GeoJournal 46: 237–253, 1998.
© 1998 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.
237
Geopolitics in the nineties: one flag, many meanings
V. D. Mamadouh
AGIDS, University of Amsterdam, Nieuwe Prinsengracht 130, 1018 VZ Amsterdam, the Netherlands
E-mail: v.d.mamadouh@frw.uva.nl
Received and accepted 11 March 1999
Key words: critical geopolitics, geo-economics, geopolitics, g´eopolitique, political geography
Abstract
This article provides an overview of recent publications on geopolitics. The diversity is overwhelming. Publications
are therefore divided into four ‘schools’: neo-classical geopolitics, subversive geopolitics, non-geopolitics and critical
geopolitics. These four schools are distinguished on two dimensions. The first is the distance to the object under study
(practical/applied versus academic/reflective). The second refers to the position towards the state system (states as the
principal geopolitical actors versus attention for other political actors and interests). Despite their differences, the four types
of studies share a growing interest in geoeconomics.
Introduction
This article provides an overview of recent publications on
geopolitics. Though the review focuses on the nineties, it
would be wrong to assume that the revived interest for
geopolitics has been caused by the collapse of the SovietUnion
and the end of the Cold War. The revival occurred
already in the seventies. In 1986, as the fall of the Wall
and the reunification of Germany still seemed an utopia, an
article entitled The revival of geopolitics was published in
the leading scientific journal Political Geography Quarterly.
In that article, Leslie Hepple looks back on fifteen years
renewed interest for this subfield of geography (Hepple,
1986).
But the term ‘geopolitics’ is not only in use among
geographers: it is very popular among political scientists
interested in international relations, among diplomats and
military experts, and among journalists. This article will focus
essentially but not exclusively upon the contributions of
geographers. There are two reasons for that. First, there are
strong historic ties between geopolitics and political geography.
Second, the prolific and innovative nature of the work of
political geographers in the field of geopolitics in the nineties
fully warrants such attention.
Classical geopolitics
An overview of the contemporary literature on geopolitics
can not avoid some problems of definition. This compulsory
exercise, the definition of a key concept, is in this
case extremely laborious. The concept is not only contaminated
by the historical legacy of the (mis)use of the ideas
of the German school of Geopolitik by the nazi-regime. It
suffers profound confusion. There are plenty meanings and
connotations in the contemporary uses of the word ‘geopolitics’
which remain often implicit and are often contradictory.
In most cases (but not always) it is about states, relations
between them and their geographical context.
It is well known that the neologism ‘geopolitics’ originates
from the Swedish political scientist Rudolf Kjellén.
In 1899 Kjellén introduced five neologisms to label
key features of the state: the other four (demopolitik,
ekonomipolitik, sociopolitik, kratopolitik) did not strike root
but ‘geopolitik’ did. With this term, he pointed at three geographical
features of a state: topopolitik (the location of a
state in relation to other states), morphopolitik (the form of
the territory of a state) and physiopolitik (the surface and
the physical characteristics of this territory) (Holdar, 1992,
1994). Right from the beginning, Kjellén introduced some
confusion, as ‘geopolitik’ meant both the characteristics of a
state and the study of these characteristics.
The neologism ‘geopolitik’ took hold among German
geographers, under the leadership of Karl Haushofer and
his colleagues of the Zeitschrift für Geopolitik (1924–1944).
These geographers were mainly inspired by the work of the
German geographer Friedrich Ratzel who had laid down the
fundaments of a biological theory of the state (biological
analogies were prevailing at that time in the social sciences)
in his book Politische Geographie (1897). In addition,
Haushofer was inspired by the Anglo-Saxon geostrategy, especially
the work of the British geographer, Sir Halford J.
Mackinder, and of the American admiral, Alfred T. Mahan.
Both had developed theories about the importance of
controlling seas and continents for the global balance of
power.
At the end of the Second World War the term Geopolitik
was tightly associated with nazi-propaganda. The American
geographers Isaiah Bowman and Nicholas Spykman
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introduced the expression ‘democratic geopolitics’ to label
geopolitics in service of a democratic regime (O’Loughlin,
1994, p. ix) but it was in vain, the term felt into abeyance.
The basic elements of the classical geopolitics are resumed
in a few words: the state is conceived as a living
organism, therefore borders are conceived as flexible (they
change in the course of the ‘life’ of the state, in other words
a state enlarges its territory when its strengths are growing
at the expense of older states in decline); finally, following
social Darwinism, the evolution of the political organism
is determined by its environment. Typical for the classical
geopolitics is geographical determinism as opposed to the
‘possibilism’ advocated by the French school of geography.
A few would like to reserve the use of the term ‘geopolitics’
for the German theories of the first half of the twentieth
century and the schools they directly influenced, as in Mussolini’s
Italy and Franco’s Spain (Raffestin, 1995; Blouet,
1994). This is completely unrealistic in view of the contemporary
popularity of the word among political geographers,
political scientists interested in international relations,
military experts and the media. Consequently we need to
examine how the term is currently used.
This article is an attempt to present recent publications1
by classifying them into four ‘approaches’. The names and
the delimitation of these ‘geopolitical schools’ is somewhat
arbitrary but it reduces effectively the great diversity encountered
in the publications related in one way or the other to
geopolitics. These four schools are distinguished on two dimensions.
The first is the distance to the object under study:
at the one hand practical advises to political actors are highly
recommended, at the other hand academic reflections refrain
from ties with geopolitical policies. The second refers to the
position towards the state system: at the one hand states are
conceived as the principal geopolitical actors, at the other
hand attention is paid to other political actors and to the internal
diversity and the conflict of interests inside the states.
The four approaches are indicated in Table 1. They will
be discussed below in chronological order, meaning from
the moment that they have manifested themselves in the
scientific community.
Neo-classical geopolitics: geopolitics en geostrategy
Academic geographers may have been scared by the role of
geopolitics in the nazi-propaganda; the neglect of geopolitics
at the beginning of the Cold War by military experts
had a different origin. In their case, the neglect was brought
about by the radical change of the relation between power,
military technology and geography. To clarify this evolution,
it suffices to remind of the two most important changes
which gave the impression that geography did not matter
any more. The first was a material cause, the technological
progress both in general (especially the improvement
of transportation and communication technology with essential
consequences for logistics related to both trade and
1This article does not claim to offer an exhaustive inventory as it is
obviously limited by the physical (in)capacities of the author to access
publications in certain languages in certain places.
strategy) and in particular regarding the waging of war
(namely the production of nuclear weapons). In addition
there was a political cause: the dominant view during the
Cold War was that the world was divided between two ideologies:
market capitalism and liberal democracy at the one
side, communism and people’s democracy at the other side.
This global perspective reduced conflicts to an ideological
struggle between Good and Evil. Territorial disputes concerning
resources and the like were neglected and therefore
geopolitical approaches felt into abeyance.
