A Cross-Linguistic
Guide to SignWriting®
A phonetic approach
Stephen Parkhurst
Dianne Parkhurst
A Cross-Linguistic Guide to SignWriting®
:
A phonetic approach
©2008 Stephen Parkhurst
Revision 2010
For use at SIL-UND courses during the summer of 2010.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, transmitted or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recorded or otherwise, without permission from the
authors.
Stephen and Dianne Parkhurst
E-mail: steve-dianne_parkhurst@sil.org
i
A note from the authors
SignWriting®, also known as Sutton Movement Writing for Sign Language, was
invented by Valerie Sutton in 1974. Over the years the system has changed significantly
and has gradually grown in acceptance and popularity in more than 30 countries. While
there are other writing systems and notation systems for writing signed languages, we
have not found any system that is as useful for writing accurately any sign or movement
(including all non-manual movements and expressions) with relative ease and speed. It is
also the only writing system that we have tried that is possible to read faster than one can
physically produce the signs (outpacing even photos and line drawings in ease and speed
of reading).
We have taken much of the material for this manual from a course we developed
for teaching SignWriting (SW) to Deaf adults in Spain. That course in Spain focused on
teaching the symbols of SW that are used in Spanish Sign Language (or LSE, for Lengua
de Signos Española) with a heavy focus on reading. It was developed as a 30-hour
course, in which the students were not expected to do much homework and much of the
in-class time was spent reading stories in LSE. The material was designed so that the
simplest and most common symbols were introduced first.
This manual differs from the original course materials in several ways. This is a
course for field linguists, not for Deaf signers of one particular language. As a result, this
book introduces a larger number of symbols with a focus on understanding the principles
behind the symbol formation. While this manual teaches far more handshapes than are
likely to appear in any given signed language, even so it is not an exhaustive study; it is
almost impossible to teach all the potential handshapes from all the signed languages of
the world. However, any handshape can be represented accurately, once one understands
the principles behind symbol formation.
This course primarily focuses on the phonetics of writing rather than the
phonology. In other words, we focus on details of a sign and not on how to simplify the
writing to reflect the system of a particular language. For example, in many languages
there may not be a meaningful distinction between a handshape with the thumb extended
and the same handshape with the thumb folded over. However, here we will teach all the
symbols and leave the task of consolidating non-distinctive symbols for the phonologists
and literacy specialists.
The literacy courses in Spain did not expect the students to do a lot of work
outside of class. Those courses also focused primarily on reading with less emphasis on
writing. Here, many more symbols have been added to the manual. As a result, the
student will be expected to do work outside of class, both studying this manual as well as
lots of writing practice. The goal of this course is, that by the end, students will be able to
sit down in a language-learning situation and accurately and quickly take notes about
what they are learning. To reach this level, students will need to put forth a significant
effort. As with many skills, “practice makes perfect.”
While the original course placed a heavy focus on non-manuals (e.g., facial
expressions and head and body movements), this course is primarily interested in writing
individual signs. Non-manuals will be introduced in units 10 – 12. This focus on the
manual elements of the sign does not mean that non-manuals are not important or that
ii
this writing system is somehow incapable of representing the rich non-manual structures
of signed languages. On the contrary, SW has a very extensive set of non-manual
symbols capable of recording the intricacies of non-manual movements. However, due to
the limitations of this course, we will leave many of the intricacies of non-manuals for
discussion in the phonology and syntax courses (although the symbols will be presented
here).
While this course is not a literacy course, we have tried to maintain some of the
same basic principles, such as starting with the most basic concepts and most common
symbols and gradually moving toward the more difficult and more obscure.
The examples in this book come primarily from Spanish Sign Language (LSE)
unless specifically marked otherwise. We have purposely chosen this language because
most users of this book will not know LSE. One of the primary goals of this course is that
the students develop the skill of seeing a sign or phrase that they have never seen before,
copy it accurately with their hands, and then write it down (see it, do it, write it).
This is not a literacy course. We will not discuss issues such as how to design
literacy materials or which set of symbols should be used for a particular language. Nor
will we discuss the sociolinguistic implications of introducing or using a writing system
in a Deaf community. Likewise, we recognize that there are other writing systems out
there. We have chosen SW because it is best suited for our purpose of writing quickly
and accurately in a field situation. Although there are several computer programs
available that use SW, we will focus on handwriting. Computer programs will probably
change significantly in the next few years but the writing system will likely remain fairly
stable.
We hope you enjoy this course and find it useful.
June 11, 2006
Steve and Dianne Parkhurst
Book updated June 4, 2010
iii
Table of contents
Unit 1 1
Observer’s perspective and signer’s perspective 2
Hand orientations (with the flat hand) 3
Contact symbol: touch 5
Other basic handshapes 6
The head, arm/wrist 8
Unit 2 9
Hand orientations: top-down point of view 10
Straight up-and-down movements; basics about movement 15
Contact symbol: brush 18
Some basic handshapes 19
Straight forward-and-back movements 22
Unit 3 27
Handshape anatomy: the thumb 28
Signs that touch the body, arms and face 31
Changes in handshape and orientation 38
Unit 4 39
Handshape anatomy: pinky, middle and ring fingers 40
Complex straight arrows 42
Straight movements on the “side-wall” plane 43
Basic punctuation 46
Unit 5 47
Handshape anatomy: hooked fingers 48
Circular movements 52
Contact symbols: rub, hold, in-between and strike 56
Unit 6 59
Handshape anatomy: bent handshapes 60
Finger movement 63
iv
Unit 7 71
Handshape anatomy: mixed handshapes 72
Arcs on three planes 76
Touching the ear or hair 81
Unit 8 83
Handshape anatomy: C, E, and LSM handshapes 84
Complex arcs 87
Position symbols 89
Unit 9 91
Handshape anatomy: under, over, crossed and stacked 92
Arm twists 96
Serial movements 101
Unit 10 103
Handshape anatomy: degrees of bending 104
Side view and top-down view of the body 107
Wrist movements 109
Unit 11 113
Introduction to non-manual elements 114
Eyebrows 115
Punctuation: phrase marking, questions, and quotes 115
Head and body movement 119
Dynamic symbols and classifiers 124
Unit 12 127
Eyes: aperture and eye gaze 128
Nose 130
Mouth: jaw, lips, teeth, cheeks and tongue 131
Air flow 137
Topical index 139
Appendix: Partial List of Symbols 141
Unit 1 1
Unit 1
Contents:
• Observer’s perspective and signer’s perspective
• Hand orientations
• Contact symbols: touch
• Some basic handshapes
• The head, arm/wrist
Unit 12
Two perspectives
Observer’s perspective
When another person signs to you,
you see his hands. You are an
observer.
This is called the “observer’s
perspective” or receptive
viewpoint.
Signer’s perspective
When you sign to someone, you see your
own hands. You see the signs from your
own perspective.
This is called the “signer’s perspective” or
expressive viewpoint.
SignWriting is based on the signer’s perspective—how you see your own
hands when you sign.
Unit 1 3
Hand orientation
When you read and write a sign, you write it
the way you see your own hands.
The palm
If you can see the palm of your
hand as you sign, the symbol
that represents the hand will be
white (or not shaded). On a
chalkboard, it will be a hollow
symbol outlined with chalk.
The back of the hand
When you see the back of your
hand, the symbol that
represents the hand will be
black (or shaded). On a
chalkboard, it will be the color
of the chalk, which may be
white.
The side of the hand
When you see the side of your
hand, the symbol for the hand
will be half white, half black.
The white/unshaded part of the
symbol shows which direction
the palm is facing. The
black/shaded part of the symbol
shows which direction the back
of the hand is facing.
Unit 14
The left hand The right hand
Rotating the hand
You can turn the symbol in any direction.
Unit 1 5
Contact symbol: Touch
SignWriting includes symbols that tell what kind of contact the hands make
during the sign. This is the first contact symbol:
Touch
An asterisk is used to mean touch.
The touch symbol is used when the hands touch each other or some part of
the body.
