07/10/2014
1
English academic discourse analysis:
The L2-medium teacher perspective
and awareness-raising in the
teaching-learning environment
&
Instructional language for assessment
Tony Corballis B.Com, Dip.Tesol, MA
EAP teacher & lecturer, University of London SOAS
Consultantand Coach, Corballis CommunicationLtd.
The L2 Context: Globish in HE
Formal
pathways
“Jumping in at
the deep end”
Secondary
EducationESAP
EAP Academia
ELT
Training
within
industry
Industry
practice
EFL
EAP
(& ESAP)
Develop
relevant
study skills
English
language
development
Recognise and
reproduce
academic
discourse
Lexis,
register,
style,
grammar,
punctuation
Functions, voice,
referencing,
cohesion/flow,
idea development
EAP
(& ESAP)
Develop
relevant
study skills
English
language
development
Recognise and
reproduce
academic
discourse
Academic discourse: genre
• Essays
• Reports, problem-solution reports, case studies
• Research reports and dissertations - and their parts
• ESAP formats: legal, scientific, engineering, medical
• Reflective writing
• (Academic textbook chapters)
• (Journal articles)
• (Technical/specific journalism)
• Seminars, (lectures)
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2
Academic discourse:
What texts have in common
• Drawing between practicaltheoretical
• Evidence-based (supported) claims
• Criticality: ideas not just explained, but examined & contested.
Protocols for being collegial/adversarial, e.g. hedging
• Style is dry (neutral and objective) BUT…
• Academic voice and referencing and concepts within ‘discussion’ (social process):
writers and readers form ‘discourse communities’
Typical EAP approach
Model:
notice
Deconstruct:
Analysis
[Controlled
production]
Reconstruct
Presentation
& reflection
Example of target
genre shown
Social purposes
discussed
(& likely knowledge
constructed)
Stages analysed
Given functional names,
& language features
Guided
manipulation
of target genre
(exercises,
shared activity)
Students research & write
own genre sample.
Teacher conferencing
Presented or shared,
Features and own results
reflected on
Move from a
productapproach
towardsa process
approach:
Focuson ‘journey’,
regularinformal
feedback,
peer/teacher
collaboration.
Discourse: introductions
• Orientation to the topic
general topic or background show relevance or importance
define or classify any terms explore previous literature
raise a question or problem
• Thesis or purpose
main argument/proposition to prove
(descriptive essays just have purpose)
• Outline
Previews essay structure/moves
• Scope
Possible limits or special focus chosen
In today’s globalised business world, diversity is no
longer a buzzword; it is a universal consideration
across human resource management. It permeates
every level of business and is embraced by companies
wishing to draw on the rich perspectives that can be
found in ethnic, age and gender differences. In order
to exploit the advantages of diversity, equal
opportunities procedures should be applied to
internal promotions, external recruitment and all
HRM matters involving people. This essay will outline
the components of equal opportunities protocols,
argue the importance of implementing them and
provide case studies that have worked and that have
not.
In today’s globalised business world, diversity is no
longer a buzzword; it is a universal consideration
across human resource management. It permeates
every level of business and is embraced by companies
wishing to draw on the rich perspectives that can be
found in ethnic, age and gender differences. In order
to exploit the advantages of diversity, equal
opportunities procedures should be applied to
internal promotions, external recruitment and all
HRM matters involving people. This essay will outline
the components of equal opportunities protocols,
argue the importance of implementing them and
provide case studies that have worked and that have
not.
English is currently used as a means of communication
in an increasingly international forum. Moreover, there
are a substantial number of communities where
English is used ‘intranationally’ (Strevens 1980) even
though it is not the mother tongue. These include
communities in South Asia and Africa for instance. In
such cases, new varieties of English develop largely
from the largely institutionalised varieties (Kachru
1983), a phenomenon that does not occur where
English is spoken solely for international purposes. This
essay deals with one of these emergent varieties Nigerian
English - considering it from both a historical
and linguistic perspective to demonstrate clearly that it
can be considered a standard form of the language.
07/10/2014
3
English is currently used as a means of communication
in an increasingly international forum. Moreover, there
are a substantial number of communities where
English is used ‘intranationally’ (Strevens 1980) even
though it is not the mother tongue. These include
communities in South Asia and Africa for instance. In
such cases, new varieties of English develop largely
from the largely institutionalised varieties (Kachru
1983), a phenomenon that does not occur where
English is spoken solely for international purposes. This
essay deals with one of these emergent varieties Nigerian
English - considering it from both a historical
and linguistic perspective to demonstrate clearly that it
can be considered a standard form of the language.
Open-door migration policy is the best option for an ageing European population.’ Discuss.
Over recent decades, European countries have witnessed a growing divide
between the young and old in their populations. While the elderly steadily
increase in proportion, the young continue to be on the decline. This raises
immediate concern of a deficiency in European labour supply. It threatens
Europe’s future position as an economically productive and competitive
continent in the global world economy. The liberal press often suggest
formulating an open-door immigration policy to ensure a secure stream of
labour supply, for a future robustness of Europe. Critics are quick to respond
however that such an approach may be potentially corrosive to European
cultural identity in the short-term and fail to appease labour market demands
regardless, as migrant communities integrate, mature and refuse menial work,
in the long-term. This essay will examine the impact of an ageing population on
Europe and suggest options worth considering to deal with this challenge. It
will also assert that while an open-door immigration policy may appear
enticing for states in dire need of taxpaying human-power, it might end up
being simply a temporary fix with side effects that distort the enlightenmentbased
social fabric and political climate in the European Union.
Open-door migration policy is the best option for an ageing European population.’ Discuss.
