107
After studying this chapter, you should be able to
1. Explain why proper “problem definition” is essential to
useful business research
2. Know how to recognize problems
3. Translate managerial decision statements into relevant
research objectives
4. Translate research objectives into research questions
and/or research hypotheses
5. Outline the components of a research proposal
6. Construct tables as part of a research proposal
Chapter Vignette: Deland Trucking
Has a “Recruitment” Problem
David Deland, who has owned his trucking business for 20 years, struggles with the spreadsheet
in front of him. His recruitment specialist sits glumly across from his desk, pondering what kind of
response to give to the inevitable question, “Why are our recruitment costs so high?”
Next to the specialist sits James Garrett, a business research consultant
who has been hired by the Deland Trucking Company to get a handle
on the recruitment expenses the company has seen skyrocket over the
last six months.
“I just don’t get it,” David sighs in frustration. “We have seen a 45 percent
increase in our trucker recruitment advertising costs, and our trucker
intake and orientation expenses are killing us! James, I just don’t understand
what is happening here.”
James and the specialist have had some initial discussions, but there is
no easy way to reduce those costs without reducing the number of truckers
that Deland hires. “Perhaps we can find a more efficient way of advertising
our openings,” suggests the recruiting specialist. “Maybe we can reduce the
number of orientation sessions or travel expenses associated with the hiring
process.” David counters, “Well, I don’t see how we are any different from
our competitors. We use the same recruitment and orientation approach that
they use. I have no handle on their expenses, but the fact that our expenses
are skyrocketing must mean something is going on.”
James stares at his copy of the spreadsheet. “There is no easy way to do
this, without hurting your ability to keep drivers in your trucks,” he says. “Is
it that the costs for driver selection and recruitment have gone up?” “No, the
costs have been the same,” responds the recruiter. “It’s just that we have had to
do so many orientation and hiring sessions since the first of the year.”
“David, it might be best if I get a look at some of your hiring statistics, as
well as your driver census over the last year,” comments James. Turning to the
recruiter, James asks, “Can you give me some of your driver data to look through?”
“Sure,” says the recruiter. “We have lots of info about our drivers, and the driver census is
updated monthly. We even have some exit data we have gathered from a few drivers who have
left us. I don’t know exactly what the trend is with those drivers who leave, since we haven’t had
a chance to really analyze the data. I will send it to you through e-mail this afternoon.”
James drives back to his office, reflecting on his meeting. As he passes by trucks on the way,
he peeks at the drivers who are going in the same direction as he is. What do they think about
LEA
RN
IN
G
O
U
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CHAPTER 6
PROBLEM
DEFINITION:
THE FOUNDATION
OF BUSINESS
RESEARCH
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108 Part 2: Beginning Stages of the Research Process
their company? Would they see Deland as a great place to work? What would make Deland Trucking’s
recruitment costs go so high?
At his office, the e-mail with the trucker census and the hiring data has already arrived. Opening
the numerous spreadsheets, James continues to wonder. Does Deland Trucking have a recruitment
problem? Is the problem the company itself? What is going on?
As he examines the hiring worksheet, he compares it to the driver census figures for the last six
months. “There is the problem!” he exclaims. “I think I need to put together a proposal for David on
this. I’m sure he will be surprised about what his company’s problem really is.”
Introduction
Importance of Starting with a Good Problem Definition
The first stage of the research process introduced in the early chapters and highlighted in Chapter
4 involves translating the business decision situation into specific research objectives. While
it is tempting to skip this step and go directly to designing a research project, the chances that
a research project will prove useful are directly related to how well the research objectives correspond
to the true business “problem.” Clearly, the easiest thing for James to do in the opening
vignette is to start designing a study of Deland Trucking’s recruitment effectiveness. This seems to
be what David and his specialist want. But is it what they really need?
This chapter looks at this important step in the research process more closely. Some useful
tools are described that can help translate the business situation into relevant, actionable research
objectives. Research too often takes the blame for business failures when the real failure was really
management’s view of its own company’s situation. The Research Snapshot on page 110 describes
some classic illustrations involving companies as big and successful as Coca-Cola, R.J. Reynolds,
and Ford. While the researcher has some say in what is actually studied, remember that the client
(either the firm’s management team or an outside sponsor) is the research customer and the
researcher is serving the client’s needs through research. In other words, when the client fails to
understand their situation or insists on studying an irrelevant problem, the research is very likely
to fail, even if it is done perfectly.
Translating a business situation into something that can be researched is somewhat like translating
one language into another. It begins by coming to a consensus on a decision statement or
question. A decision statement is a written expression of the key question(s) that a research user
wishes to answer. It is the reason that research is being considered. It must be well stated and
relevant. As discussed in Chapter 4, the researcher translates this into research terms by rephrasing
the decision statement into one or more research objectives. These are expressed as deliverables in
the research proposal. The researcher then further expresses these in precise and scientific research
terminology by creating research hypotheses from the research objectives.
In this chapter, we use the term problem definition. Realize that sometimes this is really opportunity
seeking. For simplicity, the term problem definition is adapted here to refer to the process
of defining and developing a decision statement and the steps involved in translating it into more
precise research terminology,including a set of research objectives.If this process breaks down at any
point, the research will almost certainly be useless or even harmful. It will be useless if it presents
results that simply are deemed irrelevant and do not assist in decision making.It can be harmful both
because of the wasted resources and because it may misdirect the company in a poor direction.
Ultimately, it is difficult to say that any one step in the research process is most important.