Try to read these signs:
TIME OUT
HOUSE
APPLAUD (hearing people) MINIMUM (LSC)
The touch symbol is placed near where the
two hands touch
Place two (or more) touch symbols to
show that the hands touch two (or more)
times.
In a symmetrical sign, both hands move
slightly to repeat the contact.
If the sign is not symmetrical, the
dominant hand usually moves.
Unit 16
New handshapes
The closed fist
The closed fist is written as a
square.
If, when you sign, you see the
palm of your hand, the symbol
used to represent it will be
white.
CAR
If you see the side of your
hand, the symbol will be half
black and half white.
FULL
If you see the back of your
hand as you sign, the symbol
will be black.
WASH
Unit 1 7
This square with one line extending
from the corner represents the fist
with the index finger extended.
If, when you sign, you see the palm of
your hand, the symbol used to
represent it will be white.
ALONE
If you see the side of your hand, the
symbol will be half black and half
white.
LAW
If you see the back of your hand as
you sign, the symbol will be black.
NO
Unit 18
The head, arm/wrist
A circle represents the head. You have to imagine that you are seeing your
own head from behind you.
When you are signing with your right hand close to or touching the right
side of your head, you write the symbols for the hand and the contact at the
right side of the circle, overlap the hand and the head, or write the contact on
the head itself:
GRANDFATHER DEAF
AGE CONFESS (to a priest)
The bar attached to this
hand represents the
wrist or arm. It helps
show clearly which
part of the fist is
touching under the
chin. The arm bar
connects to the center
of the bottom of the
hand; here, it’s at a 45º
angle from the hand.
Unit 2 9
Unit 2
Contents:
• Hand orientations: the “top-down” point of view
• Straight up-and-down movements
• Contact symbol: brush
• Some basic handshapes
• Straight forward-and-back movements
Unit 210
Two points of view
Forward view
Hand parallel to the front wall
When the hand is vertical/upright, or
parallel to the front wall, it’s easy to
see what its configuration is when
looking from the forward point of view.
But when your hand is horizontal, or
parallel to the floor, it’s hard to see
what its configuration is from the
forward point of view.
What can we do???
Top-down view
Hand parallel to the floor
Because it’s hard to see its configuration
from the forward point of view, when your
hand is parallel to the floor, you write it as
if you were seeing it from above.
Unit 2 11
A small gap between the symbol for the
hand and the symbol(s) for the fingers
means that the hand is parallel to the floor.
You pretend to look down on it.
This symbol can be rotated
in all directions too.
Remember: this symbol means that the hand is parallel to the floor. It
doesn’t matter if you can actually look down on it or not.
and are written:
Unit 212
We’ll look at some examples of configurations that we already know, but
this time they’ll be written from above, parallel to the floor.
The gap between the
hand and the fingers
means that the hand is
parallel to the floor.
UNCLE
SAME
Note that these two
symbols represent the
same orientation:
Unit 2 13
When the hand has no
fingers extended, the gap
is at the level of the
knuckles. The gap
means that the hand is
parallel to the floor.
IMPORTANT
COMPANION
TABLE
Note that these two
symbols represent the
same orientation:
Unit 214
The gap at the level of
the knuckles means that
the hand is parallel to the
floor.
COLD
TIME
Note that these two symbols represent
the same orientation:
When one hand
touches the opposite
wrist or arm, we use a
line to represent the
arm. The contact
symbol is written close
to the point of contact.
Unit 2 15
Movement arrows
Up-down movements
Up-down movements are parallel to an imaginary wall in front of the signer,
on the vertical plane.
They are written with double-stemmed arrows:
Vertical
Straight up
Diagonally Diagonally
up and to up and to
the left the right
to the left to the right
Diagonally Diagonally
down and to down and to
the left the right
Straight down
Unit 216
Left- and Right-hand movements
Left-hand movements
When the arrow head is white, it
means that the left hand moves:
Right-hand movements
When the arrow head is black,
the right hand moves:
In the following example, only the
left hand moves.
In this example, only the right
hand moves.
Unit 217
Examples of signs that use one hand:
SHORT NO FATHER
In the examples below, each hand moves several times. When there are
several arrows for each hand, we read the sign’s movement from the center
toward the edges or from the top to the bottom.
Examples:
TO WEIGH CAR TO ARGUE
Sometimes seeing all those arrows can be confusing. One
simple tool to help us remember where to start reading the
arrows is the one written at the right, called a tie. The tie helps
us remember that these two arrows are “tied together” and
their movements are simultaneous, happening at the same time.
Examples:
Unit 2 18
Contact symbol: brush
Brush
This type of contact is written as a circle with a dot in the center.
Brush is a light contact in which the hand slides across another surface and
then separates again.
Examples:
NIGHT MORNING TO GO
OCTOBER LESSON CARING
Unit 219
More handshapes
Handshape: Is written Example:
like this:
BLACK
PERU
PARLIAMENT (LSC)
THIRD
Unit 2 20
Handshape: Is written Example:
like this:
PROGRAM
BARCELONA
OBEY
SIGN
Unit 221
Handshape: Is written Example:
like this:
TUBE
JUSTICE
CELL PHONE
Note that these handshapes have a circular base. The circle
base is only used in handshapes where the circular form of
the fingers is important. In many languages, these two
handshapes are interchangeable; even when the base is
relaxed, forming a circle, signers do not view the circular form as important
to the meaning of the sign. In other languages, these handshapes are viewed
as distinct and the form of the base is important.
Unit 2 22
More movement arrows
Forward-and-back movement
Forward-and-back movement is movement that is parallel to the floor.
It is written with single-stemmed arrows:
Horizontal plane
Straight forward
Diagonally Diagonally
forward and forward and
toward the left toward the right
to the left to the right
Horizontal plane
Straight back
Diagonally Diagonally
back and back and
toward the left toward the right
Unit 223
Up-down movement Forward-and-back movement
Note the difference between these pairs of signs:
STAND UP, EVERYBODY TO HELP
UP YOU
Unit 2 24
Remember: these groups of arrows represent movements on two planes:
Movements that are parallel to the Movements that are parallel to
wall, or up-and-down the floor, or forward-and-back
When the two planes overlap, some arrows on each plane represent the same
movements toward the sides.
Unit 225
Straight movement toward the sides can be written using double-stemmed or
single-stemmed arrows. The arrows below represent the same movements:
These double-stemmed arrows are the same as these single-stemmed arrows.
The sign TABLE can be written either way:
OR
They are exactly the same.
Examples of single-stemmed arrows:
TO MEET LESSON TO EXPLAIN THEATER
Unit 2 26
Both hands move as one unit
There are times when the two hands move together as a single unit.
Sometimes the use of a separate arrow for each hand becomes confusing and
it is difficult to know where to put the arrows. This usually happens when
the two hands are touching each other or they follow the same trajectory. In
these cases, we use a special kind of arrow head:
We call this an “open” arrow head (it is neither black nor white), and it
means that both hands move together as one unit.
Examples:
TRUCK TROPHY
TO DISCRIMINATE BABY (from two perspectives) BABY
AGAINST
Unit 3 27
Unit 3
Contents:
• Handshape anatomy: thumb
• Signs that touch the body, arms and face
• Changes in handshape and orientation
Unit 328
Handshape anatomy: thumb
As we have already seen, an opposed flexed thumb that is holding down the
other fingers is usually not written.
When the unopposed non-extended thumb is up to the side together with the
other fingers, it looks like this:
When the unopposed extended thumb is out to the side, it looks like this:
These thumbs are
written:
An exception to this
rule is the “flat” or
“open” handshape:
Notice that from the
side view, the thumb
extends from the
black part of the
hand.
Unit 3 29
When the opposed non-flexed thumb is straight forward, it looks like this:
Some new handshapes that follow these rules:
Examples:
CLUB MEMBER HOTEL ELEVATOR
RENAULT (car mfgr.) RECEIVE RECOGNITION LAW (LSC)
Notice that from the
side view, the thumb
extends from the
white part of the
hand.
Unit 330
Examples:
MISCHIEVOUS APPLE FROM NOW ON DOORBELL
Example:
CHURCH
Note: These three handshapes are often allophones; i.e.,
the thumb’s position does not change the meaning of the
sign. If the thumb position is not important, most writers
choose to write the second HS, leaving the first and third
symbols for those situations when the thumb postion is
important. Until you have studied a language long
enough to know what’s important, write all details.