Over recent decades, European countries have witnessed a growing divide
between the young and old in their populations. While the elderly steadily
increase in proportion, the young continue to be on the decline. This raises
immediate concern of a deficiency in European labour supply. It threatens
Europe’s future position as an economically productive and competitive
continent in the global world economy. The liberal press often suggest
formulating an open-door immigration policy to ensure a secure stream of
labour supply, for a future robustness of Europe. Critics are quick to respond
however that such an approach may be potentially corrosive to European
cultural identity in the short-term and fail to appease labour market demands
regardless, as migrant communities integrate, mature and refuse menial work,
in the long-term. This essay will examine the impact of an ageing population on
Europe and suggest options worth considering to deal with this challenge. It
will also assert that while an open-door immigration policy may appear
enticing for states in dire need of taxpaying human-power, it might end up
being simply a temporary fix with side effects that distort the enlightenmentbased
social fabric and political climate in the European Union.
The World Bank’s influence over education initiatives in the developing
world has been persistently heightened by its increased involvement in
educational research agenda-setting, with its escalation to becoming
the most significant external funder. This has contributed to the
endorsement and proliferation of the Bank’s view of education as a
tool for economic growth. This conceptualisation, focusing on the
development of human capital, fails to recognise the most valuable
aspects of education. Advocated from the Bank’s position of power, it
also serves to silence or marginalise alternative perceptions and voices
thus perpetuating an ‘anti-dialogue’ dependency sometimes deemed
‘neo-colonialism’ (Watson, 1992). Despite evolving recommendations
over the decades and a recent adjustment in its rhetoric, the World
Bank continues to direct, prescribe and impose: educational policies
which prioritise Western-centric instruction; vocational inclination,
aimed at industrial employment; and a lack of recognition of local
values, concerns and initiatives. The case in Jordan will be examined.
The World Bank’s influence over education initiatives in the developing
world has been persistently heightened by its increased involvement in
educational research agenda-setting, with its escalation to becoming
the most significant external funder. This has contributed to the
endorsement and proliferation of the Bank’s view of education as a
tool for economic growth. This conceptualisation, focusing on the
development of human capital, fails to recognise the most valuable
aspects of education. Advocated from the Bank’s position of power, it
also serves to silence or marginalise alternative perceptions and voices
thus perpetuating an ‘anti-dialogue’ dependency sometimes deemed
‘neo-colonialism’ (Watson, 1992). Despite evolving recommendations
over the decades and a recent adjustment in its rhetoric, the World
Bank continues to direct, prescribe and impose: educational policies
which prioritise Western-centric instruction; vocational inclination,
aimed at industrial employment; and a lack of recognition of local
values, concerns and initiatives. The case in Jordan will be examined.
Discourse: conclusions
• Summary
Briefly outlines what the essay covered
• Restating the thesis
Confirms your thesis, main logical conclusion
• Justifying and/or applying
• Sometimes, reference to relevant work
• Sometimes, limitations of the essay
• Final strong and general closure: identify any special relevant
focus, implications (including speculation), or recommendations
(for society, business, policy, or future research)
07/10/2014
4
The risks to the health of national economies and
practical labour market concerns have illustrated
the need to protect and extend intellectual property
rights. Industry scenarios and three future
projections have clearly demonstrated this. This
reflects deeper ethical issues regarding the
safeguarding and maintaining of incentives for
artistic expression and artists’ rights to revenues.
Extending intellectual property legislation should be
prioritised across all forms of broadcasting. In line
with the Burke report (2011), this will be a
particularly exciting area of industry as the world
continues to expand into new media.
The risks to the health of national economies and
practical labour market concerns have illustrated
the need to protect and extend intellectual property
rights. Industry scenarios and three future
projections have clearly demonstrated this. This
reflects deeper ethical issues regarding the
safeguarding and maintaining of incentives for
artistic expression and artists’ rights to revenues.
Extending intellectual property legislation should be
prioritised across all forms of broadcasting. In line
with the Burke report (2011), this will be a
particularly exciting area of industry as the world
continues to expand into new media.
The World Bank’s influence over education initiatives in the developingworld has been persistently
heightened by its increased involvement in educational research agenda-setting, with its escalation
to becoming the most significant external funder. This has contributed to the endorsement and
proliferation of the Bank’s view of education as a tool for economic growth. This conceptualisation,
focusing on the developmentof human capital, fails to recognise the most valuableaspects of
education. Advocated from the Bank’s position of power, it also serves to silence or marginalise
alternative perceptionsand voices thus perpetuatingan ‘anti-dialogue’ dependency sometimes
deemed ‘neo-colonialism’ (Watson, 1992). Despite evolving recommendationsover the decades
and a recent adjustment in its rhetoric, the World Bank continues to direct, prescribeand impose:
educational policies which prioritise Western-centricinstruction; vocational inclination, aimed at
industrial employment;and a lack of recognition of local values, concerns and initiatives. This essay
focuses on the African continent as a case study.
The future of African independenteducational developmentis largely dependent on increased
African ownership of initiatives. This is reliant on renewed World Bank acceptance of implementing
such rhetoric that recognises the great importance of local and indigenousinvolvement.
Alternatively,African nations could stake a claim for greater autonomy through a decreased
reliance on World Bank funds, but due to the current economic climate and the continued
existence of an economic core and periphery this is not an short-run alternative. While recognising
the significant role played by the World Bank in the potential perpetuation of this neo-colonial
relationship,Africans must now extend their ownership of this situation to ensure sustainable
independenceand the preservation of African culture and values, as is echoed in the work of
Rayapen (1990, p.15). Indeed, Africans themselves are the main agents to improve African life. In
the final analysis, responsibilityfor the education of Africa lies primarily with enlightened Africans.