The revival of geopolitics is connected to the decolonisation
of Asia and Africa, where many states declare themselves
non-aligned to one of the two blocs, and with the
emergence of conflicts between states belonging to the same
bloc, such as the estrangement between Chine and the Soviet
Union and later on the territorial disputes between China and
Vietnam, Vietnam and Cambodia, Iran and Iraq. The term
‘geopolitics’ itself has been popularised by the American
diplomat Henry Kissinger in the seventies (Hepple, 1986;
O’Loughlin, 1994; Dijkink, 1996; Ó Tuathail, 1996; Parker,
1998).
In neoclassical geopolitics, the strategic value of specific
attributes of territories play the leading role. Next to
‘geopolitics’, the core concept is ‘geostrategy’. Neoclassical
geopolitics correspond to what the layman expects geopolitics
to be: it is about the effects of geographical location and
other geographical features on the foreign policy of a state
and its relations with other states. It is also concerned with
the strategic value of geographical factors (resources, access
to the sea, etc.). This also corresponds to the definitions
provided in general dictionaries. In this context, Napoléon
Bonaparte is often quoted: ‘La politique d’un état est dans
sa géographie’ (e.g., as an epigraph in the atlas of Chaliand
and Rageau, 1983)2.
Neoclassical geopolitics distinguishes itself from classical
geopolitics on many points. First, the state is not
conceived as an organism, and borders are given. The state
remains however a black box: reasoning occurs in terms
of ‘national interest’ and ‘national security’ as if the state
was one person. There is a sharp distinction between internal
affairs and foreign policy. The world of international
relations remains the domain of experts. Subsequently geographical
determinism is no more at stake, but a powerful
contextual effect is considered. The physical environment
puts restraints and offers opportunities: ‘geography does not
repeat itself’ states Neville Brown in a reflection about the
growing length of the war front (Brown, 1992, pp. 74–76).
During the eighties, there was a growing interest for
nuclear geopolitics, this means geopolitics and geostrategy
in the nuclear age. In a reader published in a series of
the NATO Scientific Affairs Division (Zoppo and Zorgbibe,
1985), the geopolitical analysis of the nuclear deterrence is
introduced as an improvement to the realistic approached
to international relations. It was also in the circles of the
North-Atlantic Treaty Organisation that the Institut international
de géopolitique/International Institute of Geopolitics
2Dijkink lets the French President François Mitterand (1981–1995)
quote Napol´eon! (Dijkink, 1996, p. 1).
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Table 1. Four geopolitical approaches
Practical/applied Academic
States neo-classical geopolitics, non-geopolitics
geopolitics, g´eostrategie, political geography
geoeconomics
Other subversive geopolitics post-structuralistic geopolitics
political actors g´eopolitique interne et externe critical geopolitics
has been established in 1982 in Paris and Washington, under
the leadership of the French Gaullist Marie-France Garaud.
The institute publishes under the title Géopolitique two journals,
one in English and one in French. Among the founding
members of the institute one can find diplomats, politicians,
military experts and academics (such as Huntington and
Luttwak). Special issues of both journals are typically devoted
to hot items in term of security: the USSR, the Gulf
War, Space, Islam, etc.
The classical elements of Mackinder’s geostrategy are
still considered to be important, e.g., the traditional theme
of maritime superpowers (Modelski and Thompson, 1988;
Gray, 1988; Girardet, 1989; Gallois, 1990; Chaliand, 1990;
Coutau-Bégarie, 1985a, 1995), the control of specific seas
and islands (Coutau-Bégarie, 1985b, 1987, 1993; Besnault,
1992; Cordonnier, 1995; Vigarié, 1995; Catley and Keliat,
1997; Simpson-Anderson, 1997), the strategic relevance of
specific regions (Hafeznia, 1994 on Kashmir; Delavaud,
1993 on Asia; Martel, 1991 on Libya) or the importance
of geopolitical insights for security policy of one’s country
(Brill, 1994). Moreover geopolitical analyses have been published
regarding new resources and energy sources, drinking
water, etc. In The Strategic Revolution (1992) Neville Brown
brings up poverty in the Third World, the global climate
change and environmental issues (see also Brown, 1994, for
a study of water as strategic resource, see also Sironneau
1996; and Perkins, 1997 on the relation between national
security policy and high yielding agriculture).
In the eighties and nineties, many atlases have been manufactured
to portray a global view of the uneven distribution
of resources and of conflict sources (Chaliand and Rageau,
1983, 1985; Touscoz, 1988; de Marensches, 1988; Vallaud,
1989; Boustani and Fargues 1990; Boniface, 1993;
Chaliand, 1993; Chaliand and Jan, 1993; Kidron and Segal,
1981, 1984; Kidron and Smith, 1983; Freedman, 1985; Anderson,
1993; Seager, 1995). It is also worth mentioning the
noticeable handbook Strategic Geography: NATO, the Warsaw
Pact, and the superpowers by Hugh Faringdon (1989), a
revised edition of Confrontation first published in 1986 (see
also Segal, 1986). Reference books in this tradition include
a lexicon (Soppelsa et al., 1988) and two dictionaries (Zorgbibe,
1988; Plano and Olton, 1988) both rendered largely
obsolete by the collapse of the Communist regime in the
Soviet Union.
Nevertheless geopolitics lost strength. Regarding warfare,
speed has become more important than strategic location on
the globe (some speak about chronopolitics, see Ó Tuathail,
1993b for a critical account, see also Gray, 1997), but more
structurally economic power has become more important
than military power. Edward Luttwak presents this point
of view in his article From geopolitics to geo-economics
(1990) and later in his book The endangered American
dream (1993). Luttwak wrote originally about (geo-)strategy
(Luttwak, 1983, 1986, 1987; Luttwak and Koehl, 1991).
He posits in the two publications mentioned above, that
economic power has become more important than military
power (the Soviet Union has lost its position and itself for
lack of economic power). But his message is also alarming,
his book has therefore been given the odd subtitle
How to stop the United States from becoming a third world
country and how to win the geo-economic struggle for industrial
supremacy. Geo-economics point out the fact that
states compete with each other for economic power, and no
more for territorial power. All the more the neologism geoeconomics
is odd, when the term ‘ecopolitics’ seems more
proper3.
Just the same, the term catches on. It seems that geoeconomics
is becoming the twin sister of (neo-)geopolitics
instead of geostrategy. Such an evolution is observable in A
dangerous peace, The geopolitical transition from bipolarity
to new rivalry (Rusi, 1997) in which the author, a Finnish
diplomat, predicts the strategic landscape of the twenty-first
century on the basis of the political and economic power of
the states. Still more traditional geostrategic approaches are
still around (see Brzezinski, 1997, or Kemp and Harkavy,
1997).
Subversive geopolitics: everything is geopolitical!
At the end of the seventies, the term ‘geopolitics’ acquired
a subversive meaning in France with the help of Maoist geographers.
Geographical knowledge is important for those
waging war, hence the observation of the French geographer
Yves Lacoste who entitled his radical analysis about
geography La géographie ça sert d’abord à faire la guerre
(1976). His analysis of the logic behind the bombardment
of the dikes in North-Vietnam by the American army made
3Or the less elegant terms ‘geo-political-economy’ (in: Corbridge and
Agnew, 1991) or ‘geopolinomics’ (in Demko and Woods, 1994). Still
‘ecopolitics’ is confusing because it is also used as a contraction of ‘ecology’
and ‘politics’ (for example in Kuehls, 1996 who presents an analysis
of ecopolitics from a geopolitical perspective).