However, formally defining the problem to be attacked by developing decision statements and
translating them into actionable research objectives must be done well or the rest of the research
process is misdirected. Even a good road map is useless unless you know just where you are going.
All of the roads can be correctly drawn, but they still don’t get you where you want to be. Similarly,
even the best research procedures will not overcome poor problem definition.
decision statement
A written expression of the key
question(s) that the research user
wishes to answer.
problem definition
The process of defining and
developing a decision statement
and the steps involved in
translating it into more precise
research terminology, including a
set of research objectives.
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109
Consider the following questions as
you think about this section of the
survey and other sections of the survey
not shown here.
©GEORGEDOYLE&CIARANGRIFFIN
S U R V E Y T H I S !
CCo
yyo
sur
not
SS
● What kinds of decision statements might be involved
using the information collected in this portion of the
survey? Think about the types of companies that might
be interested in this information.
● Would any nonprofit institutions be interested in this
data?
● Translate a decision statement from above into a
research question and the related research hypothesis
or hypotheses.
● What would a dummy table look like that might provide
the data for these hypotheses?
EXHIBIT 6.1
Defining Problems Can Be
DifficultSituation
Research
Objectives
Easier:
1. Situation is recurring/routine
2. A dramatic change occurs
3. Symptoms are isolated
4. Symptoms are consistent
Harder:
1. Situation appears new
2. Change(s) in situation is
subtle
3. Symptoms are scattered
4. Symptoms are ambiguous
Problem Complexity
Ultimately, the quality of business research in improving business decisions is limited by the quality of the
problem definition stage. This is far from the easiest stage of the research process. Indeed, it can be the
most complex. Exhibit 6.1 helps to illustrate factors that influence how complex the process can be.
COURTESYOFQUALTRICS.COM
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110
■ SITUATION FREQUENCY
Many business situations are cyclical. Cyclical business situations lead to recurring business problems.
These problems can even become routine. In these cases, it is easy to define problems and
identify the types of research that are needed. In some cases, problems are so routine that they can
be solved without any additional research. Recurring problems can even be automated through
a company’s DSS.
For example, pricing problems often occur routinely. Just think about how the price of gas
fluctuates when several stations are located within sight of each other. One station’s prices definitely
affect the sales of the other stations as well as of the station itself. Similarly, automobile
companies, airline companies, and computer companies, to name just a few, face recurring
pricing issues. Because these situations recur so frequently, addressing them becomes routine.
Decision makers know how to communicate them to researchers and researchers know what data
are needed.
Good Answers, Bad Questions?
It’s amazing, but sometimes even the most successful companies
make huge blunders. These blunders often are based on a misunderstanding
of exactly what the brand and/or product means
to consumers. Some of the famous, or infamous, examples of
such blunders include RJR’s introduction of Premier “Smokeless”
Cigarettes, Ford’s introduction of the Edsel in the 1950s, and
most famous (or infamous) of all, Coca-Cola’s introduction of
New Coke as a replacement for regular “old” Coke.
Volumes have been written about each of these episodes.
One does have to wonder, how did these great companies do
such apparently dumb things? The blame is often placed at the
foot of the decision makers: “Research should have revealed that
product was a loser.” However, researchers address the questions
they are asked to address by management. Certainly, the
researchers play a role in framing any decision situation into
something that can be addressed by a pointed research question.
The decision makers almost always start the process by asking
for input from their staff, or from research consultants they have
hired. Hopefully, the dialogue that results will lead to a productive
research question that will provide useful results. However it isn’t
always the case that such research questions are self-evident.
Hindsight certainly is clearer than foresight. It seems almost
unthinkable that Coke could have made its decision to replace a
product with a century-long success record without considering
the emotional meaning that goes along with drinking a “Coke.”
However, management considered Coke to be a beverage, not a
brand. Thus, the focus was on the taste of Coke. Thus, researchers
set about trying to decide if New Coke, which was more similar
to Pepsi, tasted better than the original Coke. A great deal of very
careful research suggested clearly that it did taste better. If the
key question was taste, New Coke was preferred over old Coke
by more consumers. In fact, there was considerable evidence
that already showed a taste preference for Pepsi over old Coke.
Interestingly, Coke appeared to view itself as its primary competitor.
At least two very important questions were never asked or
were addressed insufficiently:
1. Do consumers prefer New
Coke over Pepsi?
2. When people know what they are drinking,
do they still prefer New Coke to old Coke?
For a taste test to be valid, it is should be
done “blindly,” meaning that the taster
doesn’t know what he or she is drinking. Only
then can one assess taste without being psychologically
influenced by knowing the brand. So, Coke and Pepsi
conducted a blind taste test. This is certainly a good research
practice—if the question is taste. The Coke research correctly
answered the taste question. The big problem is that since
management didn’t realize that most of the meaning of Coke is
psychological, and since they were so convinced that their old
product was “inferior,” the dialogue between management and
researchers never produced more useful questions.
In the case of Ford’s Edsel, a postmortem analysis suggests
that research actually indicated many of the problems that ultimately
led to its demise. The name, Edsel, was never tested by
research, even though hundreds of other possibilities were.
Similarly, the idea of a smokeless cigarette seemed appealing.
Research addressed the question, “What is the attitude of smokers
and nonsmokers toward a smokeless cigarette?” Nonsmokers
loved the idea. Smokers, particularly those who lived with a
nonsmoker, also indicated a favorable attitude. However, as we
know, the product failed miserably. If you take the “smoke” out of
“smoking,” is it still the same thing? This question was never asked.
Would someone who would try a smokeless cigarette replace their
old brand with this new brand? Again, this wasn’t asked.