The World Bank’s influence over education initiatives in the developingworld has been persistently
heightened by its increased involvement in educational research agenda-setting, with its escalation
to becoming the most significant external funder. This has contributed to the endorsement and
proliferation of the Bank’s view of education as a tool for economic growth. This conceptualisation,
focusing on the developmentof human capital, fails to recognise the most valuableaspects of
education. Advocated from the Bank’s position of power, it also serves to silence or marginalise
alternative perceptionsand voices thus perpetuatingan ‘anti-dialogue’ dependency sometimes
deemed ‘neo-colonialism’ (Watson, 1992). Despite evolving recommendationsover the decades
and a recent adjustment in its rhetoric, the World Bank continues to direct, prescribeand impose:
educational policies which prioritise Western-centricinstruction; vocational inclination, aimed at
industrial employment;and a lack of recognition of local values, concerns and initiatives. This essay
focuses on the African continent as a case study.
The future of African independenteducational developmentis largely dependent on increased
African ownership of initiatives. This is reliant on renewed World Bank acceptance of implementing
such rhetoric that recognises the great importance of local and indigenousinvolvement.
Alternatively,African nations could stake a claim for greater autonomy through a decreased
reliance on World Bank funds, but due to the current economic climate and the continued existence
of an economic core and periphery this is not an short-run alternative. While recognising the
significant role played by the World Bank in the potential perpetuation of this neo-colonial
relationship, Africans must now extend their ownership of this situation to ensure sustainable
independenceand the preservation of African culture and values, as is echoed in the work of
Rayapen (1990, p.15). Indeed, Africans themselves are the main agents to improve African life. In
the final analysis, responsibilityfor the education of Africa lies primarily with enlightened Africans.
Typical EAP approach
Model:
notice
Deconstruct:
Analysis
[Controlled
production]
Reconstruct
Presentation
& reflection
Example of target
genre shown
Social purposes
discussed
(& likely knowledge
constructed)
Stages analysed
Given functional names,
& language features
Guided
manipulation
of target genre
(exercises,
shared activity)
Students research & write
own genre sample.
Teacher conferencing
Presented or shared,
Features and own results
reflected on
Move from a
productapproach
towardsa process
approach:
Focuson ‘journey’,
regularinformal
feedback,
peer/teacher
collaboration.
Needleman (in Dake 2001) suggests that making money is harmful when it becomes the priority in a society and when
self-identity is dependent on wealth. He sees these as prevailing trends in American society ‘although Europe is moving
in that direction too’ (Dake 2001).In a money-making society, people may get caught up in an illusion of forever
wanting more and imagining that more material wealth will bring greater happiness.Wants may increase in proportion
to income and people become stuck on a ‘hedonic treadmill’ (Easterlin 2001).However, as Myers (2001) shows, people
in America may be twice as rich today (1998) as they were in 1957 but they are ‘not a bit happier’.
The problem, as Needleman (2001) notes, is that it is not money in itself that is harmful but rather its tendency to
replace or destroy what is really valuable to us. For this reason, he maintains that money should be respected and
understood more. This underlines the importance of attitudes to money in a society. It is difficult to deny its importance
in the modern world. However, it is worth noting here that at least one third of the world lives below the poverty line
and is excluded from the modern money economy.
With the apparentincrease in economic globalisation, it may be argued that all societies will be drawn quite rapidly into
a world where making money is the dominant value. It is, however, not so clear whether …
07/10/2014
5
Needleman (in Dake 2001) suggests that making money is harmful when it becomes the priority in a society and when
self-identity is dependent on wealth. He sees these as prevailing trends in American society ‘although Europe is moving
in that direction too’ (Dake 2001).In a money-making society, people may get caught up in an illusion of forever
wanting more and imagining that more material wealth will bring greater happiness.Wants may increase in proportion
to income and people become stuck on a ‘hedonic treadmill’ (Easterlin 2001).However, as Myers (2001) shows, people
in America may be twice as rich today (1998) as they were in 1957 but they are ‘not a bit happier’.
The problem, as Needleman (2001) notes, is that it is not money in itself that is harmful but rather its tendency to
replace or destroy what is really valuable to us. For this reason, he maintains that money should be respected and
understood more. This underlines the importance of attitudes to money in a society. It is difficult to deny its importance
in the modern world. However, it is worth noting here that at least one third of the world lives below the poverty line
and is excluded from the modern money economy.
With the apparentincrease in economic globalisation, it may be argued that all societies will be drawn quite rapidly into
a world where making money is the dominant value. It is, however, not so clear whether …
It is widely recognised that knowledge is a valuable resource and Lazarova and Tarique
(2005) assert that transferring knowledge across organisations is critical for the success
of global companies operating in worldwide markets. Organisations are increasingly realising
that “in the knowledge society, expatriates and repatriates become exporters, importers and local
traders of expertise and knowledge, the most precious resource of all” (Inkson, Arthur, Pringle &
Barry, 1997, p.355).
Although expatriates were traditionally considered knowledge senders, whose primary role was to
teach others, they are also knowledge recipients, and Oddou et al (2009) highlight that
international assignments create the opportunity to acquire, create and transfer knowledge. They
also claim that the importance of repatriate knowledge transfer has been proven by empirical
research and linked to increased innovation (Subramaniam & Venkatraman, 2001), greater
diversification (Sambharya, 1996), improved communications between different organisational
units (Downes & Thomas, 2000) and better overall corporate financial performance (Carpenter,
Sanders & Gregersen, 2001). Berthoin-Antal (2000) believes that expatriates represent a resource
for organisational learning, as they have a wider range of experiences and ideas which companies
can draw on.
Using the concept introduced by Argyris and Schon (1978), she suggests that repatriates can utilize
their broadened perspective to stimulate single loop learning, by proposing incremental
improvements to …
The monarchy certainly has no place in modern Britain as it is a
categorically undemocratic institution, with the Queen
unelected. Despite this fact, it is often argued that the Queen
has no real power. However, according Welsh and Bales (2004),
Britain could go to war without even consulting the elected
parliament (cited in Burns 2009). Furthermore, while some
would argue that the best democracies may be constitutional
monarchies (e.g. Jones 1995), the hereditary system is actively
upheld by the monarchy and does not ensure individual merit;
therefore it clearly goes against the democratic principle.