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Lacoste famous in the United States (Ó Tuathail, 1994,
pp. 325–29, 1996, p. 161; Dijkink, 1996, p. 4). According
to Paul Claval it was also the failure of the guerilla activities
in South-America that stimulated the interest of these
‘soixante-huitards’ for geography (Claval, 1994, pp. 127–
8). Anyhow, it is clear that Lacoste wants to apply the
power originating in geographical knowledge against the superpowers.
He pleads for an active (political) geography,
as opposed to applied geography, and seeks to connect to
the work of the nineteenth century anarchist and geographer
Elysée Reclus.
From 1976 on, Lacoste and his associates publish their
own journal: Hérodote. As from number 27 in 1982, the subtitle
changed into Revue de géographie et de géopolitique4
but the format remained unchanged: special issues are prefaced
by Yves Lacoste who elaborates the building blocks of
a new geopolitical approach. In the course of time, a specific
school matures, a geographical analysis of situations in
which different groups put contradictory claims on a particular
territory (Foucher, 1988, p. 439). It concerns the ‘rivalités
de pouvoir sur des territoires et sur les hommes qui s’y trouvent’
(Lacoste, 1993, p. 3). In addition, territorial conflicts
become a matter of geopolitics according to Lacoste, only if
they are the subject of a democratic debate (Lacoste, 1993,
pp. 1–45; Durand and Ruano-Borbalan, 1994, p. 34).
Because there are as many points of view as there are
protagonists (Lacoste, 1986, p. xvi), the word is used in the
plural, les géopolitiques, contrary to the conventional usage
in French, e.g., la géopolitique. Furthermore the geopolitical
approach can be applied at different levels of analysis: ‘les
états n’ont pas le monopole de la géopolitique’ (Lacoste,
1986, tome 1, p. xiii). The analyses focus naturally on the
nature of the claims of the political actors in a particular
area. Lacoste speaks of ‘représentations géopolitiques’, a
reference to theatre and tragedy. Maps play a special role in
the development and the diffusion of such representations.
Finally, the territorial conflict (rather than the state or the
state system) is the unit of analysis.
As mentioned earlier, this geopolitical approach is appropriate
for all territorial conflicts: ergo also inside states.
Internal geopolitics have become more and more important
in Lacoste writings as witnesses by the publication in
1986 of the three volumes of Géopolitiques des régions
françaises. The three volumes of this reference book deal
with the 22 administrative regions in metropolitan France
(but not the areas overseas). The analyses consist essentially
of what others would call electoral geography. In democracies,
elections are pre-eminent opportunities for geopolitical
views to compete with each other (Lacoste, 1986, p. xiii).
At the same time, a special issue entitled Géopolitiques de
la France (Hérodote nr. 40, 1986) dealt with internal and
external geopolitical themes (such as the formation of the
départements in 1790 and the relationship with Germany).
Lacoste and associates published also a voluminous Dictionnaire
de géopolitique5 in which ‘geopolitical situations’
and ‘geopolitical views’ were explained for a broad public
4Previously it was H´erodote: Strat´egies-g´eographies-id´eologies.
5See the review elsewhere in this issue.
(Lacoste, 1993, 1996). Lacoste is also a co-editor of the
economic and geopolitical yearbook L’état du monde (Gèze
et al., 1983).
At the occasion of the twentieth anniversary of Hérodote
in 1996, a special issue was devoted to the Périls géopolitiques
en France (nr. 80). In his introduction, Lacoste
remarks that France is not threatened by foreign dangers
anymore, but by internal threats: the most important threats
identified are the movements appealing to regional identities,
notably in Corsica, and the ties of the (grand-) children of the
immigrants from North-Africa with the pan-Arabic nation.
Lacoste looks for the origin of these problems at the weakening
of the idea of the ‘nation’ and its declining mobilising
power. The nationalistic undertone of the journal Hérodote
and the work of Yves Lacoste has been severely criticised.
It has been called ‘soft nationalism’ (Raffestin et al., 1995,
p. 292): cultural differences and diversity are respected, but
all revolves around the nation. These authors provide several
examples of essays in which patriotism is to be valued and
the world to be interpreted as a competition between nations.
They also blame Lacoste for his striking anti-German
feelings in a editorial introduction about the German reunification
in Hérodote nr. 68: La question allemande (1993)
(Raffestin et al., 1995, pp. 293–294).
A look at the themes discussed in Hérodote in the
nineties confirms its nationalistic preoccupations, but most
issues reach much further than the French nation and the
French interests, for example special issues such as the
Balkans (nr. 63, 1991), the remains of the Soviet Union
(nr. 64, 1992), Serbia (nr. 67, 1992), Japan (nr. 78–79, 1995),
the Caucasus (nr. 81, 1996), South-Africa (nr. 82–83, 1996)
or Indonesia (nr. 88, 1998). Nevertheless, the nation is currently
the dominant subject in the work of Lacoste as shows
his recent book Vive la nation! (1997) and in Hérodote with
a series of special issues on the national question (on Italy
and on Spain in 1998, one on the United Kingdom has been
announced).
Other publications6, sometimes (based on) PhD theses
defended at the Centre de Recherches et d’Analyses
Géopolitiques (Paris VIII), include the analysis of German
Geopolitik by Michel Korinman (1990, 1991) and the study
of the Basque Country conducted by Barbara Loyer (1997).
In 1991, Michel Foucher published a revised edition of
his encyclopedic study of borders and their constitution in
Europe (1988, 1991, see also regarding the new states in
Central Europe: Foucher, 1993, 1996).
The vitality of geopolitics in France is remarkable. Numerous
introductions have been published (such as Claval,
1994; Moreau Defarges, 1994; Wackerman, 1997). Next
to the publications about geopolitics and geostrategy (that
have been introduced above as neoclassical geopolitics) the
geopolitical approach from Hérodote has been influential7.
6Although the author is not directly involved in the Lacoste group,
explicit reference to this approach is found in the work of Ropivia (1994)
on African integration.
7This is not the case outside France, in spite of the reputation of Lacoste
and the publication of a translated anthology from H´erodote (Girot
and Kofman, 1987). A noticeable exception is Italy, where many H´erodote
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The distinction between subversive and neoclassical geopolitics
fades away when the first approach deals with states and
their relations, although subversive geopolitics pays more
attention to contradictory interpretations of the national interest.
Subversive geopolitics has been influential among
political scientists too, such as Pascal Lorot and François
Thual who wrote extensively about the history of geopolitics
and the geopolitical method (Lorot, 1995; Thual, 1993a, b,
1995b, 1996a, 1997b; Lorot and Thual, 1997; Thual and
Chaumade, 19988), specific regions (Thual, 1996b, 1997a)
or specific religions (Thual, 1993c, 1994, 1995a, see also
Botiveau and Cesari, 1997). Another interesting contribution
is the Géopolitique et géostratégies des drogues
by Labrousse and Koutzousis (1996) in which the drugs
wars between drugsmafias and states have been analysed
(see other publications of the Observatoire géopolitique des
drogues, such as Koutzousis, 1995; see also Boekhout van
Solinge, 1998).