Unit 3 31
The body
Sometimes the hands touch the body. When one hand touches the center of
the chest, we write the contact symbol under the hand symbol.
ME MY TO FEEL
When the hands touch one side of the chest or the shoulders, this heavy bar
represents the shoulders. This bar is also used when the hands are close to
one side of the body without touching it.
ELEGANT VACATION TO GO HUNTING
Unit 332
The hips
The second bar represents the hips. When the hands move near the waist,
touch the waist or some part of the body near the waist, we write two bars
(the top one represents shoulders and the bottom one, hips) and place the
hands in relation to the hips. Note that a single horizontal bar always
represents the shoulders. You must write two bars if you refer to the hips.
GOVERNMENT DOG (LSE, in SKIRT
(LSM) La Coruña)
The arm
When the hand touches anywhere on the arm, we use a long line to represent
the arm. If the focus is on the wrist or forearm, the arm bar is attached to the
hand. If the point of contact is the upper arm, it is attached to the shoulder.
The line must be long enough so that it will not be confused with a finger.
CAPTAIN STINGY SHORT SLEEVES
Unit 3 33
Back of head, back, and buttocks
These curved lines are written at the sides of the
circle that represents the head to show that the hand
is behind the head.
back of the head
Remember that your perspective doesn’t change:
just as the height of the hand (page 11) does not
affect your ability to write it as if you are seeing it
from above, so the position of the head does not
change the hand’s orientation. In these two
examples, the orientation of the hand is the same:
in the first, the back of the hand is touching the
face; in the second, the palm of the hand touches
the back of the head.
PONYTAIL HYPOCRITE
This same principle can be used for showing the back and the buttocks.
BACK HAM
1
2
Unit 334
The face
Most of the time the hand (number 1 below) or the touch symbol (number 2)
can be placed directly on the head symbol to show contact with the
forehead, temples, cheeks, jaw and chin. Other times, piling up symbols
becomes confusing. Another option is to place a scoop (number 3) on the
point of contact, and place the hand and other symbols nearby.
1 2 3
These three options for the sign GERMANY all represent the thumb
touching the forehead. Option 1 is a bit unclear due to the overlap of the
symbols. Option 2 could be misunderstood as touching two separate
locations on the forehead. Option 3 uses the “scoop” to show the location
and the touch symbol to show that it is the thumb that touches the forehead.
Examples:
DIRTY BELIEVE DIALOGUE
Note: this
sign does
not touch
the chin, but
it is signed
directly in
front of the
chin area.
Unit 3 35
When the hand touches the perimeter of the face, we do not use the scoop.
This includes signs that touch the top or side of the head, and under the
chin.
LEADER (LSC) UPSET OH, NO!
The neck
This is the symbol used to represent the neck, to
show that the hands touch or are close to the
neck.
the neck
TO LOSE SIN REPULSIVE
Unit 336
The eyes and eyebrows
When the focus of a sign is the eyes, or when the
point of contact is the eyes or near the eyes, we
write small semi-circles to represent (open) eyes.
Examples:
TO SEE EYES GARLIC
When the point of contact is the eyebrows, we use this
symbol. (Later we will introduce facial expressions
that include raised and lowered eyebrows.)
JOSE MARI (name sign)
Unit 3 37
The nose and mouth
When the nose is the point of contact for a sign, a
short vertical line down the center of the face
represents the nose. The contact symbol can be
written on the nose line, on the face near it, or off to
the side of the face, whichever is clearer or more
exact.
Examples:
TWO YEARS WINE MAN (LSC)
When the mouth is the point of contact or the
focus of a sign, a short horizontal line is used to
represent the mouth. (Later we will see that there
are many mouth symbols used to represent the
facial expressions and mouth patterns.) The
simple horizontal line is the neutral mouth symbol
and is only used as a point of contact.
QUIET CIGAR TO SMOKE
Unit 338
Changes in handshape and
orientations
When a sign starts with one handshape and ends with another, if it is not
obvious what the second one will be, we write both the initial and the final
handshape. To read the sign, start with the handshape that is closer to the
straight end of the arrow, and move the hand toward the arrow head. If there
are no arrows that indicate which symbol is read first, we read from top to
bottom and left to right.
DANGEROUS FAMOUS TWENTY
When a sign starts with one orientation and ends with another, if it is not
obvious what those orientations will be, we write both the initial and the
final orientations.
TABLE TO KNOW EXPERIENCE
Unit 4 39
Unit 4
Contents:
• Handshape anatomy: pinky, middle and ring fingers
• Some complex arrows
• Straight movements on the “side-wall” plane
• Basic punctuation
Unit 440
Handshape anatomy: pinky finger
The pinky extends at a 45-degree angle from the corner of the base. Notice
that on the side view, the pinky extends from the white corner.
TO HAVE FUN
More pinky handshapes:
NEAR MISTAKE AIRPLANE PIPE
FLY OVER (ASL)
Unit 4 41
Middle and ring fingers
The middle finger is longer than the index and extends at a 90-degree angle
from the center of the base. The ring finger is shorter than the middle finger
and is usually placed between the corner and the middle of the base. The
exception to that rule is when only the ring and pinky fingers are extended.
ARMY TANK TATTOO FIGHTER JET
YOUNGER BROTHER
(Hong Kong SL) FIRST SECOND THIRD
Note: the arm bar is thicker and longer than the middle finger. As in
TATTOO, when the orientation of the hand is awkward, it may be necessary
to write both arms to make it clear which hand is the dominant hand.
Unit 442
More movement arrows
We can write more complex movements on the two planes (the front wall
and the floor) using the single-stemmed and double-stemmed arrow
convention that we use for straight arrows.
HAPPY INTERNATIONAL
DENMARK READ
RED CROSS CANCEL
SQUARE SHAPE SQUARE SHAPE
Unit 4 43
More straight movements
We have already seen straight arrows on two different planes (1 and 2):
Plane 1 (x,y): parallel to the front wall
All these movements are written with
double-stemmed arrows.
All these movements are
written with singlestemmed
arrows.
Plane 3 (y,z):
parallel to the side wall
The four movements shown at left are taken from the
other two planes.
But what about diagonal movements on this plane?
Plane 2 (x,z):
parallel to the floor
Unit 444
A horizontal line written across an up or down arrow is used to represent
straight movement that moves away from the signer, up or down. The line
can be thought of as representing the distant horizon. The horizontal line is
close to the head of the arrow to show that the end point of the movement is
away from the body (toward the horizon).
up and toward down and toward
the horizon the horizon
ADVANCE TO KILL EXPLOSION
2
1
21
Unit 4 45
A black dot written between the lines of an up or down arrow is used to
represent diagonal movements that move closer to the body in a straight
diagonal line. The black dot is closer to the head of the arrow to show that
the endpoint of the movement is closest to the body. Note that the black dot
does not imply that the hand actually touches the body. The dot is only used
as a relative point of reference.
down and up and toward
toward the body the body
BED SHEETS RESCUE GRACE
2
1 21
Unit 446
Basic punctuation
Punctuation is mostly used for writing texts, not for phonetic transcription.
However, a few basic punctuation marks are useful.
The symbol that corresponds to a period can be viewed as a long pause or a
completion of an idea. At this point signers usually blink and might put their
hands in a neutral postion briefly.
The symbol that we use for a comma refers to a short pause, sometimes
while a signer mentions a list of items. We will introduce the full range of
punctuation later in this course.
When we write a complete sentence, we finish the
sentence with this symbol, which represents a period:
Two thin lines represent a comma. We use commas
between items in a list or between related ideas.
The use of commas helps us visually separate
one idea from another.
HOUSE MY SMALL/NARROW BUT TALL TALL (pause)
THERE_ARE 3_LEVELS THREE (long pause)
“My house is narrow but tall, it has three floors.”
