonists in the two stories have similar
fates to those of the authors. The narrator in “The Black Cat” is rather an unimportant person
who lives in seclusion with his wife. Poe did not become famous during his life and he did not
get any serious appreciation, and he lost his wife with whom he lived in seclusion, although
he did not kill her. Similarly, Dexter’s enormous success in “Winter Dreams” and his
problematic relationship with the girl of his dreams, has its parallel in Fitzgerald’s life
and in the fact that Fitzgerald himself became very famous during his life, and rose to the
role of a respected member of the society and led a luxurious life style similar to the one
described in “Winter Dreams.”
In any case, the main difference between the two stories lies in their main heroes, their
contrary characters and the ultimate evolution of their quests; the murderer in “The Black
Cat” is compared with the successful, rich and delightful man in “Winter Dreams.” However,
neither of the protagonists ends his quest successfully as neither of them gains what he
desires most – on the contrary, they both end alone and miserable. The narrator in “The Black
Cat” will be punished in form of execution for his crimes. Similarly, Dexter feels empty and
his life does not present any desires or goals for him to quest for any more. It does not
matter what their abilities in social interaction are, what strategies they have adopted: the
result is that the society crushes them both. Such is the immense power of social interaction
as portrayed in the short stories by Poe and Fitzgerald.
4. The Notion of “Death” in Poe’s “The Fall of the House of Usher” and Fitzgerald’s “The Lees
of Happiness”
In this section of the thesis, I compare and contrast Poe’s “The Fall of the House of Usher”
(1840) and Fitzgerald’s “The Lees of Happiness” (1922). The main focus of this comparison is
finding parallels between these two stories in order to show how close Poe’s and Fitzgerald’s
writing in terms of topics and reflection of their biographies in their works can be. Each of
the stories presents a pair of protagonists who have a strong, deep bond between themselves:
Roderick Usher with his twin sister Madeline in Poe’s “The Fall of the House of Usher,” and
Jeffrey Curtain with his wife Roxanne Milbank in Fitzgerald’s “The Lees of Happiness.” Both
pairs live, more or less, alone in a secluded house which is decaying. In addition, the
central characters, Roderick Usher in Poe’s story and Roxanne in Fitzgerald’s story, have to
face a long-term suffering of his/her life companion and consequently the loss of this very
companion. After the suffering from a serious and long-term disease, the end comes in a form
of death which is being anticipated throughout a major part of the story. The concept of
death, or the notion of dying, is the central point of the two short stories. It has a crucial
impact on the developments and also on the perceptions of these stories by a reader in terms
of atmosphere, topics, and emotional effect. It is closely connected to the topics of deep
bond between two characters, house and illness mentioned above. In this four-way relationship,
there is a mutual interference as each issue affects other issues. Nonetheless, the notion of
death is the most significant of them all, since it forms reader’s perception of the stories.
The above mentioned themes are important as they help the reader to fully understand the
terror that is present in the stories, and the significance of the death itself. Thus, with
the full understanding of the concept of death presented in the short stories, the reader can
fully appreciate and comprehend the stories in a way that was intended by the authors.
The first of the aforementioned themes, and also one of the connecting points between the two
short stories, is the strong bond between two people and affectionate love between two life
companions. For the role of two companions in “The Fall of the House of Usher,” Poe chooses
twins. The two main characters, Roderick and Madeline have spent the most of their lives
together, which results in their strong relationship. For Roderick, Madeline represents “a
tenderly beloved sister, his sole companion for long years, his last and only relative on
earth” (Poe 235-36). From this quotation, the strong bond between the siblings is obvious.
Fitzgerald, on the other hand, chooses a married couple as representatives of the theme in
question. Jeffrey and Roxanne, in their “marriage of love,” find a perfect partner (Fitzgerald
153). Moreover, even though they have not spent as many years together as the twins in Poe’s
short story, the strength of their bond is apparent from the consequent development of the
story; in particular from Roxanne’s dedication to taking care of her dying husband. It may be
objected that the bond between twins and the bond between a husband and a wife cannot be the
same, and thus they cannot be compared. However, from the point of view of importance, these
bonds, which exist between two life companions – two people who are the most important human
beings for one other, can be easily compared as they are of similar nature. Due to strength of
the affectionate love, the perception of grief over the bereavement can be fully comprehended.