The monarchy certainly has no place in modern Britain as it is
a categorically undemocratic institution, with the Queen
unelected. Despite this fact, it is often argued that the Queen
has no real power. However, according Welsh and Bales (2004),
Britain could go to war without even consulting the elected
parliament (cited in Burns, 2009). Furthermore, while some
would argue that the best democracies may be constitutional
monarchies (e.g. Jones 1995), the hereditary system is actively
upheld by the monarchy and does not ensure individual merit;
therefore it clearly goes against the democratic principle.
It may not have gone unnoticed that consecutive Australian
governments have ostensibly lauded but patronised China, with terms
like 'successful trading partner' and 'opportunity' frequently seen to be
littering public and media rhetoric (Deans 2009), especially as it
appears to have been recognised by their halls of government as not
much beyond these exploitative notions. In fact, the ongoing
clambering for stronger US positioning by the Abbott government
might have succeeded in sending signals to China in the first instance,
and Indonesia in the second, that Australia remain the belligerent,
non-inclusive, xenophobic, middle-power of the Asia-Pacific (Matthews
2012, p.34). As insulting as this may look, it has also conceivably
allowed another negative message to be sent: unless a state overtly
sides with the US, Australia will maintain a greater political distance.
Notwithstanding the damage inherent in this, and conceding
to the caveats against the approach, an alternative and less
pessimistic perspective can also be gleaned from these relations, if the
following broader context is taken into consideration. …
Organising them: Block or Chain
• ARG
• ARG
• CA
• Ref
• CA
• Ref
• CA
• Ref
• ARG
• ARG
• CA
• CA
• CA
• REF
• REF
• REF
More
directly
linked
Perhaps
more
indirectly
linked
07/10/2014
6
Typical EAP approach
Model:
notice
Deconstruct:
Analysis
[Controlled
production]
Reconstruct
Presentation
& reflection
Example of target
genre shown
Social purposes
discussed
(& likely knowledge
constructed)
Stages analysed
Given functional names,
& language features
Guided
manipulation
of target genre
(exercises,
shared activity)
Students research & write
own genre sample.
Teacher conferencing
Presented or shared,
Features and own results
reflected on
Move from a
productapproach
towardsa process
approach:
Focuson ‘journey’,
regularinformal
feedback,
peer/teacher
collaboration.
Context of the incident
This report will outline a critical incident which occurred in Week 9, Semester 2 in my clinical tutorial. The incident was initiated
by my tutor, who announced that she would provide individual feedback to students on their performance in clinical tutorial
discussions. She also stated that she would be producing written comments on each student's behaviour, attitude and
contribution in tutorials to be incorporated into student portfolios for Semester 2.
Details of the incident
At the end of my clinical tutorial my tutor arranged for us to meet briefly in order for her to discuss her feedback with me. She
stated that over the semester she had noticed that I very rarely spoke in the tutorials and did not appear to engage with the
other students. She was concerned that I appeared to lack confidence, and explained that being able to express opinions
clearly and confidently was essential in my future career as a doctor. In her view the only way to develop confidence was to
participate regularly. She asked me how I felt about this, and if there was a reason why I almost never spoke in class. I
explained that in my culture students were not always encouraged to speak, and for that reason I did not find it easy. I also
mentioned that I sometimes feel shy.
Thoughts, feelings and concerns
At the time of this incident, many emotions were running through me. I felt embarrassed that my lack of confidence was so
obvious to her, and also concerned about what impact it might have on my results. I was worried that she would write negative
comments about my behaviour and attitude, and that these comments would be available for other lecturers to read. At the
same time, I realised that her concerns were justified – I had been aware of my lack of contribution throughout the semester,
and had even avoided going to some tutorials because of those feelings.
This was also an unfamiliar situation for me, as I had always done very well at school and achieved good marks, so I had never
had to talk with a teacher in this way before. Although I understood that her intention was to help me to do better, I felt very
uncomfortable and even ashamed to have to acknowledge my poor performance in this area. I felt guilty when I realized that in
her opinion I had contributed so little to the class.
Impact on studies
Although this incident caused me discomfort and added pressure in the short term, I realise that it was a very significant event in my
studies. As a result of the conversation with my tutor I was forced to reconsider my behaviour in tutorials and became more aware of how
others viewed me. I had been used to think that I was 'invisible' in tutorials, but now I realised that not talking actually made me stand out
more. Fortunately, the tutor gave me advice on how to gradually develop the confidence I needed, and I also sought help from some of
my friends. I even organized to have some informal tutorials with friends to give me a chance to practice. Over the final weeks of the
semester I managed to talk at least once in every clinical tutorial, either asking a question or making a comment. I have started trying to
talk in other tutorials also, in other subjects. I have set myself the goal of talking at least once every tutorial.
This incident was therefore very important, because without it I would still be remaining silent in my tutorials, and would have received
negative written comments from my clinical tutor in my portfolio. More importantly, it has helped me to acknowledge and work on an area
for improvement which will be beneficial in all aspects of the course. Developing greater confidence at speaking in tutorials may lead to
me being more confident in performing clinical examinations on patients. It may also lead to me feeling more in control and experiencing
less nerves during my Objective Structured Clinical Examination (OSCE) assessments.
Impact on career
My tutor was right in stating that a doctor must be able to express opinions clearly and confidently. Good communication skills are
essential for doctors, and are important in nearly all aspects of medicine. I feel that I will be more confident in dealing with patients and
more effective in taking a patient history, for example. Developing greater confidence in how I communicate can lead to patients having
greater trust in me as their doctor. Improving my skills in this area will also make me more effective in discussing cases with colleagues,
and in participating in teams when necessary.
This incident made me realise that I can talk confidently once I overcome my initial fears. It demonstrated to me that in order to make
progress or create positive change you must first acknowledge that a problem exists. This is a lesson which may be useful in better
understanding patient behaviour and attitudes. Often the first step to improving a situation, or dealing with a problem, is accepting that
some change is necessary; and I may be more able to impart this information to patients having experienced this incident. Overall, this
incident has had a positive impact on both my studies and on the development of skills needed in my future career.