Unit 5 47
Unit 5
Contents:
• Handshape anatomy: hooked fingers
• Circular movements
• Contact symbols: rub, hold, in-between and strike
Unit 548
Handshape Anatomy: “hooked”
fingers
“Hooked” handshapes refer to handshapes that flex the finger joints
(phalangeal joints). Notice which direction the fingers hook when the hand
is rotated. On the front and back orientations, the fingers curl toward the part
where the thumb would be. On the side view, the fingers curl toward the
palm.
The thumb (when flexed and unopposed) always curls upward.
Unit 5 49
Thumb to the side (flexed, unopposed) vs. thumb forward (opposed):
More hooked handshapes:
Note: On the thumbforward
handshapes,
the index comes out of
the top corner on the
same side as the
thumb. This shows
more clearly the
relative size of the gap
between the thumb
and fingers.
Note: The index finger
is turned away from
the thumb on the front
and back views. This
helps us see that the
index and thumb are
not on the same plane.
Compare this with the
next three handshapes.
Note: The gap can be
larger or smaller than
the normal gap. Many
signed languages don’t
make this gap size
distinction except in
classifier constructions
where the exact gap
corresponds to a reallife
measurement.
Unit 550
More handshapes:
Degree of finger flex:
Examples:
ANTIQUE JUNE TO COME JUNE (LSC)
Notice: this last
handshape has a
different base
shape. We will see
more examples of
this kind of base in
the next unit.
The degree of flexing may not be
contrastive in some languages.
However, the less-hooked symbol is
more accurate when the point of
contact is the tip of the index finger.
Unit 5 51
More examples:
TELEGRAPH TO AGREE TO MEET ENEMY
DOUBT DEER TO INSULT KING
LAUGHTER PIZZA COOKIE ENGLISH
TOWN GROUP SLEEP (LSC)
Unit 552
Circular Movement
SignWriting has arrows for various kinds of circular movements. This first
type of circular movement starts at the elbow; the forearm and hand move as
a unit with no wrist rotation. The arrow head shows the direction of the
movement and the number of circles; it may also show the place where the
movement starts. We will look at this type of movement on three planes.
Plane 1 (x,y)
Circular movement
When the hand moves in a circle on the same plane as the front wall, the
movement you would use to wash a window, the movement is written with
this arrow (plane 1).
This circular movement is always the same distance from the body.
TO LOOK FOR OPINION WASHING MACHINE
Unit 5 53
When the hand moves in a circle in a movement like you would use to wash
a table with a cloth, this movement is written with this arrow (plane 2).
Plane 2 (x,z)
Circular movement
The arrow stem is thicker when the hand is closer to the body and thinner
when the hand moves farther from the body.
ALONE OIL BOSS AUGUST
Unit 554
Plane 3 (y,z)
Circular movement
When the hand moves in a circle, the same movement used for rowing a
boat, the movement is written like this (plane 3).
The arrow stem is thicker when the hand is closer to the body and thinner
when the hand is farther from the body.
CULTURE GOOD AFTERNOON LONG AGO
Unit 5 55
Two-handed movements
When a movement is written for both hands, this tie symbol
unites the movements to indicate that that both hands move at the same
time. The movement is simultaneous.
NOTHING DEFEND ALWAYS
When the circular movement is written for both hands
and the hands alternate, this symbol is used to show that
the hands alternate as they circle. To make it clearer that
the hands are alternating, the hands and circle symbols
can be slightly offset from each other.
BICYCLE PROBLEM DOMINOES
Unit 556
Contact symbol: rub
Rub (in a circle)
The motion of rubbing in a circle is written with a spiral.
A rub is when your hand makes circular contact with another part of the
body, staying in constant contact without ever separating.
GOVERNMENT NICE TO MEET YOU PHARMACY
Rub (in a straight line)
This type of contact is written with the same spiral symbol, along with one
or more arrows.
When the rub symbol is written with an arrow, the arrow determines the
direction of the movement. The movement is made with constant contact in
the direction(s) of the arrow(s).
EXCUSE ME TEMPERATURE TO WANT
Unit 5 57
Contact symbol: hold
We use a “plus” sign to represent a hold.
Hold means that the hand grabs and holds another part of the body. It can
also mean to grab and hold the hair, the ear, a piece of clothing, etc.
MARRIED BROTHER (LSC) FRIEND
Contact symbol: in-between
The symbol for in-between is an asterisk between two
vertical lines.
In-between means a contact between two other body parts.
It is most often used for contact between the fingers, but it
can also mean that the nose is between the fingers or the hand is between the
upper arm and the body.
AMERICA RIDE A HORSE TICKET
Unit 558
Contact symbol: strike
Strike or hit is written using the “pound” sign (a tic-tac-toe grid).
Strike/hit means contact that is more forceful than a simple touch. In LSE, it
intensifies a sign.
BLACK VERY BLACK
HARD VERY HARD
BECAUSE GUILT
Other examples:
SERPENT CRASH BELONGS TO ME
Unit 6 59
Unit 6
Contents:
• Handshape anatomy: bent handshapes
• Finger movement
Unit 660
Compare:
Handshape anatomy: “bent” fingers
Bent handshapes refer to those handshapes where the
fingers bend from the knuckle joint closest to the hand
(metacarpal joint). These handshapes rotate like the
hooked handshapes. If the fingers and thumb point in the
same direction, the fingers point toward the palm of the
hand.
There are exceptions to this rotation rule. As we saw with the hooked fingers
(and illustrated below), when the bent fingers are on a separate plane from
the extended thumb, the fingers must face the opposite direction from the
thumb.
Compare with:
Unit 6 61
More “bent” handshapes:
Notice the difference between these two handshapes.
Here the fingers are bent and spread.
Shape of the base:
The square base is used when
at least one finger tip is
touching the palm:
The rectangular base is used
when all fingers are away
from the palm:
The 5-sided base is used when
all fingers are either fully
extended or hooked (but not
bent).
Thickness of the fingers:
The handshape with only one finger
extended uses a thin line for the finger.
The handshape that represents multiple
fingers uses a thick line.
Unit 662
Examples:
AFTERNOON (LSC) SOMETHING SUB SANDWICH
FOOD SEND PHONE MESSAGES EGYPT
ARGUE PRIEST LITTLE BY LITTLE
INTELLIGENT (LSM) DISAPPEAR TURN OFF THE LIGHT
Unit 6 63
Finger movements
Middle (phalangeal) joint closes
When the finger closes in the
middle, as in a squeeze, this
finger movement is written as a
black dot.
We write the black dot near the
finger that closes. Two black
dots means two squeezes.
Examples:
TO NEED NEW TO LEARN
SUICIDE LIGHT A CANDLE AWFUL
Unit 664
Middle (phalangeal) joint opens
When the fingers are extended,
as in a flick, the opening
movement is written as a white
circle.
We write the circle near the
fingers that flick open or near
the place where the movement
is done. Two circles means two
flicks.
A few handshapes that are commonly used with flicks:
CONTENT IDENTICAL INFORMATION PILLS TO WALK
Unit 6 65
If one configuration is more important than the other, we write the most
important one. Usually the initial handshape is the most important; however,
there are a few examples in which the end handshape is more important.
These signs sometimes start with an “O” or a “1”, and some start with an
ASL “8”, but they finish with these handshapes:
12 13 14 15
Bending the fingers (metacarpal joint)
When the fingers bend from the
knuckle, this movement is
written as the tip of a small
arrow head that points down.
When there are two arrow
heads, the fingers bend twice.
PILLOW UNDERSTAND A LOT DREAM
Unit 666
Opening the fingers (metacarpal joints)
from the bent position
When straight fingers are
extended from the bent
position, the movement is
written as a small arrow head
that points upward.
When there are two arrow
heads, the fingers are extended
twice.
TO EXPEL UGLY TURN ON LIGHT INTELLIGENT
Unit 6 67
Opening and bending the fingers (metacarpal joints)
The fingers move togther,
opening and closing from the
knuckles, as if they were one
unit. They are bent and
extended together. This
movement is represented by a
string of arrow heads that point
up and down, usually turned to
match the up-and-down
movement of the fingers.