By the end of 1996, a new geopolitical journal appeared
LiMes: Revue française de géopolitique, a sister journal of
the Italian journal LiMes which have been published since
19939. The French and the Italian journals share the same
editors-in-chief: the French Michel Korinman (until 1993 a
member of the editorial board of Hérodote), and the Italian
Lucio Caracciolo, but they have different scientific boards
and networks of correspondents. The collaboration had led
earlier to French publications (Korinman and Caracciolo,
1995a, b).
The first French issue of LiMes was entitled: La France
en question. In 1997 an issue was devoted to the United
States and another to the European Union, L’Europe sans
l’Europe, in which attention was paid to monetary issues.
The concept of ‘ethnomonetarisme’ is introduced to analyse
the preferences of the French, Italian, German and British
public opinions regarding partners for a common currency
(predictably the majority of the British and the Germans
would prefer to keep their own currency). As in Hérodote,
much attention is paid here to internal geopolitics, such
as the electoral support for the Front National in several
French regions in LiMes 1997/2. Each delivery of LiMes
(about 300 pp.) contains a large number of contributions
by academics and journalists, but also diplomats and prominent
politicians10 and the reports of round-table discussions.
Many contributions are originally written in Italian, German
articles were translated and published in the journal H´erodote/Italia (1978–
1982) later Erodoto, Problemi di geografia (1982–1984) (see Antonisch
1997; on publications of Lacoste in German, see Dürr & Sandner 1991).
8See the review elsewhere in this volume.
9The first two issues of the Italian LiMes dealt with the following
topics: ‘war in Europe’ and ‘the world according to the Vatican’, they
were published in 1993 when the crisis of the Italian state culminated: they
contain articles about the Italian national interest, especially on the Balkans
and in Central Europe (Raffestin et al., 1995, pp. 300–303). The crisis mood
is obvious from a map of the ‘geopolitical strength field’ in which Italy
finds itself: the map depicts many internal and external threats such as trade
wars, immigration, the islam, the mafia, the instability in Albania.... (see a
reproduction in Pfetsch, 1993, p. 223).
10In the first issue we find for example a contribution of the Italian
Prime Minister Romano Prodi, the president the French Assembl´ee Philippe
S´eguin, the British Foreign Minister Malcolm Rifkind, and the president of
the German Bundesbank Hans Tietmeyer.
or English. This seems to point at an emerging European debate,
which too often ends in the assertion of irreconcilable
national positions.
Last but not least, geoeconomics has been paid attention
too. One of the political scientists mentioned above, Pascal
Lorot, is the director of the Revue française de géoéconomie.
Its first issue was published in March 199711. In his introductory
article De la géopolitique à la géoéconomie (Lorot,
1997, pp. 23–35) Lorot introduces and criticises Luttwak’s
approach (see above) before formulating his own research
agenda. According to Lorot, geoeconomics is the analysis
of the economic strategies of the states (Lorot, 1997, p. 29)
especially those regarding international trade. The first issue,
entitled Pourquoi la géoéconomie? contains further an
interview with Yves Lacoste who declares himself in favour
of this new approach as a complement to geopolitics, but
certainly not as a substitute. Moreover contributions are devoted
to the relation between states, enterprises and markets,
to monetary issues and to the importance of technology.
Finally, the geographer and former Hérodote-editor
Michel Foucher, presently the director of the Observatoire
européen de géopolitique, has also discussed geoeconomics
as the new dogma. He emphasises that geoeconomics is
practiced by states between which war is no longer conceivable
(Foucher, 1997).
Non-geopolitics: the political geography of international
relations
Outside France, geographers rediscovered geopolitics too. I
have called this school non-geopolitics because it is about
the ‘neutralisation’ of geopolitics. These geographers oppose
the abuse of geographical knowledge and plead for a
scientific, neutral, geography of international relations. This
school originates in the revival of political geography at the
end of the seventies and the beginning of the eighties.
In January 1982 the first issue of Political Geography
Quarterly is delivered. The opening is a research agenda
in which the editors in chief, Peter J. Taylor en John
O’Loughlin, list 21 themes that deserve the attention of
political geographers. Three of them are related to geopolitics:
geographical perspectives on the relations between
states, one concerns the revival of geostrategic studies (Editorial
Board, 1982, pp. 9–10) implicitly. The two editiors
also notice that the geostrategic analysis by Sir Harold
Mackinder is no doubt the most famous political geographical
piece outside the field. Moreover, they maintain that the
East-West conflict displays many similarities with the two
powers-model put forward by Mackinder, but they mention
many developments that call for further research in the field
(such as decolonisation, the globalisation of the economy
and the advancements in the field of military technology,
see also Brunn and Mingst, 1985). In the following years,
many geopolitical articles have been published in the jour-
11By Fall, 1998, the seventh issue was devoted to French competitiveness
La France, toujours comp´etitive?
242
nal Political Geography Quarterly and since 1992 due to an
increased frequency, Political Geography. In his review of
the 75 issues of the journal published until November 1996,
Stanley Waterman assesses the importance of the agenda
points of the beginnings: external state relations accounts for
17% of the articles, of which half for the revival of geostrategic
studies (Waterman, 1998, p. 379), and three of the 22
special issues12 (p. 380).
In this perspective, geopolitics and political geography
are almost synonymous, but the second term has scientific
connotations, while the first has political connotations. For
Anglo-Saxon political-geographers such as Peter J. Taylor
and John O’Loughlin, geopolitics points at two types of ‘theories’.
They distinguish between the ‘practical geopolitics’
of those who conduct the foreign policy of states and the
‘formal geopolitics’ of academics and other observers who
reflect upon international relations13. In practical geopolitics,
there is an urge for frames of thinking to guide short
term behaviour. Simplistic theories able to reduce the complexity
of reality to one clear conflict between good and evil,
between us and them, are welcome. They serve to define
the interests of a state, to identify (possible) threats and to
formulate appropriate policies dedicated to the state’s interests
and to the contention of the perceived threats; in short:
geopolitical codes. This is what O’Loughlin calls applied
political geography (O’Loughlin, 1994, p. viii) while Taylor
introduces the term ordinary political geography (Taylor,
1990, pp. 1–5).
Formal geopolitics’ mission is to analyse practical
geopolitics critically but also to provide new insights for
a ‘more humane’ geopolitics. The reclamation of the term
‘geopolitics’ is an attempt by (political) geographers to denounce
the use of geographical knowledge by the state and
especially by its military machine: ‘It is time to reclaim
the geopolitical theme from its hijackers in the strategic
community’ (O’Loughlin and Heske, 1991, p. 37). This is
diametrically opposed to the agenda of Mackinder and his
followers who wanted to put geography at the service of
the state14: it is about ‘understanding not promoting’ foreign
policy (O’Loughlin and Heske, 1991, p. 54).