Typical EAP approach
Model:
notice
Deconstruct:
Analysis
[Controlled
production]
Reconstruct
Presentation
& reflection
Example of target
genre shown
Social purposes
discussed
(& likely knowledge
constructed)
Stages analysed
Given functional names,
& language features
Guided
manipulation
of target genre
(exercises,
shared activity)
Students research & write
own genre sample.
Teacher conferencing
Presented or shared,
Features and own results
reflected on
Move from a
productapproach
towardsa process
approach:
Focuson ‘journey’,
regularinformal
feedback,
peer/teacher
collaboration.
Methods
This study was conducted at Yates Mill Pond, a research area owned by the North Carolina State
University,on October 25th, 1996. Our research area was located along the edge of the pond and
was approximately 100 m in length and 28 m in width. There was no beaver activityobserved beyond this width. The
circumference, the species, status(chewed or not- chewed), and distancefrom the water were recorded for each tree in the
study area. Due to the large number of trees sampled, the work was evenly divided among four groups of students working
in quadrants. Each group contributed to the overall data collected.
A chi-squared test was undertaken to analyze the data with respect to beaver selection of certain tree species. T-tests were
conducted to determine (1) if avoided trees were significantly further from the water than selected trees, and (2) if chewed
trees were significantlylarger or smaller than not chewed trees. Mean tree distancefrom the water and mean tree
circumference were also recorded.
Results
Overall, beavers showed a preference for certain species of trees, and their preference was based on distancefrom the
central place. Measurements taken at the study site show that beavers avoided oaks and musclewood (Fig. 1) and show a
significantfood preference (x2=447.26,d.f.=9, P<.05). No avoidance or particular preference was observed for the other tree
species. The mean distance of 8.42 m away from the water for not-chewed trees was significantlygreater than the mean
distance of 6.13 m for chewed trees (t=3.49, d.f.=268,P<.05) (Fig. 2). The tree species that were avoided were not
significantly further from the water (t=.4277,d.f.=268,P>.05) than selected trees. For the selected tree species, no
significantdifference in circumference was found between trees that were not chewed (mean=16.03cm) and chewed
(mean=12.80cm) (t=1.52, d.f.=268, P>.05) (Fig. 3).
Methods
This study was conducted at Yates Mill Pond, a research area owned by the North Carolina State
University,on October 25th, 1996. Our research area was located along the edge of the pond and
was approximately 100 m in length and 28 m in width. There was no beaver activityobserved beyond this width. The
circumference, the species, status(chewed or not- chewed), and distancefrom the water were recorded for each tree in the
study area. Due to the large number of trees sampled, the work was evenly divided among four groups of students working
in quadrants. Each group contributed to the overall data collected.
A chi-squared test was undertaken to analyze the data with respect to beaver selection of certain tree species. T-tests were
conducted to determine (1) if avoided trees were significantly further from the water than selected trees, and (2) if chewed
trees were significantlylarger or smaller than not chewed trees. Mean tree distancefrom the water and mean tree
circumference were also recorded.
Results
Overall, beavers showed a preference for certain species of trees, and their preference was based on distancefrom the
central place. Measurements taken at the study site show that beavers avoided oaks and musclewood (Fig. 1) and show a
significant food preference (x2=447.26,d.f.=9, P<.05). No avoidance or particular preference was observed for the other tree
species. The mean distance of 8.42 m away from the water for not-chewed trees was significantlygreater than the mean
distance of 6.13 m for chewed trees (t=3.49, d.f.=268,P<.05) (Fig. 2). The tree species that were avoided were not
significantly further from the water (t=.4277,d.f.=268,P>.05) than selected trees. For the selected tree species, no
significant difference in circumference was found between trees that were not chewed (mean=16.03cm) and chewed
(mean=12.80cm) (t=1.52, d.f.=268, P>.05) (Fig. 3).
07/10/2014
7
Methodologies
Methods
Time,
location
Nature /
approach
Instrument
Sample
Sample
selection
(or limiting
conditions)
Procedure
Data
analysis /
treatment
For this qualitative study, a sample group of 360 employees from 3 state government
departments was selected for the study, which took place during the month of November
2009 in Melbourne. The departments were chosen on the basis of their identical staff-tomanager
ratios. Only employeeswho had been with the department for more than 2 years
were selected.
Three test instruments were used in this study: (1) a questionnaire for the employees, (2) an
interview for managementand (3) a ‘managementstyle’ test. The employee questionnaire
consisted of 3 parts: Part 1 asked for the participant’s personal details including age, job title
and employment status (full-time, permanent, casual). Part 2 elicited the participant’s
assessment of their manager’sperformanceand behaviour with a set of True/False
questions. Part 3 included 5 multiple-choice questions asking how the participant deals with
stress in the workplace.
The management style test consisted of 10 questions requiring an “agree” or “disagree”
response. The interview employed 6 open-ended questions focussing on the manager’s
assessment of staff satisfaction and productivity.
Employeeswere given the questionnaire to complete and return within a 2-hour period
which ensured a 97% response rate. Completed formswere then matched with participant’s
departmental recordof absenteeism. The supervisors all completed the managementstyle
test, followed by the interview 3. Interviewers in each department recorded the managers’
responses. These were then matched to their management style test results.
The data was collated and analysed according to the supervisor/employee groupings and
according to the different management styles.
For this qualitative study, a sample group of 360 employees from 3 state government
departments was selected for the study, which took place during the month of November
2009 in Melbourne. The departments were chosen on the basis of their identical staff-tomanager
ratios. Only employees who had been with the department for more than 2 years
were selected.