ANGEL FISH MOUNTAIN
BUTTERFLY WEAK FRAMED PAINTING
Unit 668
Alternating opening and closing
of the fingers from the knuckle (metacarpal) joints
The fingers alternate moving up
and down, like when you drum
your fingers on a table.
The symbol for this alternating
movement is a double row of
small arrow heads pointing up
and down (2, 3 or 4 peaks).
TO PLAY SPIDER SPEAK
SPICY HOT SCUBA DIVING VACATION
64 3
Unit 6 69
Closing the hand
from the knuckles, one finger at a time
The fingers close once,
one at a time, starting
from the little finger and
ending with the index
finger.
The symbol used to
represent this single
close of the hand is two
arrow heads, one inside
the other, pointing down.
Remember: when a sign starts with one configuration and ends with another,
if it is not clear what the two configurations are, we write both the first and
the second. Also, if the index closes first, write the symbols closer to the
index finger, angling toward the pinky (see note on page 70).
TO STEAL COLORS TO KNOW A PERSON
UNITED STATES SUGAR TO FORGET
64 4
Unit 670
Opening the hand
from the knuckles, one finger at a time
The fingers are extended,
opening the hand one
finger at a time, starting
with the index and ending
with the little finger.
The symbol for this
alternating opening of
the hand is two small
arrow heads, one inside
the other, pointing up.
SEVERAL BUILDING STAY UP UNTIL DAWN
Note: In some languages, opening or closing the hand one finger at a time
can start with the pinky or the index/thumb. In some cases it may be
contrastive and you will need to specify which finger starts the process.
Unit 7 71
Unit 7
Contents:
• Handshape anatomy: “mixed” handshapes
• Arcs on three planes
• Touching the ear or hair
Unit 772
Handshape Anatomy: “mixed”
handshapes
There are a number of handshapes whose fingers have mixed degrees of
flexion. For example, some fingers may be extended and others bent, as in
the following examples:
Notice that when the thumb is in front of the index finger (i.e., on
the outside), the thumb is written with a thicker line than the index.
When the index is in front (on the outside), its line is thicker.
The difference between these two
handshapes is that the one on the
left focuses on the circle shape of
the index and thumb; the one on the
right only focuses on the extended
fingers.
A new
base shape
Unit 7 73
Notice how the SW symbols for the extended fingers differ: the handshapes
on the previous page have the index forward; the handshapes below have the
middle or ring finger forward.
The following handshapes show one finger bent forward, with the others
extended. When the thumb and bent finger are on different planes, the finger
and the thumb must be shown on different sides of the hand symbol.
INDEX extended MIDDLE extended RING extended
Unit 774
In these handshapes the thick finger line is used to show that multiple fingers
are extended together:
In these handshapes some fingers are fully flexed, others bent or rounded,
and still others are fully extended. Notice that since some of the fingers are
fully flexed, the base shape is a square (rather than a rectangle, as in the
handshapes above).
Unit 7 75
Examples:
LUCK RING DOCTOR GUIDE
GRAVE THEORY PERCENT OLIVES
APRIL YES WHITE BRACELET
BED LLAMA ESCAPE SLEEP (LSM)
Unit 776
Curved Movement
These are the arrows that represent curved movements that form partial
circles, on the same three planes as before.
Plane 1 (x,y)
Curved movement
This group of arrows represents parts of the circular movement on the same
plane as that of washing the window (plane 1).
These arrows represent movement that curves one direction or the other,
without letting the hand come closer to or move farther from the body.
CHAMPIONSHIP FINAL RAINBOW TIRED
The SW program has 8 arrows that represent curved movement on this
plane.
Unit 7 77
Plane 2 (x,z)
Curved movement
This group of arrows represents the parts of the same circular movement on
the plane used for washing the table (plane 2).
These arrows represent curved movement that moves toward and away from
the body.
The arrow stem is thicker when the hand moves closer to the body and
thinner when the hand moves away from the body.
YOU (plural) OPEN (the window) PRIORITY
Unit 778
This group of arrows represents parts of the same circular movement as
before, the movement used for rowing a boat (plane 3).
Plane 3 (y,z)
Curved movement
These arrows represent the same motion, but in the opposite direction:
Unit 7 79
These two arrows represent movements that curve
over the top of the circle. The first comes back
toward the signer in an arc, and the second goes up
and over in an arc away from the signer. Singlestemmed
arrows, with wider sections nearer the
signer, are used because the basic movement goes
more back and forth than up and down.
The arrow stem is thicker when the hand is closer
to the body and thinner when it is farther away.
LATER ROMAN SOLDIERS TO TELL
These two arrows represent movements that curve
at the bottom part of the circle. The first represents
a movement that comes closer as it curves under;
the second curves down and under as it moves
away from the signer. The basic movement is back
and forth.
The arrow stem is thicker when the hand is closer
to the body and thinner when the hand moves
away from the body.
TO BE BORN TO SELL FROM THIS POINT ON
Unit 780
These two arrows represent up-and-down
movement that curves toward the body. The basic
movement is up and down, so the arrow used is
double stemmed.
The black dot between the arrow stems means that
the hand moves closer to the body during its
trajectory and then moves away.
TO TAKE ADVANTAGE OF ALREADY ABOVE
These two arrows represent up-and-down
movement that curves toward the horizon. Doublestemmed
arrows are used because the basic
movement is up and down.
The line that crosses the arrows represents the
horizon; it means that the hand moves farther away
from the body as it moves up or down, then it
comes closer again.
SLICED HAM RICH (money) HIGHEST
Unit 7 81
The ear(s) and the hair
When the hand touches or gets close to the ear,
use this symbol.
WOMAN NOISE COCHLEAR IMPLANT
When the hand touches the hair or the sign focuses
on the hair, use this symbol.
DETAILS HAIR STYLIST SHAMPOO
Unit 782
Unit 8 83
Unit 8
Contents:
• Handshape anatomy: together and spread—C, E, and LSM
• Complex arcs
• Position symbols
Unit 884
Handshape Anatomy: C, E and LSM
handshapes
Below are some handshapes that have not yet been introduced. The rotation
of these handshapes follows the same principles as previous handshapes.
Unit 8 85
Some signed languages (e.g., Spanish Sign Language, LSE) tend to spread
the fingers, while other signed languages (e.g., Mexican Sign Language,
LSM) tend to keep them together. Some of these handshapes are used in
LSM:
There is little difference between these two handshapes.
In the handshape on the left, the fingers do not touch
the thumb. On the right is the phonetic representation of
ASL’s letter “E”, in which the
fingers rest on the thumb.
Note: ASL users of SW use
a different symbol to write “E.”
Unit 886
PIG CONFEDERATION SHEEP (LSC) FINGERSPELL
SQUID EUROPE EXTREMADURA SCHOOL (LSM)
(a region of Spain)
WORK TIME FAMILY WEDNESDAY
(LSM) (old LSM) (LSM) (LSM)
Unit 8 87
Complex arcs
Any type of movement can be written, whether complex or simple. We have
already seen a curve and a circle. The curves can be written as sweeping arcs
or tight circles. Circles can be full circles, ¾ circles, ½ circles, or ¼ circles.
Other movements include waves, repeated arcs, and spirals.
These movements are parallel to the front wall.
Examples:
COMPLETE RIGHT NEXT TO WATERFALL BRIDGE
AQUEDUCT CURLY HAIR FORM QUESTION
Unit 888
These are parallel to the floor:
MOUSE RIVER SKID MARKS
These movements are parallel to the side wall:
POSTPONE ANCESTORS HEREDITARY OCEAN
Unit 8 89
Position symbols
Sometimes it is hard to know which hand is on top of or in front of the other.
These symbols can be used to make this information explicit.
Imagine a picture frame (above). Imagine placing an object on the top of the
frame. The symbols on the right, with two lines (like a picture frame) and a
bump, are sort of like placing your hand (the bump) on a picture frame (the
two lines) that’s hanging on the wall in front of you.
Now imagine a table; you’re looking down on it (above left). Imagine
touching the edge of the table with your hand. The symbols on the right,
with single lines (like the edge of the table) and a bump, are sort of like
placing your hand (the bump) on the side of the table (the line).