Thus, this theme is important for the final significance of the notion of death as it is
presented in the two stories.
Another connecting point between these stories can be found in the act of gradual
deterioration. The protagonists in both the stories are all members of an upper-class society,
but as other Poe’s stories, as well as Fitzgerald’s demonstrate, the high social position and
money do not secure happiness and contentment. In Fitzgerald’s story “Winter Dreams,” we have
seen that Dexter ends up rich, yet unhappy. Thus, the lives of these protagonists can be
viewed as tragic. They undergo a process of gradual deterioration: from the high position,
where they have everything what they can think of, to the desperate life situation and misery
which ends in death.
In “The Fall of the House of Usher” Roderick and Madeline are of noble birth, members of the
gentry:
[Usher’s] very ancient family had been noted, time out of mind, for a peculiar sensibility of
temperament, displaying itself, through long ages, in many works of exalted art, and
manifested, of late, in repeated deeds of munificent yet unobtrusive charity, as well as in a
passionate devotion to the intricacies, perhaps even more than to the orthodox and easily
recognizable beauties, of musical science. (Poe 232)
From this point of view, Ushers are exceptional. The deterioration of the characters is mainly
expressed in the description of their physical appearances. With the first glance of Roderick
narrator says: “Surely, man ha[s] never before so terribly altered, in so brief a period, as
ha[s] Roderick Usher” (Poe 234). Roderick’s present appearance – “ghastly pallor of the skin,
[…] miraculous luster of the eye” – is contrasted with the memory of the narrator who
remembers Roderick as a magnificent person with “a nose of a delicate Hebrew model, […] a
finely moulded chin, […] hair of a more than web-like softness and tenuity [and] a countenance
not easily to be forgotten” (ibid). Thus, the narrator cannot “admit the identity of the wan
being before” his eyes (ibid). Also, Madeline’s deterioration is mainly expressed in her
appearance and especially in the symptoms of her illness which J.O. Bailey connects to
vampirism as her “symptoms describe the victim of a vampire” (Bailey 453). The tragedy is even
more intensified as the noble ancient family comes to its extinction when its last members
pass away at young age, without leaving any descendants and also without achieving any serious
recognition or success during their lives.
The protagonists in “The Lees of Happiness” are not ordinary people either.
Jeffrey is a successful writer whose work is described by Fitzgerald as “no masterpieces [but]
passably amusing stories” (Fitzgerald 152). Roxanne, “an exquisite woman,” is a beautiful
actress (ibid). Together, they enjoy “the toasts and bouquets, the dances and the dinners”
(ibid). This life of parties, which often appears in Fitzgerald’s work, but also the
consequent peaceful life in the country, is the happy period of protagonists’ lives. It is,
however, a period that is spoiled later on. To put it in other words, as Sergio Perosa points
out, “the theme of deterioration and decay” plays one of the most important roles in the story
(Perosa 35). The very nature of this deterioration is further summed up by Perosa in a very
radical manner: “Just when a successful writer believes that he has achieved the fullest
happiness by marrying a beautiful actress, a cerebral hemorrhage reduces him to a mere dummy
of a man” (ibid). Jeffrey after a brief period of happiness undergoes a radical alteration for
worse. Thus, instead of a climax of his present life a disaster takes place. The deterioration
in both stories can be viewed as a sign of death, which is, thanks to this concept, presented
more vividly and its scope can be more easily understood. From this point of view the process
of deterioration can be seen as a fellow concept of death as it shares the features of being
terrifying, ominous and of the dreadfully coming end, which stands in contrast with the
previous period of life the beauty of which intensifies even more the negative aspect of death
itself.
In this process of deterioration, arguably the crucial role is played by illness.