Three test instruments were used in this study: (1) a questionnaire for the employees, (2) an
interview for managementand (3) a ‘managementstyle’ test. The employee questionnaire
consisted of 3 parts: Part 1 asked for the participant’s personal details including age, job title
and employment status (full-time, permanent, casual). Part 2 elicited the participant’s
assessment of their manager’s performanceand behaviour with a set of True/False
questions. Part 3 included 5 multiple-choice questions asking how the participant deals with
stress in the workplace.
The management style test consisted of 10 questions requiring an “agree” or “disagree”
response. The interview employed 6 open-ended questions focussing on the manager’s
assessment of staff satisfaction and productivity.
Employees were given the questionnaire to complete and return within a 2-hour period
which ensured a 97% response rate. Completed formswere then matched with participant’s
departmental recordof absenteeism. The supervisors all completed the managementstyle
test, followed by the interview 3. Interviewers in each department recorded the managers’
responses. These were then matched to their management style test results.
The data was collated and analysed according to the supervisor/employeegroupings and
accordingto the different management styles.
This researchshowed that scheduling blocks of shift-work together with education programmes for
worker families would reduce the rate of accidents in the workplaceand minimise psychologicalharm
to the shift-worker.This agrees with the researchfindings of Ibsen et al. into the advantages of
‘blocking’ shift work (1998) as well as Patel & Gordon’s recommendations on shift-worker family
education programmes (1999).
The findings support the hypothesis. Shift-workerswith eight-week blocks of unsocial shifts, suffered
fewer accidents and were absent less than workers in permanent nine to five jobs, when they and
their families received social support into shift-work culture, and training into recognisingsymptoms
of the occupational hazards of shift work. These workers also reported higher than average
satisfactionwith their work than their nine-to-five control group counterparts.
One possible conclusion is that the rate of accidents might be more closely related to the regularityof
shift adaptationthan solely to the disruption. Perhaps working nights is not inherently distressful but
the change in adapting constantly is. Furthermore,the accident rate may have resulted from
undermined work satisfactionand social stress from social isolation.
While it appears that addressing these issues may be a small step in the improving of mental and
physical occupational health and safety, caution must be exercised in applying these findings to a
broader industry context. This is because the sample was restrictedto penal system, supermarket and
manufacturing personnel in predominantly Anglo-Saxon environments. It is possible that other
industries with more established‘cultures’ of shift work, such as hospitality and catering,or more
diverse ethno-cultural mixes, may produce varying results.
Such methodological problems notwithstanding,the implications for industry are clear: education
and support programmes in shift ‘culture’ and longer blocks may reduce occupational stress and
accident rates, and should be considered by employers.
The approach outlined in this study could be replicatedacross a broader range of industries and more
diversely comprised workforces in order to build a model of preferable shift-work conditions.
This researchshowed that scheduling blocks of shift-work together with education programmes for
worker families would reduce the rate of accidents in the workplaceand minimise psychologicalharm
to the shift-worker.This agrees with the researchfindings of Ibsen et al. into the advantages of
‘blocking’ shift work (1998) as well as Patel & Gordon’s recommendations on shift-worker family
education programmes (1999).
The findings support the hypothesis. Shift-workerswith eight-week blocks of unsocial shifts, suffered
fewer accidents and were absent less than workers in permanent nine to five jobs, when they and
their families received social support into shift-work culture, and training into recognisingsymptoms
of the occupational hazards of shift work. These workers also reported higher than average
satisfactionwith their work than their nine-to-five control group counterparts.
One possible conclusion is that the rate of accidents might be more closely relatedto the regularity
of shift adaptationthan solely to the disruption. Perhapsworking nights is not inherently distressful
but the change in adapting constantlyis. Furthermore, the accident rate may have resultedfrom
undermined work satisfactionand social stress from social isolation.
While it appears that addressing these issues may be a small step in the improving of mental and
physical occupational health and safety, caution must be exercisedin applying these findings to a
broader industry context. This is because the sample was restricted to penal system, supermarket
and manufacturing personnel in predominantly Anglo-Saxon environments. It is possible that other
industries with more established‘cultures’ of shift work, such as hospitality and catering,or more
diverse ethno-cultural mixes, may produce varyingresults.
Such methodological problems notwithstanding, the implications for industry are clear: education
and support programmes in shift ‘culture’ and longer blocks may reduce occupational stress and
accident rates, and should be considered by employers.
The approach outlined in this study could be replicatedacross a broader range of industries and more
diversely comprised workforces in order to build a model of preferable shift-work conditions.
Writing abstracts
WHY, HOW, WHAT, SO WHAT
07/10/2014 Slide 42
The reason behind the
research being done
The basic approach
and methodology,
sometimes just in one
sentence
The conclusion
(briefly) and the broad
implications of it
The main findings
(results) in a few
sentences
07/10/2014
8
Polyploidy is a prominent process in plants and significant in the evolutionary history
of vertebrates and other eukaryotes. In plants, interdisciplinary approaches
combining phylogenetic and molecular genetic perspectives have enhanced our
awareness of the myriad genetic interactions made possible by polyploidy. Here,
processes and mechanisms of gene and genome evolution in polyploids are reviewed.
Genes duplicated by polyploidy may retain their original or similar function, undergo
diversification in protein function or regulation, or one copy may become silenced
through mutational or epigenetic means. Duplicated genes also might interact
through inter-locus recombination, gene conversion, or concerted evolution. Recent
experiments appear to have illuminated important processes in polyploids that
operate above the organizational level of duplicated genes. These include intergenomic
chromosomal exchanges, saltational, non-Mendelian genomic evolution
in nascent polyploids, inter-genomic invasion, and cytonuclear stabilization.
Notwithstanding many recent insights, much remains to be learned about many
aspects of polyploid evolution, including: the role of transposable elements in
structural and regulatory gene evolution; processes and significance of epigenetic
silencing; underlying controls of chromosome pairing; mechanisms and functional
significance of rapid genome changes; cytonuclear accommodation; and coordination
of regulatory factors contributed by two, sometimes divergent progenitor genomes.
