800px-Europe,_1700_-_1714.png *Charles VI (*1685–1740) •A dynastic crisis - no living male heirs •1713 –Pragmatic Sanction •A law which ensured the succession by female family members if there were no male heirs. Ensuring the indivisibility of the Habsburg Empire (Austrian Lands, the Lands of Bohemian Crown and Hungary) - the Habsburg ruler ruled as a hereditary sovereign; recognized by most European governments as an iternationally valid document •The re-Catholization pressure increased •1737–1739 – war with Ottoman Empire * 250px-Karel_VI.jpg •Edict issued by Roman Emperor Charles VI *(to ensure that the Austrian throne and Habsburg lands could be inherited by his daughter) vShe married Francis Stephen of Lorraine (Holy Roman Emperor since 1745, women could not become Holy Romane Emperor) vThey had 16 children, 13 of them survived vHer right to rule was based on the Pragmatic Sanction, but after Charles’ death some European rulers challenged its validity and presented their claims to Habsburg Lands → •The War of Austrian Succession in 1740–1748 •She managed to defend almost her entire heritage but it was clear that it is necessary to put a big effort into perfecting the army and reforms of the state •Seven Years´ War (1756–1763) - Frederick II invaded Bohemia but in the end the Prussians were pushed from Bohemia * •Since the mid-1760s Maria Theresa could finally focus on the consolidation and modernization – enlightened reforms •Formation of new administration and the new institutions and beraucratic machinery •She decided to transform the complex multinational dominion into a compact state which was to be a state unified on legal, ideological and later also linguistic levels (germanisation) •It supposed to be politically and economically strong state, centrally and efficiently managed by qualified people (important – education, experiences and personal abilities, not the social status) •The administration was centralised (this concerned only Austria and Bohemia, not Hungary: many privileges for its help during the War of Austrian Succession → this ensured different development) * vHygiene and medical services reforms: • •Better health care •Hospitals •Vaccination – but distrust •Urban sanitation measures→ population increase •Gerard van Swieten studied the problem of infant mortality * * * vEducation system reforms: • •Obligatory school attendance for children from 6 to 12 years old •Schools under the state control, unified curriculum •Universities also under the state control, new study programmes – economics, technical sciences * * schulreform.gif Reading class vLegal reforms: * •Equality before the law was declared •Humanization of punishments – torture dissapeared from court procedures, capital punishment was temporarily abolished in 1780s •1769 – Maria Theresa´s Penal Code •1786 – General Civil Code •1787 – Joseph II´s Penal Code * vTax reforms: * •Land register and tax and urbarial reforms, universal land tax, which was to be paid by all the population (earlier the aristocracy and the church had been exempted from the taxes) •Uniformed units of size and weight, unification of currency, extensive road network, abolished customs barriers between the provincies – the trade became much easier * vMilitary reforms: * •Equality before the law was declared •Humanization of punishments – torture dissapeared from court procedures, capital punishment was temporarily abolished in 1780s •1769 – Maria Theresa´s Penal Code •1786 – General Civil Code •1787 – Joseph II´s Penal Code * * •In the Czech Lands since mid- 18th century, the peak during Joseph II´s reign, sometimes also called “josephinism“ •Centres of enligtened life – noble salons and Masonic lodges – enlightened state clerks and army officers focused on charity •1784 – the Bohemian Society of Sciences – focused on natural and historical sciences •The Bohemian Enlightment and science was linguistically mostly German * •The eldest son of Maria Theresa and Francis Stephen of Lorraine, born in 1741 •Well educated, diligent •Popular ruler •Often traveled incognito (Duke of Falkenstein) – tried to meet people and listen to their opinions •Patron of the arts •Holy Roman Emperor since 1764 •None of his children survived, married twice * * •Censorhip was loosened, not completely freedom of speech, but citizens could comment on domestic political matters •He tried to reform highly conservative Catholic church: the church was put under state control, its property was taxed; education of the priests was controlled by the state; the priest were in charge of educational and administrative activities – administered population registires, executed medical supervision etc. •Joseph II dissolved those monasteries which were not engaged in activities beneficial to either state or citizens – education, healthcare or charity (so those which were begging were cancelled) • •1781 – Joseph II´s Toleration Patent – granted freedom of religion to non-Catholic denominations: Orthodox, Calvinist and Lutheran • •The era of state promoted re-Catholization was definitely over •Later in 1780s the rights were also applied to the Jews, who also became the equal citizens * •1781 – Serfdom Patent (abolished restricions and granted the serfs personal freedom, they became equal citizens) •1785–1789 – Josephine land register •The taxation was based on real economic conditions – quality of the soil, types of plantation, other necessary expenses •The Enlightened state reforms, particularly the changes intorduced by Emperor Joseph II, did not meet with a universaly possitive response; especially the nobility refused to accept the loss of its political possition, privileges and power over the peasants, but many people had problem with state control of the church and of the life in general, they did not like interventions into folk customs and religious traditions •Some of his reforms were cancelled after his death – his brother Leopold II (*1747–1792) who succeeded him was under the heavy pressure of the nobility and the church * marie-terezie.jpg josef2.jpg * * 618px-Eyalet_of_temesvar1699.png •In the second half of the 17th century – Hungary was an unstable region with several anti-Habsburg rebellions •A multi-national feudal state •1699 – Peace Treaty of Karlowitz with Ottoman Empire – most of Hungarian areas liberated from Ottomans •Personal union with Austria •Many nationalities – Magyars only 40 % of inhabitants but they rose to a dominant position early in the 18the century (Slovaks, Croats, Serbs, Romanians, Jews etc.) •Strong magyarization pressure in Hungary since the of 18th century (Hungarian the only official language in administrative, at schools etc.) * •Slovakia was a part of Hungary from 10th century till 1918 •After the battle of Mohács (1526) Hungary split into three parts •Slovakia remained under under Habsburg control and became the centre of the political, cultural and economic life of the Kingdom of Hungary – Bratislava was the capital of Hungary •16th century – the Lutheran religious reformation spread into Slovakia •Strong position of catholic Church – persecutions of the Protestants (Lutherans, Hussites etc.) •Many religious uprisings and conspiracies in Slovakia during the second half of 16th century •Very poor * •After Thirty Years´ War the European power structure was rearranged •The Holy Roman Empire was fragmented into many territories (360 states) - de facto they were sovereign and had their own rulers - this limited the power of the Holy Roman, the power of the Emperor was very weak, the Empire Diet did not work in fact •The Holy Roman Empire had no army, no central autority * 736px-HRR_1789_EN.png •After the Thirty Years´ War the Kingdom of Prussia in the North- Eastern part of the Holy Roman Empire started to grow and politicaly strenghten, the rulers were coming from the House of Hohenzollern •Prince Elector Frederick William (*1620–1688) – ecomonical reforms, strong power of the ruler •Frederick III (*1657–1713) - crowned as King Frederick I •The capical city was Berlin – rebuilt, administrative and cultural centre of the state •Frederick William I (*1688–1740) – called the Soldier King, thrifty, practical, good ruler; creator of the Prussian bureaucracy and the professionalized standing army → the best army in Europe • *Frederick II (*1712 – 1786) – the Great, the King of Prussia •Was succesful reformer •Practised enlightened absolutism •Introduced a General Civil Code, abolished torture •Promoted an advanced secondary education •Supported science and arts – according to the French example he built the Chateau Sanssouci •He used the power of his army to conquer Silesia, which was the richest province of Habsburg Monarchy; in 1740, Prussian