The lines represent the surface that the dominant hand contacts, whether it’s
the non-dominant hand, the forearm, etc. The “bump” represents the
dominant hand and shows its relationship to the non-dominant hand or
On top
To the
right
To the
left
Under
Away
from the
signer
To the
right
To the
left
Near the
signer
Unit 890
surface of contact. Don’t be confused about whether the hand is upright or
parallel to the floor; these symbols simply show whether the hand is above
or below a surface (first set), or in front of or behind a surface (second set).
If the hand symbols overlap, the position symbols are helpful; they let us
show explicitly which hand is on top of or behind the other.
If two hands touch, and one is located to the right and the other to the left,
position symbols are usually not necessary.
On each plane, the symbols we use most are the ones at the top and bottom
of each set.
Look at these examples:
TO ENTER BEER BOTTLE MATHEMATICS (LSC)
STREET MORNING LIST KISS (greeting)
Unit 9 91
Unit 9
Contents:
• Handshape anatomy: under, over, crossed and stacked
• Arm twists
• Serial movements
Unit 992
Handshape Anatomy: under, over,
crossed and stacked
Some handshapes are articulated with the thumb tucked inside or with the
fingers draped over the thumb. In some handshapes, the fingers are crossed
or stacked on top of each other. Most of these handshapes are relatively rare
in signed languages, and we will not try to represent every possibility, nor
can we show examples of each.
The first example below is a very common handshape and is often referred
to as the “key” handshape. The index finger curls around the tip of the
upright thumb. The second handshape below shows the thumb sticking up
between the index and middle fingers (ASL “T”). The third handshape
shows the thumb pushing the middle finger up.
If the knuckle of the middle finger is raised slightly
(without the thumb pushing it up from underneath, as
shown above at right), it is written like this:
The symbols below are used
in SignWriting/Sign Puddle
for the “key” handshape:
Unit 9 93
In these examples, the thumb is tucked inside the closed hand:
Fingers can also be crossed.
Since most languages are not going to make a meaning difference based on
which finger is on top, a more generic symbol can be used. This symbol
draws attention to the fact that the fingers are crossed but does not specify
which finger is on top:
Note: In ASL’s letter “R”, the index
finger leans toward the ulnar side of
the hand, and the middle finger
crosses over it. These two fingers can
also be crossed in the opposite
direction. When documenting the
phonetic detail of a language, it is
important to specify which finger is
crossed over the other. We specify
this by writing the finger that goes
underneath as a straight line
starting from its normal position
when extended, and writing the
finger that crosses over it at a
slight angle.
Unit 994
There are several “stacked” handshapes that occur in some sign languages.
Again, notice which finger is stacked on top of the other.
Unit 9 95
Examples:
OMELET TO SELL MONEY LITTLE BY LITTLE
(LSC)
STOMACH GROWLING REPENT (LSC) RICH (LSM)
13 (LGP) BISHOP SNAIL 8th
(LGP)
Unit 996
Arm twists
When the forearm is in an upright (vertical) position, or parallel to the wall,
and twists, this is the arrow used to write that kind of twist.
The two parallel lines mean that the forearm is in a
vertical position, just like double-stemmed arrows
show movement on the vertical plane, or parallel to
the front wall, or up and down.
The single-stemmed curved arrow means that the
hand’s rotation is parallel to the floor. Any of the
four parts of the circle can be written.
These are the four basic types of this kind of arrow, and each can be used for
either hand. To write the wrist rotation, choose the arrow that best describes
the movement that your hand makes.
GET OUT! SKY CLOSE A JAR
Unit 9 97
When the forearm is in a horizontal position, or parallel to the floor, and
points forward and rotates, this arrow is used to write the movement.
The single line means that the forearm is parallel to the floor, for the same
reasons that a single-stemmed arrow represents
movement that is parallel to the floor.
The double-stemmed curved arrows mean that the
hand rotates on the wall plane.
These are the four basic forms of this type of
arrow. To write the movement, use the arrow that
best represents the rotation of the forearm.
DOUBLE TO BREAK INSOMNIA
Unit 998
When the forearm is in a horizontal position, or parallel to the floor, crossing
the body, this arrow is used to represent the movement.
The horizontal line means that the forearm is parallel to the floor, in the
same way that a single-stemmed arrow represents a movement parallel to the
floor.
The movement goes up and over, or down and under,
just like the arrows that represent the top and bottom
parts of a circle.
These are the four basic forms of this kind of arrow.
To write this movement, use the arrow that best
represents the movement of the forearm.
TO CLOSE (with key) TO SIT DOWN ID CARD
Unit 9 99
When you shake your forearm, as if you were shaking water from your
hands, you use these symbols depending on the orientation of the forearm:
Trilled movements with the Trilled movements with the
forearm parallel to the front wall forearm parallel to the floor
MAN FOREST NORMAL
KEY CONTACT WITH MANY PEOPLE HELICOPTER
Unit 9100
These arrows represent a straight movement with a simultaneous forearm
twist, either as a single twist (first two groups) or a trilled movement (a rapid
shaking motion) (second two groups).
On the plane parallel to On the plane parallel to
the front wall the floor
PALESTINIAN FIRE SWORD ANGRY
SNOW RUN TO CATCH UP GLASS
Unit 9 101
Serial movements
When you want to write a movement in which one
hand moves and then the other, this symbol
is used. It means that one hand completes its
action before the other starts to move.
This symbol is related to the ties that represent
simultaneous movements and alternating movements
that we have already learned.
TO SPEND MONEY TO BUILD TO CALL A MEETING
TO WALK PLANTS SPRINGING UP
Unit 9102
Unit 10 103
Unit 10
Contents:
• Handshape anatomy: degrees of bending
• Side view and top-down view of the body
• Wrist movements
Unit 10104
Handshape anatomy: degree of
bending
Most of the time it is sufficient to specify that the fingers are either fully
extended or bent at a 90-degree angle. It is rarely important to write inbetweeen
degrees of bending. However, there are ways to write these subtle
differences.
It can be hard to tell these two sets of symbols apart. However,
no sign language (that we know of) makes this 3-way
phonological distinction.
Notice that the gap is in the base on the top-down view of these
handshapes. If we were to put the gap between the hand and
finger symbols, it would look like a flex/squeeze symbol and a
fist. “Cutting the base” helps avoid that confusion.
Unit 10 105
Below are the symbols for the index and middle fingers bent at the same
angles as the three handshapes on page 104:
When writing phonetically, we need to be able to write small differences
between handshapes, so it is important to know how to differentiate several
degrees of bending. When choosing the symbol set for an orthography, most
of this phonetic detail is ignored, and only a few easy-to-write and easy-toread
symbols are used.
When writing the ASL letter M, in which the index, middle and ring fingers
are bent over the thumb, these symbols are used (in SignPuddle):
This group shows
the “M,” written
phonetically (same
angle as the center
drawing, p.104).
The “ball fingers” are hard to read and write quickly, so in a
practical orthography it is better to use a set of symbols like the
ones shown here. These are the symbols used in SignPuddle to
write the ASL letter N (which is actually signed more like the
symbol at the right above).
Unit 10106
Sometimes it may be necessary to specify that two selected fingers are bent
at different angles.
These handshapes
(sometimes used for
ASL letters N and M)
are represented by these
symbols in SignWriter.
Index is extended and
middle is bent.
Middle is extended and
index is bent.
Unit 10 107
Side view and top-down view
of the body
Most of the handshapes we have introduced in this unit (10) are most iconic
and easiest to write from a side view. Normally we write the body from the
signer’s own perspective. However, occasionally there are signs that are
hard to read from that perspective. An alternative perspective allows us to
see the sign from the side. In these cases it is necessary to write a side-view
head (with nose and eye) and a dashed line representing the wall in front
of the signer. This is usually avoided in day-to-day writing as it can cause
confusion regarding the direction of arrows.
PRESENCE the city of SANTANDER OBEY (LSM)
(right hand moves forward) (both hands move down
and away from the body)
Sometimes a view of the body from above is helpful in seeing how far the
hands are from the body, movements toward the body, and signs that pass
over the top of the head, written by showing the head and shoulders from
above. This view can be used anytime that it makes the sign clearer since it
does not cause confusion with the direction of the arrows like the side view
does.