Continued application of molecular genetic approaches to questions of
polyploid genome evolution holds promise for producing lasting insight into
processes by which novel genotypes are generated and ultimately into
how polyploidy facilitates evolution and adaptation. 44
Massage is promoted to enhance sports performance by increasing
tissue extensibility,increasing circulation and decreasing pain from
previous injury or strenuous competition, despite a lack of evidence of physiological
benefit. The goal of this study was to determine the effect of sports massage,superficial
heat, and no treatment on resting muscle stiffnessin 14 college level athletes.The trials
included three specific sports massage techniques and a control, and Myotonometer
measurements were taken pre and post for each, along with a pre and post treatment
questionnaire to assess perceived tightness; a single leg vertical jump test was also used to
assess performance after each; skin temperature was collected each minute for all trials.
Datawas analyzed using repeated measures MANOVA with bonferroni correction when
appropriate. There were significant differences in resting muscle and connective tissue
stiffnessin the sports massage group pre to post at forces 1.75 kg, and 2.00 kg (
p=.004,p=.006)and significant interaction between heat and sports massage at 1.75 kg and
2.00 kg (p=.006,p=.008), yet no significant differences for verticaljump testing. The
questionnaire found subjects preferring heat and sports massagefor increasing range of
motion and looseness but did not feel that either treatment increased strength or
hamstring power. Resting muscle and connective tissue stiffness significantlydiffered after
superficial heat compared to sports massage in treatment leg. Sports massagesignificantly
decreased muscle stiffness compared to superficial heat. Qualitativedata however provide
no support for perceived or functional improvements as a result of treatments.Implications
for practitioners are in informing the scope in which massage is efficaciouslyemployed.
45
Massage is promoted to enhance sports performance by increasing
tissue extensibility,increasing circulation and decreasing pain from
previous injury or strenuous competition, despite a lack of evidence of physiological
benefit. The goal of this study was to determine the effect of sports massage,superficial
heat, and no treatmenton resting muscle stiffnessin 14 college level athletes. The trials
included three specific sports massage techniques and a control, and Myotonometer
measurements were taken pre and post for each, along with a pre and post treatment
questionnaire to assess perceived tightness; a single leg vertical jump testwas also used to
assess performance after each; skin temperature was collected each minute for all trials.
Data was analyzed using repeated measures MANOVA with bonferroni correction when
appropriate. There were significant differences in resting muscle and connective tissue
stiffnessin the sports massage group pre to post at forces 1.75 kg, and 2.00 kg (
p=.004,p=.006)and significant interaction between heat and sports massage at 1.75 kg and
2.00 kg (p=.006, p=.008), yet no significant differences for verticaljump testing. The
questionnaire found subjects preferring heat and sports massagefor increasing range of
motion and looseness but did not feel that either treatment increased strength or
hamstring power. Resting muscle and connective tissue stiffness significantlydiffered after
superficial heat compared to sports massage in treatment leg. Sports massagesignificantly
decreased muscle stiffness compared to superficial heat. Qualitativedata however provide
no support for perceived or functional improvements as a result of treatments. Implications
for practitioners are in informing the scope in which massage is efficaciously employed.
Typical EAP approach
Model:
notice
Deconstruct:
Analysis
[Controlled
production]
Reconstruct
Presentation
& reflection
Example of target
genre shown
Social purposes
discussed
(& likely knowledge
constructed)
Stages analysed
Given functional names,
& language features
Guided
manipulation
of target genre
(exercises,
shared activity)
Students research & write
own genre sample.
Teacher conferencing
Presented or shared,
Features and own results
reflected on
Move from a
productapproach
towardsa process
approach:
Focuson ‘journey’,
regularinformal
feedback,
peer/teacher
collaboration.
Summary
The sinking of R.M.S. Titanic is a well researched and documented event, with explicit detail available on the engineering considerations, the structural considerations, the situational
considerations, and the procedural considerations by the participants in the event. All of these, although most notably the engineering and structural considerations, contributed to the mass
loss of lives.
Events
The R.M.S. Titanic sideswiped an iceberg at 11:40 p.m. on April 14, 1912. Estimated to be able to stay afloat for 2 days under the worst scenario, the ship sank in less than 3 hours [Gannon,
1995]. The iceberg created a 300-foot gash in the Titanic's hull above and below the waterline. Tests on Titanic's steel showed that the steel had high sulfur content, which increases the
brittleness of steel by disrupting the grain structure [Hill, 1996]. This increase in brittleness contributed to the severity of the hull's damage.
Captain E. J. Smith had not slowed the ship's speed that night, although the ship's wireless operators had received several ice warnings. The ship was moving at more than 22 knots. The sea
was a "flat calm," a rarity for these waters. Under such conditions, there was no "tell-tale phosphorescent ripple" against the iceberg [Gardiner and Van der Vat, 1995]. Lookouts in the crow'snest
on the Titanic did not spot the massive iceberg until only 5 minutes before the collision. That night, the lookouts had misplaced their binoculars.
Even before the iceberg was spotted, Quartermaster Hitchens at the helm had begun to turn to port. When the alarm sounded, he turned full to port. His turning caused the Titanic to
sideswipe the iceberg, rather than hit it head-on. Experts believe that the ship would not have sunk so quickly had it hit the iceberg head-on [Gardiner and Van der Vat, 1995].
The lower section of the Titanic was divided into sixteen major watertight compartments. Actually, the compartments were watertight only in the horizontal direction--their tops were open.
After the collision, six watertight compartments began filling with water. Soon, water spilled over the tops.
Retrospective analysis and implications
Scientists have concluded that the watertight compartments contributed to the disaster by keeping the flood waters in the bow of the ship [Gannon, 1995]. If there had been no compartments,
the incoming water would have spread out, and the Titanic would have likely remained afloat for another six hours.