Non-geopolitics is the study of the spatial distribution
of power between states (Taylor, 1993, p. 330), especially
between the major powers and supranational actors such as
such as the United Nations or NATO (O’Sullivan, 1986).
This school comprises, beside political geographers, the political
scientists involved in the so called ‘peace studies’ (as
opposed to strategic studies). For that reason, this approach
could also be called peace-geopolitics15.
It is a matter of patterns in international relations: the
political geography of war and peace (Pepper and Jenkins,
1985; Kliot and Waterman, 1991; O’Loughlin and van der
12Political Geography Quarterly 6:2 (1987), 8:4 (1989) and Political
Geography 15:6 (1996).
13Because academics and other opinion makers such as journalists and
publicists often advise ministers and presidents, the distinction is primarily
analytical. Nonetheless it is an important distinction.
14‘Geography enlisted as an aid to statecraft and strategy’ (Mackinder,
quoted in: Short, 1993, p. 18).
15See also the subtitle of O’Loughlin and Heske (1991).
Wusten, 1993b; Williams and Williams, 1993). Jan Nijman
examines the pattern of the involvement of the two
super powers in armed conflicts of third parties during the
Cold War (Nijman, 1992, 1993); Tom Nierop analyses
regional patterns in diplomatic and political ties between
states (Nierop, 1994; see also Van der Wusten and Nierop,
1990; O’Loughlin and Van der Wusten 1990; Parker, 1991;
Vogeler, 1995; and Hartman and Vogeler 1993; about alliances:
Starr and Siverson, 1990; see also geographies and
histories of international relations such as Poulsen, 1995;
Kennedy, 1987; Watson, 1992). Sloan deals with the geopolitical
policy of the United States from 1890 to 1987 (Sloan,
1988) while LeDonne (1997) analyses the geopolitics of the
Russian Empire from 1700 to 1917 (for the relation of Russia
with Asia see also Hauner, 1992). A geopolitical analysis
of Anglo-Irish relations has been provided by Sloan (1997)
with an emphasis on the changing strategic importance of
Ireland for the United Kingdom since the Middle Ages. The
relation between geopolitics and foreign aid has been addressed
as a specific topic (Conteh-Morgan, 1990; Grant and
Nijman, 1995; Fielden, 1998).
Since the end of the Cold War, the configuration of
the new world order to replace the familiar ideological opposition
between East and West has been a major topic
of investigation (Williams, 1993; O’Loughlin and Van der
Wusten, 1993; see also Cohen, 1991; Taylor, 1993; Smith,
1993; Demko and Wood, 1994). Awaiting a new world order
(c.q. a geopolitical order) we find ourselves in a geopolitical
transition: a few options are open. The non-geopolitical authors
explore these options through scenarios (O’Loughlin,
1992; Kolossov, 1996; Borko, 1997; Kolossov and Treivish,
1998; Baker Schaffer, 1998). Peter J. Taylor looks back to
the previous transition, to the beginning of the Cold War
to review the options available to the British government
at the time and (geoeconomic, geopolitical and geostrategic)
dilemmas this world power in decline had to confront
(Taylor, 1990).
Political scientists are discussing the geopolitical transition
as well. A recent example of their work is the collection
of essays published by the International Peace Research
Institute in Oslo under the title Geopolitics in Post-Wall Europe,
Security, territory and identity (Tunander et al., 1997).
This volume is an exploration of the new European order,
especially regarding the position of the state in the light of
the European unification. Subsequently the book scrutinises
the position of Russia (inside or outside Europe?) and the
consequences for the geopolitical order in Europe: will the
Cold War be followed by a Cold Peace? Finally attention is
paid to the construction of the ‘other’, the Islamic world and
the specific role of the Balkan as a buffer between Europe
and the ‘other’.
Worth mentioning is the SOAS/GRC Geopolitics
Series16 published by the UCL Press (Schofield 1994;
McLachlan, 1994; Gurdon, 1994; Wright et al. 1996;
Carter and Norris, 1996) and the journal edited by Richard
16SOAS stands for School of Oriental and African Studies, GRC
for Geopolitics and International Boundaries Research Centre (both in
London).
243
Schofield: Geopolitics and International Boundaries17 since
1995. Many regional studies are devoted to border conflicts
and other geopolitical transformations following the breakdown
of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War:
in Europe (Rusi, 1991), in Central Europe (Carter et al.,
1996; Prévélakis, 1998; Buckwalter, 1998), in Eastern Europe
(O’Loughlin et al., 1998), in Crimea (Dawson, 1997),
on the Balkans (Carter and Norris, 1996; Hall and Danta,
1996; also Prévélakis, 1997); much studied countries and
regions are Turkey (Fuller et al., 1993; see also Olson,
1992 about the Kurdes), the Caucasus (Wright et al., 1996),
Afghanistan (Kahn, 1998; McLachlan, 1997), Iran (Fuller,
1991; McLachlan, 1994), the Gulf states (Schofield 1994),
the Persian Gulf (Puri, 1993), India (Puri, 1997a, b; Bakshi,
1994; Dikshit, 1996), Kashmir (Moskalenko and Shaumian,
1995), Central Asia (Banuazizi and Weiner, 1994; Puri
1997a, b, Belokrenitsky, 1995, Houbert, 1997), East Asia
(Rumley et al., 1996; Lele and Ofori-Yeboah, 1996; Rozman,
1997; So and Chin, 1998; and on Taiwan see Fu, 1992),
South Asia (Gupta, 1997; see also Vaughn, 1994), the Indian
Ocean (Houbert, 1992; Chaturvedi and Saigal, 1996), Eastern
Africa (Gurdon, 1994; Medhanie, 1994); Chad (Joffé,
1997) the Great Lakes area (Prunier, 1997), Southern Africa
(Sidaway and Simon, 1993) and the Western Sahara (Zoubir,
1997; Zoubir et al. 1993) and polar regions (Chaturvedi,
1996).
The borderline between neo- and non-geopolitics is often
very slim: because these regions are often strategically
important areas. Such an uncertain case is A sense of siege:
The Geopolitics of Islam and the West. Graham Fuller and
Ian Lesser deal in this book (1995) first with the perceptions
the Islamic world and the Western world have of each other,
as well as with the dilemmas they provide to each other, and
then turn to the (geo)strategic dimension of a (possible) clash
between both worlds (see also Fuller, 1991 on Iran; Fuller
et al., 1993 on Turkey).
Important themes in non-geopolitics are the (territorial) features
of states and the constitution of the state system.
Accordingly, Van der Wusten (1993, 1997) deals with the
growing gap between strong and stable, democratic and
economically prosperous states on the one hand and weak
states where civil war, poverty and anarchy are prevalent on
the other hand. Kolossov and O’Loughlin (1999) introduce
the concept of pseudo-states. New carriers of geopolitics
emerge at the subnational and supranational levels (Van der
Wusten, 1998), see also the special issue of Political Geography
regarding the United Nations (Glassner, 1996) in
which geopolitical themes are addressed, such as the role of
the UN in border conflicts (Prescott, 1996; Rosenne, 1996),
or the two most important border crossing problems: migration
(Wood and Potts, 1996) and pollution (Momtaz, 1996).