Illness is presented as a feature, and is of a great importance as it stands between the
happiness described at the beginning of each story, and the final misery which starts with
illness and ends in death. Although it is approached slightly differently by each author, the
conception of illness presents another close similarity in the two authors’ writings. In “The
Fall of the House of Usher,” Madeline’s “severe and long-continued illness” (Poe 235) has
“long baffled the skill of her physicians” (Poe 236). However, it is not clearly stated what
the illness really is. The symptoms are described as “[a] settled apathy, a gradual wasting of
the person, and frequent although transient affections of a partially cataleptical character”
(ibid). Thus, as John H. Timmerman points out, Madeline is “simply wasting away of some
illness with no known etiology” (Timmerman 242). From this viewpoint, in Poe’s treatment the
illness looks more mysterious and also more ominous as the reader does not know what is really
happening. However, the illness in this manner fulfils its role as it makes the reader
sufficiently aware of the fact that something serious and intangible is happening, and that
far-reaching consequences are about to follow soon. Thus, it points in more or less direct way
to death.
In a stark contrast, Fitzgerald’s approach towards the theme of illness as a sign of
forthcoming death is different as he clearly states in “The Lees of Happiness” what Jeffrey’s
illness is: “A blood clot of the size of a marble [which has] broken in his brain” (Fitzgerald
158). Because of the fact that the name and cause of the illness are clearly stated at the
beginning, Jeffrey’s illness can be seen as more serious than that of Madeline, although the
atmosphere that accompanies both the illnesses is comparable in its formidability and
darkness. Still, however, no sooner than after several pages since the illness is first
mentioned does Fitzgerald reveal the whole terrifying character of the illness: “[…] there’s
no hope. Mr Curtain [Jeffrey] may live indefinitely, but he’ll never see again or move again
or think. He’ll just breathe” (Fitzgerald 165). Due to the conditions such as being “stone
blind, dumb, and totally unconscious” (Fitzgerald 166) Jeffrey is no longer viewed by the
reader as a living human being for he lost contact with the world around him. From this point
of view, the illness in this story can be viewed as a counterpart, or rather a representative,
of death, since there is no great difference between Jeffrey’s being alive and being dead due
to his inability to distinguish his very own existence.
No matter what intentions the two authors had, or what is more terrifying – whether an unknown
illness or the blood clot – the different conception of disease and its treatment by the
authors as a such can be viewed as a direct influence of the different centuries the authors
lived in: arguably, the state of medicine as a branch of science was on very different levels.
Also, it is very much influenced by the various readerships. Since readers in time of Poe’s
could perceive Madeline’s unknown illness as nightmarish just as the blood clot was viewed by
readers of Fitzgerald’s time. Thus, this different conception of the disease can be seen as a
direct mirror image of the different worlds and societies the two authors lived in.
Nevertheless, for the notion of death presented in these short stories, the theme of illness
is crucial, since it results in death. And also because the illness lasts for a certain period
of time; in Poe’s story it is not specifically mentioned, but it can be assumed that it is
relatively short and in Fitzgerald’s story Jeffrey’s illness lasts for eleven years. Thus,
this period of the encroaching illness, and especially the vision of the upcoming death,
brings the reader to more serious considerations about the notion of death as such.
Another connecting point between these stories can be seen in two authors’ treatment of the
friendship. A friend appearing in each of these stories plays a significant role. Although, it
can be said that the role of the friend is more important in “The Fall of the House of Usher,”
at least from the structural point of view, since the friend is also the narrator of the
story. The friend in “The Fall of the House of Usher” does not, as it is not uncommon in Poe’s
stories, have a name; hence, the references to him are only as to the narrator of the story.
The position of the friend/narrator is apparent from this part of the text: Roderick has “an
earnest desire to see me, as his best and indeed his only personal friend, with a view of
attempting, by the cheerfulness of my society, some alleviation of his malady” (Poe 232).
Roderick unburdens his soul by revealing the cause of his enormous trepidation to the narrator
– his best friend. The narrator fulfills this role by providing physical and moral support to
the main character until the very end. Thus, the depth of the friendship between the narrator
and Roderick is tested.
In “The Lees of Happiness,” the friend, Harry, is an important character as well as he
supports Roxanne who is taking care of her dying husband. Harry is an old friend, and
presumably also the best one, of Jeffrey and he is introduced to Roxanne only later in the
story. Although Jeffery is not aware of his presence, Harry does not stop visiting his friend
after the outbreak of the disease and continues in coming and seeing him until the very end.