Today, it is possible that some famous company could be
making a very similar mistake. Consider Macy’s. Macy’s has
acquired many regional and local department stores around the
country over the past few years. Clearly, Macy’s is a very recognizable
name brand that brings with it considerable “equity.”
How important is it for Macy’s to ask, “What is the best name for
this department store?” If the acquisition involves taking over a
local retail “institution,” is a name change always a good thing?
Certainly, it seems to be a good question to which research could
probably provide a good answer!
Sources: Gibson, Larry, “Why the New Coke Failed,” Marketing Research 15 (Summer
2003), 52; “Is Macy’s the New Coke?” Advertising Age 76 (September 26, 2005), 24.
R E S E A R C H S N A P S H O T
g,
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ychoSo
Coke and Pepsi
T
©APPHOTO/FORDMOTORCO.
Good research does not
guarantee correct decisions.
©GEORGEDOYLE&CIARANGRIFFIN
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Chapter 6: Problem Definition: The Foundation of Business Research 111
Most pricing decisions in the airline industry are automated based on sophisticated demand
models. The models take into account fluctuations in travel patterns based on the time of the year,
time of the day, degree of competition for that particular route, and many other factors. At one
time, these decisions were based on periodic research reports. Now, the information is simply fed
into a decision support system that generates a pricing schedule. It is interesting that one factor
that is not very important in many of these pricing decisions is the cost involved in flying someone
from point A to point B. Indeed, some passengers pay a fare much higher than the actual
costs and others pay a fare much lower than the actual costs involved in getting them to their
desired destination.
■ DRAMATIC CHANGES
When a sudden change in the business situation takes place, it can be easier to define the problem.
For example, if Deland’s business had increased sharply at the beginning of the year, the
key factors to study could be isolated by identifying other factors that have changed in that same
time period. It could be that a very large trucking contract had been obtained, or that a current
customer dramatically increased their distribution needs, which Deland is benefiting from.
In contrast, when changes are very subtle and take effect over a long period of time, it can be
more difficult to define the actual decision and research problems. Detecting trends that would
permanently affect the recruitment challenges that Deland faces can be difficult. It may be difficult
to detect the beginning of such a trend and even more difficult to know whether such a trend is
relatively permanent or simply a temporary occurrence.
■ HOW WIDESPREAD ARE THE SYMPTOMS?
The more scattered any symptoms are, the more difficult it is to put them together into some
coherent problem statement. In contrast, firms may sometimes face situations in which multiple
symptoms exist, but they are all pointing to some specific business area. For instance, an
automobile manufacturing company may exhibit symptoms such as increased complaints about
a car’s handling, increased warranty costs due to repairs, higher labor costs due to inefficiency,
and lower performance ratings by consumer advocates such as Consumer Reports. All of these
symptoms point to production as a likely problem area. This may lead to research questions
that deal with supplier-manufacturer relationships, job performance, job satisfaction, supervisory
support, and performance. Although having a lot of problems in one area may not sound very
positive, it can be very helpful in pointing out the direction that is most in need of attention
and improvement.
In contrast, when the problems are more widespread, it can be very difficult to develop useful
research questions. If consumer complaints dealt with the handling and the appearance of the
car, and these were accompanied by symptoms including consumer beliefs that gas mileage could
be better and that dealerships did not have a pleasant environment, it may be more difficult to
put these scattered symptoms together into one or a few related research questions. Later in the
chapter, we’ll discuss some tools for trying to analyze symptoms in an effort to find some potential
common cause.
■ SYMPTOM AMBIGUITY
Ambiguity is almost always unpleasant. People simply are uncomfortable with the uncertainty that
comes with ambiguity. Similarly, an environmental scan of a business situation may lead to many
symptoms, none of which seem to point in a clear and logical direction. In this case, the problem
area remains vague and the alternative directions are difficult to ascertain.
A retail store may face a situation in which sales and traffic are up, but margins are down.
They may have decreased employee turnover, but lower job satisfaction. In addition, there may
be several issues that arise with their suppliers, none of which is clearly positive or negative. In this
case, it may be very difficult to sort through the evidence and reach a definitive decision statement
or list of research objectives.
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112 Part 2: Beginning Stages of the Research Process
The Problem-Definition Process
Problems Mean Gaps
A problem occurs when there is a difference between the current conditions and a more preferable
set of conditions. In other words, a gap exists between the way things are now and a way that
things could be better. The gap can come about in a number of ways:1
1. Business performance is worse than expected business performance. For instance, sales, profits,
and margins could be below targets set by management. This is a very typical type of problem
analysis. Think of all the new products that fail to meet their targeted goals. Trend analysis
would also be included in this type of problem. Management is constantly monitoring key
performance variables. Previous performance usually provides a benchmark forming expectations.
Sales, for example, are generally expected to increase a certain percentage each year.
When sales fall below this expectation, or particularly when they fall below the previous year’s
sales, management usually recognizes that they have a potential problem on their hands. The
Research Snapshot on the next page illustrates this point.
2. Actual business performance is less than possible business performance. Realization of this gap
first requires that management have some idea of what is possible. This may form a research
problem in and of itself. Opportunity-seeking often falls into this type of problem-definition
process. Many American and European Union companies have redefined what possible sales
levels are based upon the expansion of free markets around the world. China’s Civil Aviation
Administration has relaxed requirements opening the Chinese air travel market to private
airlines.2
Suddenly, the possible market size for air travel has increased significantly, creating
opportunities for growth.
3. Expected business performance is greater than possible business performance. Sometimes,
management has unrealistic views of possible performance levels—either too high or too low.