DOOR (far away) CROWD COMING ROMANS
Unit 10108
More examples:
SHORT PERSON TO SEE
MARCH (LSM) NAME (LSM) 50 (old LSE)
NORTH (ASL) MATHEMATICS (ASL) MUSEUM (ASL)
This is the same sign as the
previous sign for TO SEE but
from the side view.
Notice that the index and
middle fingers are spread.
Unit 10 109
Wrist movements
Some circular movements start from the wrist. In the examples below, the
forearm stays in one position and the hand rotates in a circle. These are the
arrows used for this movement on the three planes.
PUBLICITY
TO LOOK AROUND
Plane 1(x,y)
Wrist rotation parallel to the wall in front of the signer
AMBULANCE
MANY HOURS
Plane 2 (x,z)
Wrist rotation parallel to the floor
Notice that the
circle used for
writing this
movement is
completely
round, and the
arrowheads
show the
direction of
the rotation.
Notice that this
circle is flattened
on the floor plane,
and the thick part
of the circle is
closest to the
signer. The arrow
heads show the
direction of the
rotation.
Unit 10110
EVERYDAY
(turning forward)
Plane 3 (y,z)
Wrist rotation parallel to RENOVATE
the side wall (turning backward) (turning forward)
When the forearm stays in one position and the hand moves back and forth
or up and down from the wrist, we write the movement with a “wrist bar,” a
short line that represents the wrist. The arrows show the directions that the
hands moves, and the wrist bar simply shows that the movement arrows
apply only to the hand (and not to the arm).
NO
KNOCK ON THE DOOR
Notice that this
circle is flattened
against the side
wall plane. The
thick part of the
circle is closest to
the signer, but it
can be on either
side of the circle.
The arrow heads
show the direction
of the rotation.
Unit 10 111
AGREEMENT
YES (LSC)
Any movement that is primarily a wrist or hand movement can be
expressed by writing the wrist bar symbol with the appropriate arrow.
the letter Z PARENTHESIS 2-PT SHOT IN
BASKETBALL
Unit 10112
Unit 11 113
Unit 11
Contents:
• Introduction to non-manual elements
• Eyebrows
• Punctuation: phrase marking, questions and quotes
• Head and body movement
• Dynamic symbols and classifiers
Unit 11114
An introduction to non-manual
elements
These next two units will focus on a wide variety of facial expressions and
head and body movements. Most of these elements occur at the phrase level
rather than at the individual sign level. For example, a negative head shake
will often cover all the signs in a phrase and not just occur during the actual
sign meaning NO or NOT.
The non-manual elements can change the meaning of a sign. For example,
the sign TO-WALK can be altered to mean different things based on the
facial expression or body posture:
• Walking leisurely
• Walking determinedly toward a goal
• Walking while angry
• Walking while tired
• Walking in my sleep
• A sad and mournful walk
The speed or tenseness of the sign can also change the meaning and is often
combined with facial expression and body movement:
• Walking quickly
• Walking slowly
• Walking dreamily
• Big person walking
• Small person walking
It would be impossible to include all the possible facial expressions, but we
hope to give you the most common ones, as well as cover a wide range of
non-manual articulators.
Unit 11 115
Eyebrows
In many languages eyebrows play a crucial role in questions and in
determining the subject of the clause. Eyebrows can either be raised (topic)
or lowered (content question) as well as tensed (a worried or hopeful
expression). Compare the illustrations below. The first face is neutral and
therefore there is no need to write the eyebrow position.
Raised Hopeful Lowered
Punctuation
Before we continue with more facial expressions, here are a few more
punctuation markers that are very useful with these non-manual elements.
These two symbols have already been introduced:
Period Comma
(end of sentence) (end of phrase)
Neutral
position
Unit 11116
When the eyebrows (or other non-manual elements) cover a whole phrase, it
is cumbersome to include the facial expression on each sign in the phrase.
To avoid this, there are several options:
Option 1: Brackets
Raised eyebrows over the first few signs of a sentence.
Lowered eyebrows over the whole sentence.
Option 2: phrase bar above phrase (this option is not available with some
computer programs, nor will it work with writing vertically in Sign Puddle).
Hopeful expression over two sentences
Unit 11 117
Question marks
Questions are enclosed between the symbols as shown below. If a facial
expression is necessary to determine the type of question, it can be added
above the initial question mark. Although many spoken language writing
systems do not put a question mark at the beginning of a question, we have
found it useful in signed languages: the question word often comes at the
end of the phrase, yet the questioning facial expression starts at the
beginning of the phrase. The first “question mark” signals the need to start
using the correct facial expression.
Sometimes it is better to leave the question facial expression on the question
word and let the question mark at the beginning signal the reader that a
question is coming.
Unit 11118
Colon and quotation marks
There are several other punctuation marks
that are useful when writing texts.
The colon is used to preceed a list of items.
Some use it to precede a quotation.
In each case the punctuation stands for a specific
change in non-manual elements; this can include body shift, change of eye
gaze, a different facial expression, etc. At the outset of documenting an
unstudied language, the researcher will probably want to write the details of
these non-manual elements; at other times, however, using a specific form of
punctuation can be a helpful shortcut.
Quotation marks are also useful shortcuts that represent all the complex nonmanual
elements that accompany a change in speaker, including body shift
and change of direction of eye gaze. At this time there is not universal
agreement about which symbols should be used to represent a quote. Below
are three possible ways.
Unit 11 119
Head movements
You can write head movements that go up and down (like when you say
YES) and movements that turn from side to side (like when you say NO).
When you nod your head (YES), the movement is written with little up-anddown
double-stemmed arrows above the circle that represents the head.
When you tip your head up to look at the stars, the movement is written with
one double-stemmed arrow that points upward. When you tip your head
down to look at the floor, the movement is written with one double-stemmed
arrow that points downward.
When you shake your head (NO), the movement is written with little doublestemmed
arrows that point from left to right. If you turn your head to look to
one side or the other, write that movement with one double-stemmed arrow
that shows the direction you’re facing.
the head nods to look at the to look at the
up and down stars floor
YES, I KNOW (HIM)
the head turn
back and forth I CAN’T
Unit 11120
When the head moves forward, backward, or toward one side or the other,
the movement is written with small single-stemmed arrows above the circle
that represents the head.
the head moves
forward and backward OSTRICH
the head moves to the side PEEK AROUND THE CORNER
When the head tilts to the side, making the nose follow a diagonal line
instead of a vertical line, these symbols are written above the head. Imagine
that you are drawing a (diagonal) line through the nose and crossing the
shoulder bar.
head tilted head tilted TO SLEEP
to the right to the left
Unit 11 121
Notice the difference between these three types of head movements:
Negative and affirmative phrases are often accompanied by a head shake or
nod that covers the whole phrase. In these cases the bracketing symbols,
introduced earlier in this unit, are very useful.
The following is part of a story about a cat who is playing with his reflection
in the mirror. Here each sign has a different head movement.
Unit 11122
Shoulder and trunk movement
When writing a text, sometimes we need to write what the shoulders are
doing. If the shoulders are turned toward one side or the other, we position
the shoulder bars to represent body turns to one side or the other.
turned to the straight turned to the
right left
When the movement itself is an important part of
the sign, we write the shoulder bar, turned to the
side, with an arrow that shows the direction of the
movment.
The top-down view of the shoulders can also be used to
show the body turned one direction or another.
Unit 11 123
When the body tilts from the hips toward one side, forward, or backward,
the movement is written with these small symbols: short lines with a small
ball on top, located on each side of the shoulder bar. The small ball
represents the head, and the symbol is tilted as if it were a single-stemmed
arrow according to the direction the body tilts.
Body tilting forward and to the right
As with any non-manual element, the direction and tilting of the body can be
used with the bracket construction to show that a portion of the text is signed
with the signer’s body facing or tilting one direction or another. Below is the
punctuation for a text where a signer might relate a conversation between
two people. In the first sentence the signer tilts his body to the right and
rotates his shoulders to face the left. The second phrase does the opposite.