Harry, who is not the only but “the most frequent visitor” (Fitzgerald 159) then transfers his
friendship more and more to Roxanne. From this point of view, this friendship can be seen as a
very affectionate one since Harry does not abandon, but tries to help his friend, especially
by morally supporting Jeffrey’s wife. The friendship between Harry and Roxanne is not
unilateral, since Harry does not visit Roxanne only in order to help her bear the difficult
situation, but he also comes to see her in order to elevate his own spirit, as he is
devastated by the divorce he has gone through and by the consequent loss of his wife and his
child.
The function of these two friends is slightly different, which can be seen as a
reflection of the author’s different perception of the concept of friendship as such. The
friend in the Poe’s story only listens to the unburdening of Roderick’s haunting soul, thus,
he can be seen as a rather passive friend. Whereas Harry in “The Lees of Happiness”
participates more actively throughout the whole story and by conducting many visits his
support and help can be perceived as more significant. From this perspective the concept of
friendship can be understood as being more important in Fitzgerald’s treatment than in that of
Poe’s. Nevertheless, it can be concluded that the concept of friendship is treated similarly
by the two authors as in both stories there is a friend who is present when the need comes and
is prepared to assist as much as he can. In the matter of importance, these two friends can be
viewed as alike. Also, from the point of view of the notion of death as the central point of
these stories, the two friends play significant roles. They are directly influenced by the
negative development of the story; their lives are affected as they lose somebody they deeply
care about. It is on these friends, that the destructive impact of death is presented by the
authors and can be viewed by the reader.
Another theme that these two stories have in common is that of a decaying house as a setting
of both stories and as an ominous sign of illness and death. In both stories the house stands
alone. At some parts of these short stories, there are some servants mentioned. They are not,
however, ascribed any serious attention or importance, nor are their names given by the
authors. Thus, it can be stated that the main characters of these two stories reside in their
houses alone.
The importance of the house in “The Fall of the House of Usher” is clear already from the fact
that this very word appears in the title of the story. The feeling of gloom and the dark
melancholic mood of the whole story is apparent from the very beginning due to the description
of the house, which stands at a very secluded place, and its surroundings:
[W]ith the first glimpse of the building, a sense of insufferable gloom pervaded my
[narrator’s] spirit […]. I looked upon the scene before me—upon the mere house, and the simple
landscape features of the domain—upon the bleak walls—upon the vacant eye-like windows—upon a
few rank sedges—and upon a few white trunks of decayed trees—with an utter depression of soul
which I can compare to no earthly sensation […]. (Poe 231)
For the description of the narrator’s impressions of the house words such as “insufferable
gloom,” “depression of soul,” “unredeemed dreariness” and “sorrowful impression” are used
(ibid). Once the great house has undergone, as its residents have, a long gradual
deterioration, and although there is no “extraordinary dilapidation [as] no portion of the
masonry ha[s] fallen, [the] indication of extensive decay” is obvious from “the discoloration
of ages [and] fungi [which] overspread the whole exterior” (Poe 233). Logically then, the
house itself is referred to by the narrator as the “mansion of gloom” (Poe 232). The enormous
importance is ascribed to the house also by George Edward Woodberry, who comments on the final
collapsing of the house: “had the mansion remained, it would seem as if the extinction of
Usher had been incomplete” (Woodberry 231). With conveying the mood of the story, preparing
what is going to happen and direct connection to death of its inhabitants, the eminent role of
the house within this story is obvious.
The role of the house in “The Lees of Happiness” is significant in a similar manner. After
they get married and spend a year by traveling, Jeffrey and Roxanne do not go back to Chicago
but move to the country where they buy “an old house” (Fitzgerald 154). The house is not on as
a secluded place as in Poe’s short story, but, at least, it does stand alone and is connected
to the street by a driveway. There is no special attention devoted to the house in a way that
it is described in a great manner as a luxurious mansion of wealthy people. Nonetheless, it is
arguably a nice and a peaceful place for living. Importantly, however, everything changes when
Jeffrey becomes sick. The deterioration of the house is mainly described in terms of color;
in house’s loss of “all pretence of colour,” in “coat of clean white paint” which turns grey
and in “huge peelings of very brittle old paint [which] dropped to a mouldy death in the
over-grown grass beneath” (Fitzgerald 165). Finally the house turns into a “house that [is]
avoided by the tender-minded” (ibid). Even more dark and morbid mood, which one can easily
ascribe to the technique of Poe, is ascribed to the house when “some church [buys] a lot
diagonally opposite for a graveyard” (ibid). Thus, after its decay, the house changes from a
nice old peaceful dwelling into “‘the place where Mrs Curtain stays with that living corpse’”
(Fitzgerald 166). From this point of view this house reflects the fate of its residents in a
very similar manner as the house does in “The Fall of the House of Usher.”