One key problem with new product introductions involves identifying realistic possibilities
for sales. While you may have heard the old adage that 90 percent of all new products fail,
how many of the failures had a realistic sales ceiling? In other words, did the company know
the possible size of the market? In this case, the problem is not with the product but with the
plan. Some product “failures” may actually have been successful if management had a more
accurate idea of the total market potential. Management can close this gap through decision
making. Researchers help managers make decisions by providing relevant input.
The Problem-Definition Process Steps
The problem-definition process involves several interrelated steps, as shown in Exhibit 6.2. Sometimes,
the boundaries between each step aren’t exactly clear. But generally, completing one step
leads to the other and by the time the problem is defined, each of these steps has been addressed
in some way. The steps are
1. Understand the business situation—identify key symptoms
2. Identify key problem(s) from symptoms
3. Write managerial decision statement and corresponding research objectives
4. Determine the unit of analysis
5. Determine the relevant variables
6. Write research questions and/or research hypotheses
A separate section deals with each stage below.
Understand the Business Decision
A situation analysis involves the gathering of background information to familiarize researchers
and managers with the decision-making environment. The situation analysis can be written up
problem
Occurs when there is a difference
between the current conditions
and a more preferable set of
conditions.
situation analysis
The gathering of background
information to familiarize
researchers and managers with
the decision-making environment.
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113
as a way of documenting the problem-definition process. Gaining an awareness of marketplace
conditions and an appreciation of the situation often requires exploratory research. Researchers
sometimes apply qualitative research with the objective of better problem definition. The situation
analysis begins with an interview between the researcher and management.
■ INTERVIEW PROCESS
The researcher must enter a dialogue with the key decision makers in an effort to fully understand
the situation that has motivated a research effort. This process is critical and the researcher
should be granted access to all individuals who have specific knowledge of or insight into this
situation. Researchers working with managers who want the information “yesterday” often get
Why Did Our Employees
Leave? FleetBoston’s Initiatives
to Stop the Exit
Getting bigger does not always translate easily to
better performance. FleetBoston, prior to its own
acquisition by Bank of America, had grown to one of the largest
banks in the United States through a series of mergers and acquisitions.
With each acquisition, however, came the usual “growing
pains” that can create dissatisfaction among existing and new
employees. With employee turnover rates approaching 40 percent,
FleetBoston compared itself to industry averages and found
itself underperforming. In fact, the customer-focused mission of
FleetBoston was genuinely believed to be at risk.
What could they do? Through a series of careful studies the
research team realized that employees are likely to stay when
they feel that opportunities are there for them, and that the bank
provided a more stable management within which they could
grow. Additionally, these studies revealed that the quality of
the hiring process directly impacted the length of stay for those
same employees.
As a result, FleetBoston was able to create a set of retention
strategies that focused on what the bank employees do and what
they value in their work environment. These strategies yielded
short-term benefits that directly affected their bottom line. By
hiring better, and by creating opportunities for those employees
to stay, turnover rates were reduced significantly. This in turn led
to a reduced need to spend money on recruitment costs. All in
all, the benefits of carefully examining performance as measured
through employee retention paid off. FleetBoston had successfully
stopped the exit.
Source: Nalbantian, H. R. and A. Szostak,
“How Fleet Bank Fought Employee
Flight”, Harvard Business Review
(April 2004), 116–125.
R E S E A R C H S N A P S H O T
Wh
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Getting bigge
better perfor
acquisitiionn bby Bank of Ame
banks in the United States
With each acquisit
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©SUSANVANETTEN
©GEORGEDOYLE&CIARANGRIFFIN
6. Write research questions and/or
research hypotheses
1. Understand the situation—identify the
key symptoms
2. Identify the problems from the
symptoms
3. Write managerial decision statement and
corresponding research objectives
4. Determine the unit of analysis
5. Determine relevant variables
EXHIBIT 6.2
The Problem-Definition
Process
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114 Part 2: Beginning Stages of the Research Process
little assistance when they ask, “What are your objectives for this study?” Nevertheless, even
decision makers who have only a gut feeling that the research might be a good idea benefit
greatly if they work with the researcher to articulate precise research objectives.3
Even when
there is good cooperation, seldom can key decision makers express the situation in research
terms:
Despite a popular misconception to the contrary, objectives are seldom clearly articulated and given to the
researcher. The decision maker seldom formulates his objectives accurately. He is likely to state his objectives
in the form of platitudes which have no operational significance. Consequently, objectives usually
have to be extracted by the researcher. In so doing, the researcher may well be performing his most useful
service to the decision maker.4
Researchers may often be tempted to accept the first plausible problem statement offered by
management. For instance, in the opening vignette, it is clear that David believes there is a recruitment
problem. However, it is very important that the researcher not blindly accept a convenient
problem definition for expediency’s sake. In fact, research demonstrates that people who are better
problem solvers generally reject problem definitions as given to them. Rather, they take information
provided by others and re-associate it with other information in a creative way. This allows
them to develop more innovative and more effective decision statements.5
There are many ways to discover problems and spot opportunities. There is certainly much
art involved in translating scattered pieces of evidence about some business situation into relevant
problem statements and then relevant research objectives. While there are other sources that
address creative thinking in detail, some helpful hints that can be useful in the interview process
include
1. Develop many alternative problem statements. These can emerge from the interview material
or from simply rephrasing decision statements and problem statements.
2. Think about potential solutions to the problem.6
Ultimately, for the research to be actionable,
some plausible solution must exist. After pairing decision statements with research objectives,
think about the solutions that might result. This can help make sure any research that results
is useful.