troops crossed over the undefended border of Silesia and the so called Silesian Wars began (1740–1763) •These wars had been groped with the War of Austrian Succession (1740–1748) • graff_friedrich_II_9999.jpg •3rd largest state in Europe till 1770s, Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth – it was very difficult to govern such a large country; many nations and many confessions •Great influence of Russia in 18th century – the Russian Tsars installed Polish kings in fact – firstly the Saxony dynasty and later the Russian Empress Catherine the Great installed the last Commonwealth King Stanisław August Poniatowski (1764–1795) •The general decline of Poland was used by its neighbouring states – Prussia, Russia and Habsburg Monarchy and resulted in the Partition of Poland in the second half of the 18th century * v1st partition – 1772 •Poland lost 1/3 of land and 1/3 of inhabitants •The reform magnates wanted to save Poland by introducing some reforms and the constitution •The Polish Constitution was the first written constitution in Europe but the pro-Russian conservative Polish magnates, the Confederation of Targowica, fought against Polish forces supporting the constitution which were defeated * * v2nd partition of Poland – 1793 •Prussia named its newly gained province South Prussia •The last attempt to save at least the rest of Poland was the Kościuszko Uprising in 1794 – the leader Tadeusz Kościuszko •The uprising was organized by nobility and burghers, the peasants did not allied •The Russians allied with Prussia and the uprising was totaly defeated * v3rd partition – 1795 – the rest of Poland divided between Russia and Prussia v •Results of the Partition of Poland: •To Russia: Latvia, Lithuania, Belarus, great part of the Ukraine •To Habsburg Monarchy: Lesser Poland, the Kingdom of Galicia, city of Cracow, City of Lwow •To Prussia: Greater Poland with the City of Poznan, Mazuria with Warsaw • •Poland dissapeared from the map of Europe till 1918. * * * 765px-Partitions_of_Poland.png *TAPIÉ, Victor Lucien. The rise and fall of the Habsburg monarchy. London: Pall Mall Press, 1971. *HUBATSCH, Walther. Frederick the Great of Prussia: absolutism and administration. London: Thames and Hudson, 1975. *MAC DONOGH, Giles. Frederick the Great: A Life in Deed and Letters. New York: St. Martin's Griffin, 2001. * vNapoleon by Jacqoues-Louis David 504px-Jacques-Louis_David_008.jpg •1789 – the French Revolution broke out •1792–1815 – anti-French wars •1792–1802 – the wars against the French Revolution •Several coaliations against France (Austria + Prussia + Great Britain + Russia + several smaller German states against France), several military campaigns •1803–1805 – Napoleon’s Invasion - Great Britain - unsuccesfull •1804 – Napoleon Bonaparte crowned the Emperor of France •March 1805 – Napoleon was proclaimed: King of Italy •Than he marched via Bavaria towards Austria - French army occupied Vienna – it was a big shock for the Austrians * • •http://www.ceskatelevize.cz/ivysilani/10099029347/ •http://www.austerlitz.org/ •http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mdd1a90CFio •http://www.zamek-slavkov.cz/en/ * •Napoleon continued to South Moravia where the Russian troops supporting the Austrians were situated •Napoleon occupied Brno •December 2, 1805 – the Battle of Three Emperors near the Moravian town of Slavkov (Austerlitz) – a great victory of Napoleon – he defeated Emperor Francis I and Russian Tzar Alexandr •Napoleon had 73 000 men, austro-russian coalition had 85 000 men •Peace Treaty of Pressburg between Napoleon and Francis II of Austria (Austrian withdrawal from the Third Coalition) •Austria lost terriotories in Italy, Istria and Dalmacia (Iliric Kingdom was formed) and some German terriories – ceded to Napoleon’s allies (Bavaria) •The effective end of the Holy Roman Empire •1806 – Austrian Empire – Francis I •Rhineland Confederation was formed in German territory * * * * slavkov_let.jpg slavkov_mohyla.jpg vNapoleonic wars has brought many changes into the CE vOctober 14, 1806 – Napoleon defeated Prussia at the battle of Jena and Auerstad •1806 – Berlin was occupied by Napoleon •Napoleon invaded Polish territory – wars with Russians •1807 – Treaty of Tilsit with Russians and Prussians: Grand Duchy of Warsaw was established in Poland (Duke – Napoleon’s ally – the King of