O’Sullivan (1995) formalises geopolitical force fields in a
gravity model which he applies with two simple indicators
(armed force and distance between capitals) to determine the
17In 1999 (vol. 3) the title has been abridged into Geopolitics, although
most contributions until now has been about borders and border disputes.
David Newman is the second editor.
spheres of influence of different regional powers in Central
Asia after the breakdown of the Soviet Union.
The territory of states is a major topic as shows the World
Boundaries Series edited by G. Blake (Schofield, 1994;
Schofield and Schofield, 1994; Grundy-Warr, 1994; Girot,
1994; Blake, 1994) and Landlocked states (Hodder et al.,
1997 published first as a special issue of Geopolitics and
International Boundaries 2:1). Other authors focus on the
population of the states, especially on international migration
(Grosfoguel, 1997; MacLaughlin, 1993; Knights, 1996;
Liu and Norcliffe, 1996; also King, 1996; Wood and Potts,
1996; Chimni, 1998). The French anthropologist Albert
analyses the effects of the national security doctrine of the
Escola Superior de Guerra in Brazil on environmental policy
and policy toward Indians lands in the Amazon (1992).
Finally, geoeconomic themes are not foreign to nongeopolitics
either (e.g., O’Loughlin, 1993; Lele and OforiYeboah,
1996; Gupta, 1997) but the approach is still much
more state-centric than the analysis of the geopolitical consequences
of capitalism provided by David Harvey a decade
earlier: it focuses on the economical competition between
states whereas Harvey was presenting a theory in which the
dynamics of capitalist accumulation explains state formation
and geopolitical relations between states (Harvey, 1985).
Political geographers also look back to the history of
geopolitics to which two special issues of Political Geography
Quarterly have been devoted: in 1987 Historical
studies of Geopolitics (vol. 6 nr. 2) and in 1989 Historical
studies of German Political Geography (vol. 8, nr. 4).
In the last volume with Gerhard Sandner as guest-editor
(Sandner, 1989a), the contributions, all from German geographers,
deal with the evolution of the views on Central
Europe (Schultz, 1989), the relation between ideology, (political)
geography and geopolitics (Fahlbusch et al., 1989;
Kost, 1989; Sandner, 1989b). The territorial ideologies after
1945 (regionalism, nationalism, peace movement) are
also addressed (Ossenbrügge, 1989). Political Geography
(Quarterly) published several additional contributions about
classical geopolitics (Paterson, 1987; Bassin, 1987; Heske,
1987; Parker, 1987; Herb, 1989; Paasi, 1990; Holdar, 1992;
Fukushima, 1997)
In the eighties and nineties, several overviews of the
geopolitical thinking were published (O’Sullivan, 1986;
Hepple, 1986; and Parker, 1985, 1988, 1991a, b; later also
Claval, 1994; Moreau Defarges, 1994; Parker, 1998), as well
as a Dictionary of Geopolitics (O’Loughlin, 1994) which introduces
key authors, concepts and theories18. More focused
publications include studies of classical geopolitics: Kjellén
(Holdar, 1992), the German Geopolitik and its relations to
the nazi regime and to the Weimar Republic (Bassin, 1987;
Kost, 1988; Herb, 1989; Sprengel, 1994; Murphy, 1994,
1997; Rössler, 1990; Sandner and Rössler, 1994; Lariu,
1998; about Haushofer see Ebeling, 1994; Heske, 1987),
but also British geopolitics (Kearns, 1993, 1997), Italian
geopolitica (Atkinson, 1995; Gambi, 1994), Finnish geopolitics
(Paasi, 1990), Japanese geopolitics (Fukushima, 1997;
Takeuchi, 1994), or the French school during the interwar
18See the review elsewhere in this volume.
244
period (Parker, 1987). The history of the geopolitical notion
of Europe has been explored by Muet (1996) and Heffernan
(1998).
In addition to the publications mentioned above, German
contributions include a special issue of the academic journal
Geographische Zeitschrift devoted to political geography
(Sandner and Boesler, 1993). It includes a review of the revival
of geopolitics in Russia (Grisai and Kolossov, 1993)
and in Germany (Sandner, 1993) as well as the challenge the
geopolitical transition is for political geographers (Van der
Wusten, 1993).
Last but not least, some French contributions can be
mentioned as ‘belonging’ to non-geopolitics, from both geographers
and political scientists: regional studies (such as
Taglioni, 1995; Prévélakis, 1997), general books (Claval,
1994; Wackermann, 1997), and the many publications about
the state and its fading territoriality, globalisation and delocalisation
(Durand et al., 1992; Laïdi, 1992, 1998; Dolfuss,
1994, 1995; Badie, 1995; Cohen 1996; Boniface, 1996;
Ramonet, 199719, on the position of cities in this process
see also Veltz, 1996) including the surprising Géopolitique
du football (Boniface, 1998) on the role of football in
international relations.
Some of the non-geopolitical authors carefully avoid
to use words related to geopolitics. Nevertherless, by the
mid-nineties, the term ‘geopolitics’ has also become a fashionable
cry20: often, it is no more than a handy contraction
of ‘political-geographical’, while ‘geoeconomical’ does not
mean much more than ‘economic-geographical’ (e.g., in
Warf, 1997). At other occasions it points at global relations,
e.g., world-politics and world economics (eg the heading of
the sections of Johnston et al., 1995; on this use see Anderson,
1998; another example in Wallerstein 1991; also in
Falk, 1997, about international law and false universalism).
Worth mentioning is the anachronistic use of the word in
studies of ‘international relations’ and competition between
political entities in the past (such as Baugh, 1998) or even
before modern states emerged (Teschke, 1997).
Post-structuralistic geopolitics: critical geopolitics
Critical geopolitics is a new flag and it is a self-designation
by contrast with the other ‘labels’ presented here. The term
has been introduced in the United States in the course of the
eighties21: it points originally to studies of foreign policies
by means of discourse analysis. This approach is embed-
19Not to be confused with the special issue of Mani`ere de voir (whose
editor is Boniface) published the same year by Le Monde diplomatique
(whose director is Ramonet) with the same title: G´eopolitique du chaos.
Ramonet’s book has been published in English in 1998.
20For example in the title Geopolitics and Geoculture for a collection
of articles by Immanuel Wallerstein (1991); Eronen, 1998, or the addition
of ‘geopolitics’ in the English title of translated works such as the inviting
Blue Geopolitics about the United Nations (Fisas, 1995; see also: Serbin,
1990, and Chorbajian et al., 1994).
21The oldest mention of the term I have found was the title of the
PhD thesis defended by G. ´O Tuathail (1989) Critical geopolitics: the social
construction of state and place in the practice of statecraft (Syracuse
University, New York).
ded in the post-structuralism of French philosophers such as
Jacques Derrida and Michel Foucault in which discourses
are deconstructed. Geopolitical perceptions are problematised,
knowledge and discourses about the geographical
features of international relations are the very research object.