Importantly, such a setting necessarily implies tension and dark atmosphere: the decay of the
house is tightly connected to the decay of its inhabitants and the other way round. This
interchangeable relationship is important. House has to face a negative impact because of the
neglect which it gets due to the illness of the protagonists and subsequently due to their
inability to take a proper care of the house. However, the direct influence of death on house
can be seen in a sense that with the death of the protagonists the house looses its residents,
thus it looses its most important meaning and it is of no use any more.
The themes appearing in the “The Fall of the House of Usher” and “The Lees of the Happiness,”
namely affectionate love between two life companions who live alone in the house of their own
and who undergo serious deterioration due to the illness which results in death, and the
consequent loss that has to be faced by one of these companions, present the parallels in
Poe’s and Fitzgerald’s writings and show the proximity of their writings. One can see a
pattern and recurring images in Poe’s vision of life and society: an unorthodox couple, a
secluded and decaying house symbolizing the presence of illness and death. On the other hand,
Fitzgerald’s vision of life and society is embodied in a married couple which after enjoying
life of parties goes on living peacefully in a suburb – yet their happiness soon ends when an
illness and finally death come. The usage, and also the very similar manner of handling, of
these themes convey the atmosphere of these shorts stories and explain the whole scope of the
central point of these two short stories – the notion of death, which can be thus comprehended
by the reader in its full form; a thing that has a destructive impact on the live of the
protagonists.
5. Conclusion
The purpose of this thesis was to compare and contrast the short prose works of Edgar Allan
Poe and Francis Scott Key Fitzgerald and to find parallels in their writings.
Analysis of Poe’s “The Black Cat” and Fitzgerald’s “Winter Dreams” demonstrates that the
common theme of these stories is approached differently by the authors. The central point of
the stories is, as it was pointed out, social interaction, perception of the society and
participating in a social life. The different approaches are arguably apparent from the fact
that Poe’s main character avoids any participation in a social life of the society around him
and voluntarily chooses seclusion from this society. Together with the biographical fact that
Poe spent several years living with his wife in a cottage in a sequestered place, one comes to
conclude that Poe does not perceive society as a positive element in life, nor does he see
social interaction as necessary – living alone is possible, as the author shows in his
stories. On the other hand, the lack as well as inability to engage in social interaction is
here outlined as a point of reference for the main character’s violent nature and
imprisonment. Hence, Poe’s vision of social interaction as a crucial element in life since not
taking part in it is still a form of participation in social life. The main character is
negatively influenced by the rejection of his schoolmates, but the decision to live in a
secluded place is also a kind of interaction; and it influences him strongly too. In this way,
the role of social interaction in and its impact on people’s lives pervades through Poe’s
short prose and mirrors both Poe’s life as well as his vision of life and society as
symbiotic, though sometimes antagonist, elements.
A starkly different approach is taken by Fitzgerald in his “Winter Dreams.” Here, the main
character, Dexter, does not merely seek the presence of other people but he tries to capture
their attention and to fascinate them as much as he can. He desires to become an elite member
of the society – the most respectful and most admired one. Because the appreciation from the
people is so important for Dexter, the society is viewed as the most crucial element in the
story. In Fitzgerald’s vision, therefore, the society is very attractive and ability to
constantly participate in a social life of the community is seen as the most crucial element
and the most desirable achievement in life. Moreover, social interaction is connected to the
importance of money here, or rather to a high position within the society which is secured
primarily by wealth. Being wealthy makes participating in a social life easier; an important
position in the society provides a useful advantage which can improve one’s ability in
communicating with other people simply by mere providing opportunities to socially interact
with more people and establish what is called in sociology social capital.