Saxony) – big impact – legal code, abolition of serfdom, modernization v1809 – Austro-British Coalition against France – uncuccesfull v1809 – Napoleon entered Vienna again •1809 – Napoleon married Austrian Archduchess Marie Luisa - with the aim of ensuring a more stable alliance with Austria and of providing the Emperor with an heir v1812 – Napoleon controlled: French Empire, Swiss Confederation, Confederation of the Rhine, Duchy of Warsaw and Kingdom of Italy * * •Territories allied with the French included: Kingdom of Spain (Joseph Bonaparte – N. brother), Kingdom of Westphalia (Jerome Bonaparte – N. brother, Kingdom of Naples (Joachim Murat – N.sister’s Caroline husband), Principality of Lucca (N.sister Elisa and her husband) v1812 – Napoleon launched an invasion of Russia – 650,000 men, but unsuccesful – Russians – the Patriotic War, Scorched Earth tactics, severe winter •7 September 1812 – Battle of Borodino •Napoleon entered Moscow – mas burnt by Russians before that •November 1812 – Napoleon crossed the Berezina River, but his army weak (380,000 men dead or missing, 100,000 captured during the campain) •Napoleon had left his army and escaped to Paris v1813 – the Battle of Leipzig – the Battle of the Nations – Austria, Prussia, Russia, Sweden against France – Napoleon defeated and forced to abdicate v1814–1815: Peace Congress in Vienna •Interrupted by Napoleon – June 1815 – the Battle of Waterloo – Napoleon finaly defeated vThe Napoleonic wars changed the map of Central Europe * 800px-Europe_1812_map_en.png * *Readings: * *Lefebvre, Georges (1971). The French Revolution: From Its Origins to 1793. Columbia University Press. *Furet, Francois (1995). Revolutionary France, 1770–1880. Blackwell Publishing. *Englund, Steven (2004): Napoleon: A political Life. * •Francis II (1792 – 1836), since 1804 ruled as the Austrian Emperor Francis I •Austrian Empire (1804 – 1867) • Since 1806 Austrian Empire – Austria, Kingdom of Bohemia and Hungary –Habsburg territory in CE •Era of Absolutism •1st minister – Prince Klemens Wenzel von Metternich – convinced conservative monarchist – Metternich Absolutism •1811 – General Civil Code - compromis between old and new ideologies •1811 – devastating collpase of the state finances in February (paper currency was devalued to one fifth of its original value) * * * *What is absolutism? * •Political system and theory of government •King (or Queen) is all-powerful and possesses a monopoly on the use of force and the administration of justice •The ultimate authority to run a state was in the hands of a king who ruled by divine right (i. e. a King/Queen was given his/her position by some higher power – by God) *The prerequisites for absolutism: 1. The King (or Queen) has an orderly and efficient bureaucracy where all power and directives flow downward from the monarch. * 2. The King (or Queen) has a large standing army with which to enforce his (or her) will. * 3. The power of any other groups or traditional institutions is suppressed, especially the power of the nobility as a class. * 4. Absolute government is costly and usually requires heavy taxation for support. * 5. Absolute government depends heavily for its success on strong personality traits in the King (or Queen) as a personal symbol of the state/country. * * vEmperor Francis and his Family by J. Kreutzinger Josef_Kreutzinger_-_Kaiserliche_Familie.jpg •Congress of Vienna •Conference of ambassadors of European states chaired by Klemens Wenzel von Metternich, and held in Vienna from September, 1814 to June, 1815 •The aim – finishing the wars with France and restauration of old principles – the situation before the revolution (no revolutions, no republicanism, lesser civil rights etc.) •4 Great Powers: Russia (Tzar Alexandr I, Foreign Minister Count Carl Robert Nesselrode), Prussia (King Frederick William III, Chancellor Karl August von Hardenberg), Austria (Emperor Francis I., the Foreign Minister Prince Metternich) and Great Britain (Foreign Secretary Viscount Castelreagh, later Duke of Wellington) •Surprisingly important role of defeated France – thanks to Ministre of Foreign Affairs Maurice de Talleyrand – a very good diplomat • vThe Congress of Vienna was not only a political congress but also a festive event with concerts, dances, hunting and coursing etc . Due to that it is sometimes called “A Dancing Congress“. Congres 