3. Make lists. Use free-association techniques to generate lists of ideas. The more ideas, the better.
Use interrogative techniques to generate lists of potential questions that can be used in the
interview process. Interrogative techniques simply involve asking multiple what, where, who,
when, why, and how questions. They can also be used to provoke introspection, which can
assist with problem definition.
4. Be open-minded. It is very important to consider all ideas as plausible in the beginning stages
of problem solving. One sure way to stifle progress is to think only like those intimately
involved in the business situation or only like those in other industries. Analogies can be useful
in thinking more creatively.
■ IDENTIFYING SYMPTOMS
Interviews with key decision makers also can be one of the best ways to identify key problem
symptoms. Recall that all problems have symptoms just as human disease is diagnosed through
symptoms. Once symptoms are identified, then the researcher must probe to identify possible
causes of these changes. Probing is an interview technique that tries to draw deeper and more
elaborate explanations from the discussion. This discussion may involve potential problem causes.
This probing process will likely be very helpful in identifying key variables that are prime candidates
for study.
One of the most important questions the researcher can ask during these interviews is, “what
has changed?” Then, the researcher should probe to identify potential causes of the change. At the
risk of seeming repetitive, it is important that the researcher repeat this process to make sure that
some important change has not been left out.
In addition,the researcher should look for changes in company documents,including financial
statements and operating reports. Changes may also be identified by tracking down news about
competitors and customers. Exhibit 6.3 provides a summary of this approach.
interrogative techniques
Asking multiple what, where, who,
when, why, and how questions.
probing
An interview technique that
tries to draw deeper and more
elaborate explanations from the
discussion.
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Chapter 6: Problem Definition: The Foundation of Business Research 115
Think back to the opening vignette. Often, multiple interviews are necessary to identify all
the key symptoms and gain a better understanding of the actual business situation. On a follow-up
interview, the dialogue between James and David may proceed as follows:
James: David, it is clear that your recruitment costs have been increasing since the start of the
year. What other changes have occurred inside of your business within the past year?
David: Just a few things. We have had pressures on our bottom line, so we held back on raising
the cents per mile that we give our drivers. Also, we have had to extend our long-haul
trucking needs, so our drivers are on the road for a much longer period of time for each
trip.
James (probing): Tell me, what led to this decision to extend the driver’s time on the road?
David: It just worked out that way. Our contract just changed to allow us to do this, and our
operations manager felt we could make more money per load this way.
James: Have you noticed changes in your customers?
David: We do see that they are a little irritated due to some of the problems of getting their freight
delivered successfully.
James: Has there been a change in personnel?
David: Yes, we’ve had more than the usual share of turnover. I’ve turned over most personnel
decisions to our new human resources manager. We’ve had trouble maintaining a person
in that role.
In the change interview, the researcher is trying to identify possible changes in the customers,
the competitors, the internal conditions of the company, and the external environment.The interplay
between things that have changed and things that have stayed the same can often lead to key
research factors. Before preparing the proposal, James and David agree that the real decision faced
is not as narrow as a recruiting problem. In this case, James is beginning to suspect that one key
factor is that the increase in recruitment costs is a reflection of increased driver turnover. If driver
retention could be increased, the need for larger recruitment expenses would stabilize, or even go
down.
Almost any situation can be framed from a number of different perspectives. A pricing problem
may be rephrased as a brand image problem. People expect high quality products to have
higher prices. A quality problem may be rephrased as a packaging problem. For example, a potato
chip company thought that a quality differential between their potatoes and their competitor’s was
the cause for the symptom showing sliding market share. However, one of the research questions
that eventually resulted dealt with consumer preferences for packaging. In the end, research suggested
that consumers prefer a foil package because it helps the chips stay fresher longer. Thus, the
key gap turned out to be a package gap!7
EXHIBIT 6.3
What Has Changed?
Question: What changes have
occurred recently?
Probe: Tell me about this change.
Probe: What has brought this about?
Problem: How might this be
related to your problem?
Question: What other changes
have occurred recently (i.e.,
competitors, customers,
environment, pricing, promotion,
suppliers, employees, etc.)?
Continue Probing
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116
Researchers should make sure that they have uncovered all possible relevant symptoms and
considered their potential causes. Perhaps more interview time with key decision makers asking
why people choose Coke would have helped identify some of the less tangible aspects of the
Coke-Pepsi-New Coke battle. Similarly, as seen in the Research Snapshot above, the makers of
automobiles in the United States should examine more carefully the possible ways that consumers
make choices about the vehicles they buy. It can help avoid mistakes later.
Identifying the Relevant Issues from the Symptoms
Anticipating the many influences and dimensions of a problem is impossible for any researcher
or executive. The preceding interview is extremely useful in translating the decision situation
into a working problem definition by focusing on symptoms. The probing process discussed on
pages 115–116 begins this process. However, the researcher needs to be doubly certain that the
research attacks real problems and not superficial symptoms.
For instance, when a firm has a problem with advertising effectiveness, the possible causes
of this problem may be low brand awareness, the wrong brand image, use of the wrong media,
or perhaps too small a budget. Certain occurrences that appear to be the problem may be only
symptoms of a deeper problem. Exhibit 6.4 illustrates how symptoms can be translated into a
problem and then a decision statement.
Writing Managerial Decision Statements
and Corresponding Research Objectives
The situation analysis ends once researchers have a clear idea of the managerial objectives from
the research effort. Decision statements capture these objectives in a way that invites multiple
solutions. Multiple solutions are encouraged by using plural nouns to describe solutions. In other
words, a decision statement that says in what “ways” a problem can be solved is better than one
that says in what “way” a problem can be solved. Ultimately, research may provide evidence
showing results of several ways a problem can be attacked.