Unit 11124
Tenseness in signing
When writing a sign that is produced
wth the muscles more tense than normal,
use this symbol:
REALLY CLOSE TO HATE TO THINK HARD
STRANGE TO HUNT ANGRY
The tense symbol to write a classifier
To write a classifier, we use the
symbol that is used to make a sign
tense. When used as an indicator for
a classifier, it tells us that the hand
is held in space to represent another
object. The classifier symbol goes
under or next to the hand that is
stationary.
TABLE PEN PUT-ON-TABLE
Unit 11 125
Other dynamic symbols: fast, slow
and relaxed
In addition to writing the tenseness of a movement, we can also show that a
sign (or phrase) is fast, slow, or relaxed.
This symbol is used to show that a sign is
pronounced rapidly or more emphatically than
normal.
FAST RUN QUICKLY DISAPPEAR
This symbol is used to show that a sign is
pronounced more slowly than normal.
This symbol is placed above the entire sign.
POETRY TO BE BORED DISSOLVE
Unit 11126
A sign or a phrase that is signed in a
relaxed way would use this symbol.
This is somewhat different from the
slow symbol. Relaxed is a smoothing
of the movement features as well as a
slight relaxing of the handshape.
CASUAL CONVERSATION TO STROLL ALONG LIGHT SNOWFALL
As with all non-manual elements, these dynamic features can be applied to a
whole phrase or sentence using the brackets as discussed above.
Example of punctuation for a sentence signed faster than normal.
Unit 12 127
Unit 12
Contents:
• Eyes: aperture and eye gaze
• Nose
• Mouth: jaw, lips, teeth, cheeks and tongue
• Air flow
Unit 12128
Eyes
We already learned the symbols used to represent the eyes when the hand is
near or touches the eyes. When the eyes do something specific, these
symbols can be used:
eyes open closed squinted
wide open half open half closed
Unit 12 129
Sometimes it is important to specify that the eyes are closing or opening. We
use the same kind of symbol for the eyes that we use for closing and opening
the base joint of the hand. We write it either over or under the eye symbol. If
the focus is the fluttering of the eyelashes, the movement symbol can be
placed under the eyelash symbol.
close both eyes (blink) close one eye (wink) flutter eyelashes
Eye Gaze
Sometimes it can be important to write the direction the eyes are looking.
We represent the eye gaze with two kinds of arrows: single stemmed and
double stemmed. This illustration shows single-stemmed arrows, which tell
us that the eyes are looking straight forward, toward the right or toward the
left.
Unit 12130
Here we see the double-stemmed eye-gaze arrows, which show that the eyes
look up, down, to the side and diagonally.
Nose
The only systematic use of the nose
as a linguistic significant non-manual
element is the “nose scrunch” or “nose wrinkle”.
It is often accompanied by lowering the
eyebrows or raising the
upper lip.
Unit 12 131
Mouth
SignWriting has many symbols for mouth movements. They can be used to
write mouth patterns associated with lip reading (and have been used for this
in Germany). Also, with the addition of diacritics not introduced here, SW
can also be used to write non-visible tongue positions.
These are some of the more common mouth shapes:
smile big smile frown
big frown
Unit 12132
lips spread (“ee”) open mouth (“ah”) wide open mouth
rounded mouth (“oh”) rounded mouth, lips rounded and extended,
lips extended (“u”) mouth closed (kiss)
Unit 12 133
Remember, the illustrations are from the observer’s perspective, but the SW
symbols are from the signer’s perspective. This means that if the left side of
the mouth on the illustration is raised, the right side of the SW symbol is
raised.
one side of mouth raised one side raised with teeth biting side of mouth
lips in bottom lip over top top lip over bottom
Unit 12134
cheeks inflated cheeks sucked in cheeks tensed
Inflating one cheek only would be written like this:
teeth teeth biting upper lower lip (“f”) teeth biting upper lip
Unit 12 135
teeth touching the tongue tongue between tight lips tongue to the side
with open mouth
tongue out and up tongue out and down tongue pushing out lip
Any of these tongue symbols
can be rotated as needed:
Unit 12136
tongue in cheek jaw to the side forward down
Sometimes the tongue or lips can trill during a sign. For these signs we use
the same kind of movement symbol as for the opening and closing of the
fingers (base joint) but placed directly above or beside the part of the mouth
that is moving. The “biting” movement uses the “strike” symbol.
tongue tongue
up-and-down side-to-side
bottom lip moving (pouting) mouth moving (bababa) biting
Small arrows beside the chin
symbol indicate a movement of
the jaw.
Unit 12 137
Air flow
If we want to represent either blowing air or sucking it in, we use the
following symbols.
blow with the mouth suck in air suck in air
through the mouth through the nose
inhale exhale
to breathe
Regular breathing is not usually
marked; however, there are symbols
that do mean inhale and exhale.
If it is necessary to represent
breathing, this symbol can be used.
When combined with a dynamic
symbol, the breathing can be fast,
slow, labored, or relaxed.
Unit 12138
139
Topical index
Topic Unit:page(s)
Point of view and orientation
Observer’s and signer’s perspective 1:2
Forward view orientation 1:3, 4, 6-8
Top-down view orientation 2:10-14, 10:107
Side-view 10:107
Handshape
Basic handshapes: flat, fist, index 1:3, 6, 7
Finger focus (general intro to each finger) 2:19, 20
Middle and ring 4:41
Pinky 4:40
Thumb 3:28-30
Base shapes
Pentagon 1:3, 4, 2:13, 20
Square 1:6, 7, 2:12, 14, 19
Circle 2:21
Rectangle 7:72
Degrees of flexing
Hooked and curved 5:48-51, 8:84-86
Bent 6:60-62
Detailed degrees of bending 10:104-106
Finger relation
Together and spread 2:19-21, 8:84-86
Crossed and inside with the thumb 7:72-75, 8:85, 9:92, 93
Crossed and stacked fingers 9:93-95
Location
Head, face and neck 1:8, 3:34, 35
Back of head 3:33
Eyes, eyebrows and eyelashes 3:36
Nose 3:37
Mouth 3:37
Ears 7:81
Hair 7:81
Body, shoulders and arms 3:31-33
Position symbols 8:89, 90
140
Movement
Basic arrow concepts 2:15-17, 26, 5:55, 9:101
Straight movement 2:15-17, 22-26, 4:43-45
Complex straight movements 4:42
Circular movement 5:52-55
Arced movement 7:76-80
Changes in handshape 3:38
Finger movements 6:63-70
Changes in orientation 3:38
Forearm twists 9:96-100
Wrist movements 10:109-111
Contact symbols
Touch 1:5
Brush 2:18
Rub 5:56
Hold 5:57
In-between 5:57
Strike 5:58
Non-manual elements
Facial expressions
Eyebrows 11:115
Eyes and eyelashes 12:128-129
Nose 12:130
Mouth, lips, cheeks, teeth, tongue 12:131-136
Air flow 12:137
Non-manual movement
Head movement 11:117-119
Body movement 11:120-121
Eye movement and eye gaze 12:129-130
Tongue, lip and jaw movement 12:136
Dynamic symbols (fast, slow, tense, relaxed) 11:124-126
Punctuation
Period and comma 4:46
Brackets 11:116
Question marks 11:117
Colon 11:118
Quotation marks 11:118
Classifier construction marking 11:124
Appendix: Partial List of Symbols 141-146
Partial List of Symbols 141
Contents:
• Handshapes
• Movement arrows
• Other symbols
• Punctuation marks
Partial List of Symbols142
Handshapes
The six
orientations
for the
handshapes:
Partial List of Symbols 143
Movement arrows
parallel to the front wall parallel to floor parallel to the side wall
Partial List of Symbols144
Other symbols
Partial List of Symbols 145
Partial List of Symbols146
Punctuation marks
When the hand is turned so the fingers point toward the side, we can write
the handshape with either of two symbols, from the two points of view. They
represent the same configuration and orientation. Use the one that seems
more logical or easier to read; sometimes that is determined by the position
of the other hand.
these are the same these are the same these are the same