4.jpg •The Final Act – June 1815: •Russia was given most of the Duchy of Warsaw (so called Congress Poland was formed) and was allowed to keep Finland (annexed from Sweden in 1809) •Prussia was given 2/5 of Saxony, parts of the Duchy of Warsaw, Danzig, and the Rhineland/Westphalia. •German Confederation of 38 states was created from the previous 360 of the Holy Roman Empire, under the presidency of the Austrian Emperor, to coordinate the economies of separate German-speaking countries •United Kingdom of the Netherlands was established •Neutrality of Switzerland was guaranteed •The Bourbon Ferdinand IV, King of Sicily was restored to control of the Kingdom of Naples •The slave trade was condemned * vClement Wenceslas Nepomuk Lothar von Metternich-Winneburg-Beilstein (*1773 – 1859) Portrait-of-Klemens-Lothar-Wenzel-von-Metternich.jpg Map_congress_of_vienna.jpg •So called The Concert of Europe, also known as the Congress System or Vienna System – it was the network of treaties, institutions and practices that should ensure the balance of power that existed in Europe from the end of the Napoleonic Wars (1815) to the outbreak of World War I (1914) •1815 – Quadruplle Aliance was established – the winners over Napoleon (United Kingdom, Austria, Prussia, Russia) •1815 – Holy Alliance was signed by Russian Tzar, Austrian Emperor and Prussian King – the aim of this document was to implement the Christian values and principles into the political life, the moral principles were emphasized, the main goal was again the cooperation against revolutionary, liberal and democratic movements; later it was signed by almost all European rulers, except those from Scandinavia, Ottoman Sultan and the Pope, Great Britain left the system of the Holy Alliance in 1822 •1818 – the occupation of France was finished – France acceded the Quadrupple Alliance → the Quintupple Alliance was established •The meetings of the Great Powers during this period: Aachen (1818), Carlsbad (1819), Verona (1822), London (1832), Berlin (1878) vRebirth of national spirits * *The first wave of the national movements – 1820s: •German states •Italian states * *The second wave of national movements in 1830s: •Almost all Europe •Started in France (against extremly conservative king Charles X) , then spread to Belgium, to Italy and to other states * vPoland •After Napoleonic wars and the Congress of Vienna there were three states in Poland: •Semi-autonomous so-called Congress Poland controlled by Russia – it was united with Russia through a personal union •Semi-autonomous Grand Duchy of Poznań controlled by Prussia •Semi-autonomous Kingdom of Galicia and Sandomer controlled by Austria * 605px-Congress_Poland_in_1815.PNG •Outbreak of the uprising – 29 November 1830 in Warsaw •On 25 January 1831, the Sejm passed the Act of Dethronization of Tsar Nicolas I and ended the personal union with Russia •On 29 January 1831 Prince Adam Czartoryzski became President of the new Polish National Government •Russians formed very strong army and defeated Polish army at the Battle of Ostrolenka in May 1831 •Polish Uprising was supressed → cruel persecution succeded, the leaders of the uprising were sentenced to death so they emigrated •Cosequence of the vawe of national movements during the 1830s – the collapse of the Holy Alliance * •General economic depression spread from England to the rest of Europe in mid-1840s •Bad harvest, potato blight and drought in 1846 → famine •Strong influence of industrial revolution on politics •Bourgeouisie (owners of factories, businessmen) had money but only small political influence •Bad living conditions of working classes • •Revolution started in January 1848 in Italy (Sicily) – against the Bourbons •February 1848 – revolution in France – ended Constitutional Monarchy of Louis Phillipe of Orleans • •March Revolution – southern and western parts, was led by well educated students and intellectuals +there were also many mass demonstrations •There were 39 states – demand of German national unity •Wanted civil rights •2 conceptions: •" Greater German solution" (including German-speaking areas of Austria) •" Smaller German solution" •March 1849 - the new German constitution was proclaimed •They decided to proclaim constitutional monarchy – the crown was offered to Prussian king Frederick William IV – refused to accept the crown from