T O T H E P O I N T
The real voyage of
discovery consists
not in seeking new
landscapes, but in
having new eyes.
—Marcel Proust
Opportunity Is a “Fleeting” Thing
Have non-European automotive companies missed out on
European opportunities? Europe represents a nearly $17 million
annual market for new automobiles. Traditionally, the thinking is
that European’s prefer smaller or “light-cars.” Thus, European car
companies like BMW and Audi were slow to enter the SUV market.
Mercedes entered the SUV market rather early on, but the
emphasis was on the American market. American and Japanese
companies offered little more than a token effort at selling SUVs
in Europe. Thus, the SUV wars were fought in America where
total volume reached 4 million shortly after 2000. Europeans
were left with fewer choices if an SUV struck their fancy.
As a result, pre-2000 SUV sales in Europe were almost nonexistent.
However, SUV sales in Europe have increased dramatically
since then. By 2004, European SUV sales reached 16.5 million
units, about one in twenty of all new autos sold in Europe. Today,
Nissan, Toyota, Land Rover, and Suzuki are major players in the
European SUV market. However, sales expectations for new
entries from Opel, Renault,
Volkswagen, Mercedes, and
Audi are sluggish through
2008 with so many SUVs to
choose from coupled with
high fuel prices. In hindsight, could it be that
several prominent automobile companies
missed opportunities in Europe because
they failed to know how big the market
truly was?
Looking at this from the opposite direction,
the tiny (by U.S. standards) two-seater SMART (http://www.smartusa.
com) car has being introduced in the United States. Approximately
30,000 U.S. consumers have put down $99 to reserve the right to
buy a SMART car since its introduction. SMART is poised to take
advantage of an opportunity created by high gas prices while GM
scrambles to turn production away from large SUVs like HUMMER
toward new entries like the Chevrolet Volt. The relative success
of these new entries against European minis like the SMART
may also depend on the exchange rate which presently makes
European entries expensive in the United States. Word is there
may even be a SMART SUV—a miniature version of an American
icon. What is the SMART future?
Sources: “The Business Week,” Business Week 4008 (June 16, 2008), 6–10; Crain, K.C.,
“Analyst Sees Sales Decline for Light Vehicles in 2005,” Automotive News 79 (January
24, 2005), 111; Meiners, Jena, “SUV Sales in Europe Will Peak in 2008,” Automotive
News Europe 9 (June 28, 2004); Marquand, R., “Euorpe’s Little Smart Car to Hit U.S.
Streets,” Christian Science Monitor (2008), http://www.csmonitor.com/2008/0109/
p01s01-woeu.html, accessed July 31, 2008.
R E S E A R C H S N A P S H O T
at
on,
RT (http://www.smartusa.
T
©BIENCHEN-S/SHUTTERSTOCK
©GEORGEDOYLE&CIARANGRIFFIN
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Chapter 6: Problem Definition: The Foundation of Business Research 117
Decision statements must be translated into research objectives. At this point, the researcher
is starting to visualize what will need to be measured and what type of study will be needed.
Exhibit 6.5 on the next page extends the examples from Exhibit 6.4, showing research objectives
that correspond to each decision statement. Note that each research objective states a corresponding
potential result(s) of the research project. Thus, in some ways, it is stating the information that
is needed to help make the decision. Once the decision statement is written, the research essentially
answers the question, “What information is needed to address this situation?”
Referring back to the opening vignette, the analysis of the symptoms has led to the conclusion
that there is an employee retention problem. Perhaps drivers are dissatisfied with being away from
their families for so long and this is leading to higher levels of driver turnover. Or, perhaps it is the
cents per mile that is leading to driver frustration and a desire to go to a higher-paying competitor.
David and James eventually agree on the following decision statement:
In what ways can Deland Trucking build driver loyalty so that retention increases and subsequent recruitment
costs decrease?
What information or data will be needed to help answer this question? Obviously, we’ll need
to study the driver census and the number of hires needed to fill open positions. James needs to
find out what might cause employee dissatisfaction and cause turnover to increase. Thinking back
to the interview, James knows that there have been several changes in the company itself, many
related to saving costs. Saving costs sounds like a good idea; however, if it harms driver loyalty
Firm’s
Situation Symptoms
Probable
Problem
Decision
Statement
Research Action Conduct Situation Analysis including interviews
with key decision makers
Consider results of
probing and apply
creative processes
Express in actionable
terms and make sure
decision makers are in
agreement
Situation 1 22-year-old
neighborhood
swimming association
seeks research help
• Declining
Membership for
6 years
• Increased attendance
at new water park
• Less frequent usage
among members
Swim facility is
outdated and does
not appeal to younger
families. Younger
families and children
have a negative
image of pool. Their
“old market” is aging.
What things can be
done to energize new
markets and create a
more favorable attitude
toward the association?
Situation 2 Manufacturer of
palm-sized computer
with wireless Internet
access believes
B2B sales are too low
• Distributors
complain prices are
too high
• Business users
still use larger
computers
• Business users do
not see advantages
of smaller units
• Advantages are
not outweighed by
costs
• Transition costs
may be a drawback
for B2B customers
more than for B2C
customers
What things can be
done to improve
competitive positioning
of the new product in
B2B markets?
Situation 3 A new microbrewery
is trying to establish
itself
• Consumers seem
to prefer national
brands over the
local microbrew
products
• Many customers
order national
brands within the
microbrew itself
• Some customers
hesitant to try new
microbrew flavors
Is there a negative
flavor gap?