The important role is played by the life style as envisioned in the story – life full of
social events such as picnics, dinners, golf games and parties, which in result means that the
main character hardly spends some time alone. Thus, a successful participating in an
omnipresent social life receives the greatest significance. Moreover, a finding of an ideal
life companion, which for Dexter means gaining Judy, is perceived as reaching a climax of
life. This bliss, however, remains denied to Dexter in the story. With various degree of
importance and with different approaches taken to the concept of social interaction itself,
these two stories, however, present obstacles which exist in social life and ascribe the
society an enormous power as the protagonists in both stories are overwhelmed by it.
The proximity of the two authors’ writing is visible in the analysis of Poe’s “The Fall
of the House of Usher” and Fitzgerald’s “The Lees of Happiness.” The central theme of these
two stories is death, which has quite a similar function in both texts. Not only do the two
stories have identical central theme – these stories also share other topics, which makes
Poe’s and Fitzgerald’s writings very close to one another. Among these topics, as it was
already mentioned, one can find affectionate love and deep bond between two characters, a
decaying house, a gradual process of deterioration of the characters and serious long-term
illness. As it was shown, these topics function in similar way in both stories and they are
also tightly connected to death, the central theme of the stories. They enable the reader to
approach and comprehend the notion of death as it was intentioned by the authors. The notion
of death plays an important role in people’s lives as it influences and forms their perception
of the very nature of the existence itself. Thus, these stories are author’s legacies which
remind the reader how death can interfere in people’s lives and what impact the bereavement of
a relative, a loved one or a life companion has on people. This notion can be, once again,
traced back to the two author’s respective biographies. Moreover, death in the stories
analyzed is brought about by progressive deterioration of the main characters – this can be
again traced back to the notion of social interaction and how it influences one’s life and
physical as well as mental state.
Also, what is very similar in the two authors’ perceptions and portrayals of death are the
images that they both create. As Perosa points out, Fitzgerald’s “tendency to use symbolical
images […] and a predilection for the tale of horror […] might be traced back to an influence
of Edgar Allan Poe” (Perosa 35). This statement helps to explain why the stories deal with
analogous issues. The images of sick characters lying helplessly on beds while time passes
behind the windows of their secluded houses are ominous and dark. For Poe, such dark
atmosphere is typical and emblematic of his works. It encompasses elements of gothic horror
and other aspect common in the Victorian era later in the 19^th century. Fitzgerald, on the
other hand, used tense atmosphere only rarely – but still, once he does convey such an
atmosphere, it arguably signifies the importance of death in the short story in question. To
conclude with, for passing on the ominous vision of death, the two authors use similar
techniques and images. Thus, the proximity of their writing is obvious here.
The connecting point between all four stories analyzed in this thesis is present in the
endings of these stories. Each story presents the wretchedness that one can encounter in one’s
life. This can be seen from the eventual mental and physical states of the main protagonists.
The narrator in “The Black Cat” ends up alone as he kills his wife and best friend and is
executed for these crimes. Dexter in “Winter Dreams” fails to find his life companion and,
with the feeling of loneliness and despair, he loses any higher aspiration in his life. Thus,
he ends up miserable. Both protagonists in “The Fall of the House of Usher,” Roderick and
Madeline, die at the end of story after having undergone a gradual process of deterioration
and long suffering. Jeffrey in “The Lees of Happiness” dies after eleven years spent lying in
bed completely unaware of the world around him. And Jeffrey’s wife Roxanne, who takes care of
her dying husband, ends up alone, sad and does not know what to do next with her life. In this
way, the tendencies of the two authors to write about the unfortunate things life brings are
demonstrated.
The importance, and not only in the stories but in general, of these two themes –
social interaction, or simply mere existence among other people, and the notion of death, is
obvious. They are two inevitable things which cannot be, on their very grounds, avoided by any
person. Logically then, the two themes share a high level of proximity. The themes of social
interaction and death are the most crucial in Poe’s and Fitzgerald’s works and stand as
profound examples of their writings in broad perspective.
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