the hands of revolutionary parliament •The new constituion was refused by most of the German rulers •The revolution was unsuccesful *Ferdinand I (*1793–1875) •Weak ruler, mentally challenged, the real ruler of the monarchy was conservative Klemens Wenzel von Metternich •So called pre-March period - restricted freedom of the press, of the speech, of association; limited many university activities, strong censorship, police control •A. Empire - ruled from Vienna, included Austrian Germans, Hungarians, Slovenes, Poles, Czechs, Croats, Slovaks, Ukrainians, Romanians, Serbs and Italians → all of them wanted to either achieve autonomy, independence, or even hegemony over other nationalities → *Rebirth of the national spirits among the nationalities of the Habsburg Monarchy * * •The first unrests in Prague in March 1848 •Conception of Austro-Slavism (political concept and program aimed to solve problems of Slavic peoples; Austro-Slavism envisioned peaceful cooperation between the smaller Slavic nations of CE within the Habsburg Monarchy not dominated by German-speaking elites) •June 1848 – Pan-Slav Congress was held in Prague under the leadership of the historian František Palacký •Pan-Slavism - movement that recognized a common ethnic background among the various Slav peoples of Eastern and CE and sought to unite those peoples for the achievement of common cultural and political goals. The Pan-Slav movement originally was formed in the first half of the 19th century by West and South Slav intellectuals, scholars, and poets, whose peoples were at that time also developing their sense of national identity. The Pan-Slavists engaged in studying folk songs, folklore, and peasant vernaculars of the Slav peoples, in demonstrating the similarities among them, and in trying to stimulate a sense of Slav unity. As such activities were conducted mainly in Prague, that city became the first Pan-Slav centre for studying Slav antiquities and philology. •Discussions whether the Slavs should support federated Austria or work to hasten its dissolution – but no decision •Uprising in June – supressed by an Austrian army led by Alfred I, Prince of Windisch-Grätz •March 1848 – revolution in Vienna •Metternich was removed from the office and escaped from Vienna •September 1848 – Emperor´s decree – the serfdom was completely cancelled (citizens got civil rights but the suffrage was not general) •October – new uprising in Vienna - supressed •December 1848 – Ferdinad I resigned, lived in Prague till 1875 vFranz Joseph I of Austria *(*1830–1916) * •Absolutism again •Constituonal experiments and autocratic measures •So called March/Stadion´s constitution *(was very centralist in nature, and it provided very strong power for the monarch, it also marked the way of the neo-absolutism in the Habsburg ruled territories; but it never came into force and was formally canceled on 31 December 1851 by New Year's Patents; some of its principles: in particular equality before the law, abolition of the allegiance, civil law, or municipal self-government, remained after its annulment) * * * 439px-Franz_Joseph_1865.jpg •March 1848 – revolution also in Hungary •12 Demands – among others: authonomy, control over its foreign policy, budget and army, general taxes,… •Vienna government, under the pressure of the Revolutionary Forces, agreed to establish a responsible Hungarian ministry - it was the beginning of the revolution that had become a war of independence •Hungary was multinational (Slovaks, Croats, Rumanians, Ruthenians, Serbs, Germans etc.) •1848 – Demands of the Slovak Nation – first Slovak political program demanding national and territorial authonomy within Hungary - their demands were refused (no politic, no national rights) so they (together with other non-Hungarian nations in Hungary) fought against Hungarians •April 1849 – Independent Hungarian state was proclaimed •Franz Joseph asked Russian Tzar for a help against Hungarian revolt •13 August 1849 – Battle of Villágos – Hungary was defeated → repressions • •After the defeat of revolution movement in Habsburg monarchy → conservative absolutism again •The ruler – Emperor •1851 – Constitution was cancelled – neoabsolutism was introduced •The main personality – Prime Minister Alexander Bach → Bach’s absolutism/neo-absolutism (he centralized administrative authority, also endorsed