This approach belongs to a broad school of post-modern
social sciences involved in discourse analysis. One of the
authoritative authors in this subfield, Gearóid Ó Tuathail22
distinguishes three dimensions to critical geopolitics: the
deconstruction of geopolitical traditions, the deconstruction
of contemporary discourses and the exploration of the
meaning of spatial concept such as ‘place’ and ‘politics’
(Ó Tuathail, 1994b). Ó Tuathail and Dalby (1998b) identify
three kinds of geopolitics: popular geopolitics (in mass
media, cinema, novels or cartoons), practical geopolitics
(foreign policy, bureaucracy, political institutions) and formal
geopolitics (strategic institutes, think tanks, academia)
all three contributing to the spatialising of boundaries and
dangers (the geopolitical map of the world) and the geopolitical
representations of self and other (the geopolitical
imagination).
Critical geopolitics focus at first and foremost on the
geopolitical arguments in the foreign policy of the United
States. In Creating the Second Cold War, the Discourse of
Politics (1990) Simon Dalby analyses the arguments of those
who agitated against the détente in the US at the beginning
of the eighties. After the détente activated by the Republican
President Nixon and his Foreign Affairs Secretary Henry
Kissinger, a new ‘freezing’ was advocated. Dalby examines
in the first place the publications of a lobby group called
the Committee on the Present Danger which was influential
during the presidency of Ronald Reagan.
In Critical geopolitics, The politics of writing global
space (1996), Gearóid Ó Tuathail reviews the history of the
geopolitical tradition. He opens his book with the ‘geographical
invention’ of Ireland in the English geographical imagination,
to illustrate the power of discourses. After two introductory
chapters on geopolitics in which Mackinder gets the
leading part23 and on critical geopolitics, he deals with several
geopolitical constructions: Mackinder and the British
Empire, the American discourses on German Geopolitik
during the second World War, critics of the classical and
the neoclassical geopolitics such as Wittfogel, Lacoste or
Dalby (partly published earlier in Ó Tuathail, 1994d), the
American vision on Bosnia at the beginning of the nineties
and the American visions and vertigo by which he describes
the quest for a new vision on global relations, such as the
alarming analyses by Edward Luttwak on the decline of the
United States (see above) and by Samuel Huntington on the
clash between the Western and other civilisations (Huntington,
1993, 1996). Ó Tuathail had exposed the ‘geo-economic
discourse’ at an earlier occasion, with reference to the Amer-
22Gerald Toal is the English transcription of this Irish name which he
reclaims.
23Mahan, and Spykman, but also Ratzel, Kjell´en and Haushofer are
presented under the heading ‘other productions of global space’ ( ´O Tuathail,
1996, pp. 35–53).
245
ican perception of the Japanese danger (Ó Tuathail, 1992,
1993a).
Slightly different is John Agnew’s attempt to revisioning
geopolitics. In Mastering Space: Hegemony, territory
and international political economy John Agnew and
Stuart Corbridge (1995) present new geopolitics. At the core
of their reinterpretation, lies the idea that the territorial state
is not an a-historical (or trans-historical) entity, and that
international relations should be studied in their historical
context. In the first part of the book, they present a somewhat
simple periodisation of global relations. They posit
three world orders: the Concert of Europe (1815–1875),
the British geopolitical order (1875–1945) and the geopolitical
order of the inter-imperial rivalry (1945–1990). Each
world order fits a specific geopolitical discourse, which they
label civilizational geopolitics, naturalized geopolitics, respectively
ideological geopolitics (see also Agnew, 1998,
chapter 5). In the second part of their book, they deal with
the contemporary geopolitical disorder and the question of
the American decline, also discussing possible competitors
(Germany, Japan, China and the European Union).
Their conclusion illustrates the limitations of state centred
thinking: things are going bad for the American territorial
economy, but the American companies are booming. We
should talk about international affairs (crossing state borders)
and not any more about international relations between
states. Finally Agnew and Corbridge submit in the third part
the ingredients of a new geopolitical discourse that would fit
this new world order, a surprising turn in a critical study.
Ó Tuathail and Luke (1994) labels this new order
transnational liberalism and the fitting discourse enlargement
geopolitics. For Ó Tuathail the geopolitical orders
and discourses distinguished by Agnew (1998, Agnew and
Corbridge, 1995) are all modern geopolitics. He complements
this classification of modern geopolitics, with a new
category: postmodern geopolitics, using Luke’s model of
three geopolitical natures (1994): agrarian antiquity, modern
industrial capitalism, postmodern informational capitalism.
Modern and postmodern geopolitics differs on how global
space is represented (maps vs. GIS), how it is divided
(East/West vs. Jihad/McWorld), how global power is conceptualised,
how global threats are spatialised and how
major actors are identified (geopolitical man, states and
leaders vs. networks and cyborgs) (Ó Tuathail, 1998b). In
another article, the new fast geopolitics (a geopolitical imagination
based on flows) is opposed to mass geopolitics (a
geopolitical imagination centred on territorial mass) underlining
tensions between acceleration and containment (Luke
and Ó Tuathail, 1998).
Two special issues devoted to critical geopolitics have
been published in the authoritative scientific journal Environment
and Planning D Society and Space (1994, vol. 12
no. 5) and Political Geography (1996, vol. 15, no. 6/7),
both featuring Simon Dalby and Gearóid Ó Tuathail as
guest editors. The contributions are very diverse but they all
problematise the relation between geographical knowledge
and power (Dalby and Ó Tuathail, 1996). These authors
have also co-edited The Geopolitics Reader (Ó Tuathail
et al. 1998)24 and two collections of papers: An unruly
world? (Herod et al., 1998) and in Rethinking Geopolitics
(Ó Tuathail and Dalby, 1998a). In the meantime, the school
is firmly established and it is presented as such in the most
recent political geography textbooks (Anderson et al., 1995;
Muir, 1997; Agnew, 1997).
Authors that can be counted under the heading critical
geopolitics are working in the first place on the contemporary
discourses that justify the foreign policy of the United
States (Ó Tuathail and Agnew, 1992, Ó Tuathail, 1992,
1993a, b; Dalby, 1988, 1990a, b; Sidaway, 1994; Weber,
1994) , but also the foreign policy of other states, such as
the United Kingdom, especially about the Falklands war
(Dodds, 1993b, 1994a, b, 1996, 1998), South American
states (Dodds, 1993a, 1994c) and other states in the Southern
Oceanic Rim (Dodds, 1997) especially South-Africa
(Dodds, 1994c), Namibia (Simon, 1996), New-Zealand
(Dalby, 1993) and Australia (Dalby, 1996c). Geopolitical
discourses from the past are fascinating too (Crampton
and Ó Tuathail, 1996; Bassin, 1996) whereas Clarke
et al. analyse the meaning of the Endlösung in the light
the lack of Lebensraum established by German geopolitics
(Clarke et al., 1996; Doel and Clarke, 1998; see also
Bassin, 1987). Paasi analyses the changing perception of
the Finnish-Russian border in Finland (Paasi, 1995), Gibson
the indigenous self-determination in Australia (1998, 1999).