Do consumers
appreciate the microbrew
approach and
the full beer tasting
(as opposed to
drinking) experience?
How can we encourage
more consumers to
come to the microbrew
and try our products?
Should we redesign the
brewery to be more
inviting?
EXHIBIT 6.4 Symptoms Can Be Confusing
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118 Part 2: Beginning Stages of the Research Process
even slightly, it probably isn’t worthwhile. Thus, the corresponding research objectives are stated
as follows:
• Determine what key variables relate to driver loyalty within the company, meaning (1) how
does the lower level of pay impact driver retention and (2) what does the increase in long-haul
trucking do to Deland Trucking’s ability to increase retention?
• Assess the impact of different intervention strategies on driver satisfaction
These research objectives are the deliverables of the research project. A research study will
be conducted that (1) shows how much each of several key variables relates to loyalty and retention
and (2) provides a description of likelihood of different intervention strategies on driver
satisfaction.
The researcher should reach a consensus agreement with the decision maker regarding the
overall decision statement(s) and research objectives. If the decision maker agrees that the statement
captures the situation well and understands how the research objectives, if accomplished,
will help address the situation, then the researcher can proceed. The researcher should make every
effort to ensure that the decision maker understands what a research project can deliver. If there is
no agreement on the decision statement or research objectives, more dialogue between decision
makers and researchers is needed.
EXHIBIT 6.5 Translating Decision Statements
Decision
Statement
Research
Objectives
Research
Questions
Research
Hypotheses
Research Action Express in actionable
terms and make sure
decision makers are in
agreement
Expresses potential
research results that
should aid decision-
making
Ask a question that
corresponds to each
research objective
Specific statement
explaining
relationships, usually
involving two variables,
and including the
direction of the
relationship
Situation 1 What things can be
done to energize new
markets and create a
more favorable attitude
toward the association?
Determine reasons
why families may
choose to join or not
join a “swim club.”
How do the type of
facilities and pricing
relate to family
attitudes toward a
swim facility?
Child-friendly pool
designs are positively
related to attitudes
toward the facility.
Flexible pricing policies
are positively related
to attitudes toward the
facility.
Situation 2 What product features
can be improved
and emphasized to
improve competitive
positioning of the
new product in B2B
markets?
List actions that
may overcome the
objections (switching
costs) of B2B
customers toward
adoption of the new
product.
What are the factors
that most lead to
perceptions of high
switching costs?
Perceived difficulty in
learning how to use the
new device is related to
switching costs.
Price is positively related
to switching costs.
Knowledge of new
product is positively
related to switching costs.
Situation 3 How can we encourage
more consumers to
come to the microbrew
and try our products?
Should we redesign the
brewery to be more
inviting?
Describe how
situational factors
influence beer
consumption and
consumer attitudes
toward beer products.
List factors that
will improve
attitudes toward the
microbrewery.
Do situational factors
(such as time of
day, food pairings,
or environmental
factors) relate to taste
perceptions of beer?
Microbrew beer
is preferred when
consumed with food.
An exciting atmosphere
will improve consumer
attitudes toward the
microbrew.
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Chapter 6: Problem Definition: The Foundation of Business Research 119
Determine the Unit of Analysis
The unit of analysis for a study indicates what or who should provide the data and at what level of
aggregation. Researchers specify whether an investigation will collect data about individuals (such
as customers, employees, and owners), households (families, extended families, and so forth), organizations
(businesses and business units), departments (sales, finance, and so forth), geographical
areas, or objects (products, advertisements, and so forth). In studies of home buying, for example,
the husband/wife dyad typically is the unit of analysis rather than the individual because many
purchase decisions are made jointly by husband and wife.
Researchers who think carefully and creatively about situations often discover that a problem
can be investigated at more than one level of analysis. For example, a lack of worker productivity
could be due to problems that face individual employees or it could reflect problems that are present
in entire business units. Determining the unit of analysis should not be overlooked during the
problem-definition stage of the research.
Determine Relevant Variables
■ WHAT IS A VARIABLE?
What things should be studied to address a decision statement? Researchers answer this question
by identifying key variables. A variable is anything that varies or changes from one instance to
another. Variables can exhibit differences in value, usually in magnitude or strength, or in direction.
In research, a variable is either observed or manipulated, in which case it is an experimental
variable.
The converse of a variable is a constant. A constant is something that does not change. Constants
are not useful in addressing research questions. Since constants don’t change, management
isn’t very interested in hearing the key to the problem is something that won’t or can’t be changed.
In causal research, it can be important to make sure that some potential variable is actually held
constant while studying the cause and effect between two other variables. In this way, a spurious
relationship can be ruled out. At this point however, the notion of a constant is more important
in helping to understand how it differs from a variable.
■ TYPES OF VARIABLES
There are several key terms that help describe types of variables. The variance in variables is captured
either with numerical differences or by an identified category membership. In addition, different
terms describe whether a variable is a potential cause or an effect.
A continuous variable is one that can take on a range of values that correspond to some quantitative
amount. Consumer attitude toward different airlines is a variable that would generally be
captured by numbers, with higher numbers indicating a more positive attitude than lower numbers.
Each attribute of airlines’ services, such as safety, seat comfort, and baggage handling can be
numerically scored in this way. Sales volume, profits, and margin are common business metrics
that represent continuous variables.
A categorical variable is one that indicates membership in some group. The term classificatory
variable is sometimes also used and is generally interchangeable with categorical variable. Categorical
variables sometimes represent quantities that take on only a small number of values (one, two, or
three). However, categorical variables more often simply identify membership.