reactionary policies that reduced freedom of the press and abandoned public trials. He represented later the Absolutist direction, which culminated in the concordat of August 1855 that gave the Roman Catholic Church control over education and family life) → Police regime, centralism, control of public life, strict censorship, political rights cancelled •Kept – equality before the law, freedom of religion and cancellation of the serfdom •Economic reforms * * * *Foreign policy – unsuccesful * •Neutrality in Crimean War 1853–1856 •Originally a conflict between Ottoman Empire and Russia – the dispute for protection of the rights of Christians in the Holy Land (controlled by Ottoman Empire) •Russia wanted to use the decline of the Ottoman Empire (“Sick man of Europe“) and take control over the straits Bosporus and Dardanells •November 1853 – Ottoman fleet destroyed by Russians at the Battle of Sinope •Great Britain+France declared the war against Russia and supported the Ottoman Empire, later also the Kingdom of Sardinia •Austrian Emperor agreed on intervention but did not support it - declared neutrality •1854 – the Russians advanced to the Danubian Principalities Wallachia and Moldavia, after their withdrawl their place in these Principalities was taken by the Austrians •1856 – Paris Peace Treaty – neutrality of the Black Sea and the straits •After the end of the war Austria had to return The danubian Principalities to the Ottoman Empire, practically they became independent •International Isolation of Habsburg Monarchy during and after the Crimean War * * crimean_war_1853-6_map.jpg •1859 – The war with Italy – Habsburgs were defeated and lost Lombardy (Nothern Italy); this war caused deep financial crisis in Habsburg Monarchy → this crisis and dissatisfaction with absolutism led to its end: *- Its main representatives headed by Alexander Bach were withdrawn *- 1860 – October Diploma – the new imperial code – was proclaimed *- 1861 – February – new constitution was instroduced, it was the beginning of Parliamentary Monarchy in the Austrian Empire • • • •1866 – Austrian-Prussian war •Austria was defeated •Austria lost its influence in Italy and in Germany •Internal weakness of Austrian Empire was shown •It was used by Hungarians – their representative count Julius Andrássy (1823–1890); they refused centralism but also federalism which proposed the Czech political representation •So called “ Ausgleich“ – a political compromise reached between west and east parts of Habsburg Monarchy in 1867 •The empire was devided into two parts: the border was the river Leithan between Austria and Hungary – the dual monarchy was established vCisleithania (Austrian lands, Bohemia, Moravia, Galicia and Bukovina, Adriatic lands – Dalmacia, Istria, Terst, Gorica) – domination of German nation vTranslaithania (Hungary, Upper Hungary – Slovakia, Transylvania, Croatia, Slavonia, Rijeka) – domination of Hungarian nation * •Austria-Hungary became an union of two states with different constitutions and political system, had common ruler – Emperor Franz Joseph I., common Ministry of War, Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Foreign Affairs; they were connected also economicaly – common currency, customs union and common legislative organ for common issues * •Different political development: vAustria – 1867 – liberal constitution, parliament monarchy – the power of the ruler was limited by parliament, the ministrers were responsible to the parliament which was approving the legislation and the taxes •The ruler was not responsible to parliament (the rest of absolutism) vHungary – no liberalization but centralisation, the only Hungarian nation, the only official language was hungarian, the other nations without any rights, high schools only in Hungarian language etc. * •The Czech political representation was dissatisfied with the situation – the political rights of Hungarians were accepted but of Czechs were not •Hungary obtained equality with Austria but the Bohemian Lands did not •The Bohemian politicians tried to change this situations many times but their politics were unsuccesful •The Czech hopes for restoration of their political rights received a severe blow •They started so called passive politics – they were boycotting Parliament session and the council meetings till 1878 •Then they adopted a new constructive