And Tyner addresses the relations between geopolitics and
eugenics in the case of Japanese Americans after Pearl Harbour
(Tyner, 1998). Attention is also paid to international
actors and arenas such as the IMF (Popke, 1994), the environmental
top in Rio (Dalby, 1996a), international trade
union geopolitics and geo-economics (Herod, 1998), as well
as global issues such as global trade (Corbridge and Agnew
1991), geo-governance (Roberts, 1998 on globalizationfrom-above
and globalization-from-below), world order
(Agnew and Corbridge, 1989, 1995), (Cold) war (Stephanson,
1998), global security (Dalby, 1998), cyberspace
(Der Derian, 1998; Luke, 1998; Herod, 1998; Luke and
Ó Tuathail, 1998) and the related notion of global flowmations
as ‘structured events flowing in-formation under
high-speed acceleration’ (Luke and Ó Tuathail, 1998, p. 73).
Besides policy acts and speeches by politicians and
diplomats, ample attention is paid to the mass media25, e.g.,
the construction the outside world in the Reader’s Digest
(Sharp, 1993, 1996; see also Dodds 1996, 1998; Dalby,
1996a; Myers et al., 1996; Sidaway, 1998; and Sharp, 1998
on American movies). Other topics include international migrations
as threats (Tesfahuney, 1998), discourses on local
workfare as opposed to federal welfare in US (Peck, 1998).
Many contributions deal with the theoretical bases of
critical geopolitics (Ó Tuathail and Dalby, 1994; Dodds
and Sidaway, 1994; Ó Tuathail, 1994b, c, d; Dalby and
Ó Tuathail, 1996; Dalby, 1991), the connections with ‘development
theory’ (Slater, 1993, 1994; Ó Tuathail, 1994a)
24See the review elsewhere in this volume.
25The deconstruction of the representation of mainland Chinese
women in the media in Taiwan and Hong Kong by Shih (1998) has no direct
connection to critical geopolitics.
246
or ‘gender theory’ (Dalby, 1994; Sparke, 1996) the meaning
of key concepts such as territoriality and sovereignty after
the Cold War (Luke, 1996, 1998). In the special issue in Political
Geography (1996), Ó Tuathail and Dalby are involved
in a discussion about the correct deconstructivistic approach.
According to the first author, Dalby centres his analyses too
much on texts and neglects the institutional and material
context in which ‘geopolitical discourses’ are produced (Ó
Tuathail, 1996b, c; Dalby, 1996b).
Finally, the deconstructivistic approach has been applied
to internal conflicts regarding power and territory, e.g., political
culture (Bonura, 1998), national identities in Turkey
(Rygiel, 1998), the shaping of Finnish provinces (Häkli,
1998a, b), the Oklahoma bombing (Sparke, 1998), the territorial
tactics of the Los Angeles police department (Herbert,
1996, 1997), movements of resistance such as the Zapatista
insurgency in Chapias (Routledge, 1998; see also Routledge,
1994, 1996, 1997; Slater, 1997; also Dalby, 1991; Roberts,
1998), or urban segregation in South Africa (Robinson,
1997), whereas Charlesworth (1994) analyses discourses
about the commemoration of the holocaust.
The borderline between critical geopolitics and nongeopolitics
fades away as empirical political geographers
pay attention to the perceptions of geographical features,
respectively to power relations between political actors.
The other way round, the distinction evanesces when authors
analyse ‘geopolitical discourses’ not only as text but
also in the institutional and material context in which they
are formed and popularised. The separation between internal
and external affairs is then directly contested (see also
Rosenberg, 1994), as in the books by David Campbell about
the connection between foreign policy and national identity
(1992) and the ‘narratives’ over the Gulf War (1994).
Both types of ‘academic’ political geographers join efforts
in several collections of essays (e.g., O’Loughlin, 1994; and
Demko and Wood, 1994) and special issues of academic
journals (Geopolitics 3:1).
In a book published in 1996, National Identity and
Geopolitical Visions, Maps of Pride and Pain, the Dutch
political geographer Gert-Jan Dijkink explores the connection
between national identity and geopolitical visions. A
geopolitical vision is an idea about the relation between the
own place and the rest of the world (Dijkink, 1996, p. 11).
A geopolitical vision contains for example naturalised territorial
borders, a core area, a geopolitical code (friends
and foes), a model, a national mission and/or impersonal
forces (1996, pp. 12–14). Dijkink portrays the transformation
of geopolitical visions in the context of the geography
and the history of a state. A great virtue of this book is that it
presents eight ‘stories’: we call on Germany, Great-Britain,
the United States (twice because we also travel in time),
Argentina, Australia, Russia, Serbia, Iraq and India. It is
striking that in this book and in many analyses of discourses,
maps are rarely used to illustrate the content of ‘geopolitical
discourses’ or ‘visions’, instead reproductions of political
cartoons representing leaders or enemies are more likely to
be included. This is surprising when compared to the influence
Lacoste and associates confer to maps in geopolitical
discourses and the extensive use of maps by authors working
in the three other geopolitical perspectives.
Maps themselves have been put under critical review, yet
by non-geopolitical authors (Atkinson, 1995; and more generally
Bell et al., 1995; Herb, 1997, 1989; Schultz, 1989;
see also Retaillé, 1996, for a critique of taken for granted
uses of maps in geopolitical approaches by both Lacoste and
Garaud).
Conclusion
This overview has presented the varied uses of the term
‘geopolitics’. In all cases, geopolitics are about power and
space, usually about the state and its territory, often about
power relations between states. Four categories of geopolitical
perspectives have been introduced (Table 1) to present
the many approaches encountered. Of course, this scheme
arbitrarily reduces diversity but it works well, even if the
distinction is sometimes fading away (especially between
the two active types, between the two academic types, and
between the two state centred types).
Striking is the vitality of geopolitics in France, especially
the neo-classical and the subversive variants, and to a lesser
degree non-geopolitics, whereas non-geopolitics and critical
geopolitics take root in the United States and the United
Kingdom. By contrast, the term geopolitics is hardly used
in the Netherlands or Germany.
In the different approaches, all core elements of classical
geopolitics are knocked into pieces. Even the very existence
of the state as a territorial construct is challenged: some
authors think that state borders do not amount to anything
much in the global economy, or that states are undermined
by the rise of supranational and subnational authorities,
whereas others consider that the feature of the state as identity
construct is much more important than its territorial
component. And the views regarding the actual geopolitical
(dis)order diverge too, although there is a common and
growing attention for the economic competition between
states. Correspondingly geoeconomics supersedes more and
more often geostrategy as the twin sister of geopolitics.
Journals
Geopolitics and International Boundaries (1995–), since
1999: Geopolitics.
Géopolitique, Revue de l’institut international de géopolitique
(1982–).
Géopolitique, Review of the International Institute of Geopolitics
(1982–).
Hérodote: Stratégies-géographies-idéologies (1976–), since
1982: Hérodote: revue de géographie et de géopolitique.
Hérodote/Italia (1978–1982), then Erodoto, Problemi di
geografia (1982–1984).
LiMes: rivista italiana di geopolitica (1993–).
LiMes: revue française de géopolitique (1996–).
247
Political Geography Quarterly (1982–), since 1992: Political
Geography.
Revue française de géoéconomie (1997–).
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