Flares were fired and Titanic's wireless operators sent out an SOS, but the wireless operator of the nearest ship, the California, had gone to bed at 11:30. Controversy exists on whether the
California had seen the Titanic's signal flares. If so, why had its captain, Stanley Lord, not responded?
Titanic's steel showed high levels of oxygen, which leads to an increased ductile-to-brittle transition temperature. For Titanic's steel, that temperature was determined to be 25 to 35 degrees F
[Hill, 1996]. The water temperature that night was below freezing. The wrought iron rivets that fastened the hull plates to the Titanic's main structure also failed because of brittle fracture
during the collision with the iceberg. Low water temperatures contributed to this failure [Garzke and others, 1994]. As it filled with water, the bow submerged, raising the stern out of water.
When the stern reached an angle of about 45 degrees, the stresses in the ship's midsection (15 tons per square inch) caused the steel to fail and the bow to rip loose and sink [Gannon, 1995].
Contributing to this failure in the midsection was the design of Titanic's huge spiral staircase. The staircase not only weakened the midsection's structure, but served as a means for water to
pass up through the ship.
The Titanic carried lifeboats for 1,178 people, a number that exceeded regulations of that time. However, the crew, which had never been drilled on the use of the lifeboats, was
inexperienced at filling and lowering them. The first lifeboats into the water were not even half full. In all, only 705 were saved by the lifeboats. Those on Titanic who went into the icy
waters when the ship foundered died within minutes - hours before the Carpathia, the first rescue ship on the scene, was able to arrive.
Typical EAP approach
Model:
notice
Deconstruct:
Analysis
[Controlled
production]
Reconstruct
Presentation
& reflection
Example of target
genre shown
Social purposes
discussed
(& likely knowledge
constructed)
Stages analysed
Given functional names,
& language features
Guided
manipulation
of target genre
(exercises,
shared activity)
Students research & write
own genre sample.
Teacher conferencing
Presented or shared,
Features and own results
reflected on
Move from a
productapproach
towardsa process
approach:
Focuson ‘journey’,
regularinformal
feedback,
peer/teacher
collaboration.
07/10/2014
9
What does it mean to speak a language? When someone says I can speak English does that mean the same thing for everyone? It was once said of
Britain and the United States that they are two countries divided by a common language. How can two countries be divided by having the same
language? In this lecture I am going to talk about some of the things that can make the same language (specifically English, in this case) a source of
distinctions and differences. In other words, I am going to talk about the varieties of English.
There are two main ways of looking at variety with reference to any given language. The first is how the language changes over time throughout
its history, which could be over a period of several hundred years or longer. The second way is how a language varies at any particular point in time,
for example the different varieties of English at this particular point in the 21st century. In this talk, I will start by very briefly saying something
about the way English has changed throughout its history. Then I will come to my main topic, which is a quick look at some of the varieties of
English in existence at the present point in time.
Let's start then by looking at variation in English over time. All languages change over time. Even within our own lifetime we will be aware that
there are many words in common use today which either did not exist at all five or ten years ago, or which did exist but have taken on new
meanings. Examples in English of fairly recent words include words like dot-com to mean a company or business that operates mainly through the
Internet. Another new computer related word is cyberstalker, meaning someone who stalks or harasses another person through the Internet. Not all
new words are connected with new inventions. For example the verb downsize is a fairly recent new word: it means to reduce in size or scope, to
become smaller. So you can speak of a business or a company downsizing, which may be a nice way of saying that it has sacked some of its
workers.
Going back further in time, if you have ever read or seen the plays of Shakespeare, you will know that his 16th-century English (sometimes called
Early Modern English) often has to be studied carefully before it can be fully understood. Some of the words he used have disappeared completely
in the late modern English we use today. But even some of the words in his plays that look familiar have to be treated with care, because their
meaning has changed. So, for example, the word allow which usually means 'to permit' today, in the 16th century could mean 'to approve'. A more
striking example is the word nice. Today, to describe someone as 'nice' is to pay him or her a compliment, but in Shakespeare's day, nice could mean
'foolish'.
If we go back even further, say a thousand years, to Old English, we find that is so different from contemporary English that it has to be studied
like a foreign language or else translated so that it can be understood. Historians of the English language often divide it into four periods: Old
English (8th to the 11th centuries AD), Middle English (12th to the 15th centuries), Early Modern English (16th and 17th centuries) and Late
Modern English (18th century to the present).
OK, let's come to the second part of this talk, which is concerned with varieties of English as it is used now. I am going to discuss contemporary
varieties of English under two headings. First, there are …
Typical EAP approach
Model:
notice
Deconstruct:
Analysis
[Controlled
production]
Reconstruct
Presentation
& reflection
Example of target
genre shown
Social purposes
discussed
(& likely knowledge
constructed)
Stages analysed
Given functional names,
& language features
Guided
manipulation
of target genre
(exercises,
shared activity)
Students research & write
own genre sample.
Teacher conferencing
Presented or shared,
Features and own results
reflected on
Move from a
productapproach
towardsa process
approach:
Focuson ‘journey’,
regularinformal
feedback,
peer/teacher
collaboration.
Createapproach
to complex
problem solving
Critique assumptions
behind paradigms
Evaluate all sides and arguments
Analyse: hypothetical scenarios
Analyse: causes and effects/speculation
Apply ideas to practice
Understand and inter-relate
Know and remember
Instructional language for assessment
• Illustrate, summarise, define, state, describe, outline, review
• Compare, contrast, examine, explore, explain
• Justify, account for, interpret
• Criticise, discuss, argue, critically evaluate, assess
English academic discourse analysis:
The L2-medium teacher perspective
and awareness-raising in the
teaching-learning environment
&
Instructional language for assessment
Tony Corballis B.Com, Dip.Tesol, MA
EAP teacher & lecturer, University of London SOAS
Consultantand Coach, Corballis CommunicationLtd.
Contact: tc20@soas.ac.uk,tony@corballis.com