political program •New political leaders – Karel Kramář and Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk • * • Austria-Hungary_map.svg.png •Empire of Austria (Cisleithania): *1.Bohemia, *2. Bukovina, *3. Carinthia, *4. Carniola, *5. Dalmatia, *6. Galicia, *7.Austrian Littoral, *8. Lower Austria, *9. Moravia, *10. Salzburg, *11. Silesia, *12. Styria, *13. Tyrol, *14. Upper Austria, *15. Vorarlberg; * •Kingdom of Hungary (Transleithania): *16. Hungary, *17. Croatia-Slavonia; * •Austrian Condominium: *18. Bosnia and Herzegovina. * *Readings: * *Evans, R. J. W. (ed.) (2000): The Revolutions in Europe 1848–1849. From Reform to Reaction. Oxford. *Okey, Robin (2001): The Habsburg Monarchy c. 1976–1918: From Enlightenment to Eclipse. London: Macmillan Press LTD. * •There were 8 smaller states in Italy - rulers - the Habsburgs, the Bourbons, the Pope •In the north-western part the most economicaly developed Kingdom of Sardinia and Piemont was situated, the home dynasty was ruling there – the House of Savoy – king Victor Emanuel II mediterranea4nunificationitaly1870.bmp •1859 - the war with Habsburg Monarchy •At the same time, the revolution in smaller states in central Italy broke out and the local pro-Habsburg rulers were everted •After the plebiscit these states were connected with Victor Emanuel’s state •The uprising led by legendary hero Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807–1882) – he led one thousand of men in red shirts to Palermo (Sicily), occupied it, in September they entered the city of Naples and defeated the army of king Francis (from the house of Bourbons), then Garibaldi gave his power to Victor Emanuel II and southern parts of Italy were unified with the nothern parts •March 1861 – the Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed in Torino •1866 – after Austrian-prussian war Veneto (the territory around the touwn of Venice) was connected with the Kingdom of Italy •1870 – Papal state with Rome was annexed by the Kingdom of Italy •1871 – Rome became the capital city of Italy •Victor Emanuel II ruled till 1878 * Victor Emanuel.jpg 507px-RegnoItalia1870.png 507px-Italia1859.png •Between 1849–1866 – the struggle between Austria and Prussia for domination in German states (German Confederation) •In Prussia the king William I (1861–1888, since 1871 the first German Emperor) •Since 1862 – the Prime Minister Otto von Bismarck – his target was to unify Germany „by blood and iron“ that means by army and military power and make Germany the strongest Empire in Europe •1866 – the alliance between Prussia and Italy – againsthabsburg Monarchy •Not all the German states wanted the unification – e. g. Bavaria - allied with Austria against Prussia * * 594px-Deutscher_Bund.svg.png •Austro-Prussian war broke out in 1866 •July 3rd 1866 battle of Sadová near Hradec Králové, 2nd greatest battle in Europe since the Battle of Leipzig in 1813 •Austria was defeated and lost some areas in Germany and Veneto in Italy hradec_kralove_img_big_01.jpg •German Confederation existing since 1815 was dissolved •Instead of that - North German Commonwealth was constituted – 21 states – customs union, common currency and common foreign policy – the first step to unification •Prussian king became the President of this Commonwealth and the commander-in-chef of the army •Prussia provoked France to declare war on Prussia in 1870 •France was defeated at the battle of Sedan in September 1870 – French king Napoleon III was captured what caused the fall of the French Empire and proclamation of the third republic •Paris was besieged since September 1870 till January 1871 •January 1871 – The German Empire was proclaimed * * 800px-Wernerprokla.jpg MapGermany1871.jpg •Germany annexed Alsace and Loraine - the richest French provinces •Germany became federation of 25 states (22 states + 3 cities) with its own representatives •Each state nominated its represesentative to the Senate (Bundesrat), the memers of the assembly (Bundestag) were voted – the suffrage was universal for all the men since 25 years •Germany became European and World Power with strong army and Imperial politics •William II (1859–1941) – last Prussian King and German Emperor * *Readings: * Breuilly, John (ed.): Nineteenth-Century Germany: Politics, Culture and Society 1780-1918. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997 and 2001.