For example, people can be categorized as either male or female. A variable representing
biological sex describes this important difference. The variable values can be an “M” for membership
in the male category and an “F” for membership in the female category. Alternatively, the
researcher could assign a “0” for men and a “1” for women. In either case, the same information
is represented.
A common categorical variable in consumer research is adoption, meaning the consumer
either did or did not purchase a new product. Thus, the two groups, purchase or not purchase,
unit of analysis
A study indicates what or who
should provide the data and at
what level of aggregation.
variable
Anything that varies or changes
from one instance to another;
can exhibit differences in value,
usually in magnitude or strength,
or in direction.
constant
Something that does not change;
is not useful in addressing
research questions.
continuous variable
A variable that can take on a
range of values that correspond
to some quantitative amount.
categorical variable
A variable that indicates membership
in some group.
classificatory variable
Another term for a categorical
variable because it classifies units
into categories.
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120 Part 2: Beginning Stages of the Research Process
comprise the variable. Similarly, turnover,
or whether an employee has quit or not, is a
common organizational variable.
In descriptive and causal research, the
terms dependent variable and independent variable
describe different variable types. This
distinction becomes very important in understanding
how business processes can be modeled
by a researcher. The distinction must be
clear before one can correctly apply certain
statistical procedures like multiple regression
analysis. In some cases, however, such
as when only one variable is involved in a
hypothesis, the researcher need not make this
distinction.
A dependent variable is a process outcome
or a variable that is predicted and/or
explained by other variables. An independent
variable is a variable that is expected to influence
the dependent variable in some way. Such variables are independent in the sense that they
are determined outside of the process being studied. That is another way of saying that dependent
variables do not change independent variables.
For example, average customer loyalty may be a dependent variable that is influenced or predicted
by an independent variable such as perceptions of restaurant food quality, service quality,
and customer satisfaction. Thus, a process is described by which several variables together help
create and explain how much customer loyalty exists. In other words, if we know how a customer
rates the food quality, service quality, and satisfaction with a restaurant, then we can predict that
customer’s loyalty toward that restaurant. Note that this does not mean that we can predict food
quality or service quality with customer loyalty.
Dependent variables are conventionally represented by the letter Y. Independent variables
are conventionally represented by the letter X. If research involves two dependent variables and
two or more independent variables, subscripts may also be used to indicate Y1
, Y2
and X1
, X2
,
and so on.
Ultimately, theory is critical in building processes that include both independent and dependent
variables (see Chapter 4). Managers and researchers must be careful to identify relevant and
actionable variables. Relevant means that a change in the variable matters and actionable means that
a variable can be controlled by managerial action. Superfluous variables are those that are neither
relevant nor actionable and should not be included in a study. Theory should help distinguish
relevant from superfluous variables.
The process of identifying the relevant variables overlaps with the process of determining the
research objectives. Typically, each research objective will mention a variable or variables to be
measured or analyzed. As the translation process proceeds through research objectives, research
questions, and research hypotheses, it is usually possible to emphasize the variables that should be
included in a study (as in Exhibits 6.5 and 6.6).
Exhibit 6.6 includes some common business research hypotheses and a description of the key
variables involved in each. In the first case, a regional grocery chain is considering offering a delivery
service that would allow consumers to purchase groceries via the store Web site. They have
conducted a trial of this in one market and have conducted a survey in that area. In the second
case, a Korean automobile company is considering offering one of its models for sale in Europe.
The company has also conducted a survey in two key European auto markets.
Write Research Objectives and Questions
Both managers and researchers expect problem-definition efforts to result in statements of research
questions and research objectives. At the end of the problem-definition stage, the researcher
dependent variable
A process outcome or a variable
that is predicted and/or
explained by other variables.
independent variable
A variable that is expected to
influence the dependent variable
in some way.
©APPHOTO/ALEXANDRABOULAT/VII
Several variables describe child
consumers. Their biological sex
is a categorical variable; how
much they weigh, or how often
they go out to the mall are
continuous variables.
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Chapter 6: Problem Definition: The Foundation of Business Research 121
should prepare a written statement that clarifies any ambiguity about what the research hopes to
accomplish. This completes the translation process.
Research questions express the research objectives in terms of questions that can be addressed
by research. For example, one of the key research questions involved in the opening vignette is
“Are wages and long-haul distance related to driver loyalty and retention?” Hypotheses are more
specific than research questions. One key distinction between research questions and hypotheses
is that hypotheses can generally specify the direction of a relationship. In other words, when an
independent variable goes up, we have sufficient knowledge to predict that the dependent variable
should also go up (or down as the case may be). One key research hypothesis for Deland
Trucking is:
Higher cents per mile are related positively to driver loyalty.
At times, a researcher may suspect that two variables are related but have insufficient theoretical
rationale to support the relationship as positive or negative. In this case, hypotheses cannot
be offered. At times in research, particularly in exploratory research, a proposal can only offer
research questions. Research hypotheses are much more specific and therefore require considerably
more theoretical support. In addition, research questions are interrogative, whereas research
hypotheses are declarative.
Clarity in Research Questions and Hypotheses
Research questions make it easier to understand what is perplexing managers and to indicate what
issues have to be resolved. A research question is the researcher’s translation of the marketing
problem into a specific inquiry.
research questions
Express the research objectives
in terms of questions that can be
addressed by research.
EXHIBIT 6.6 Example Business Decision Situations, Corresponding Research Hypotheses, and Variable Descriptions
Managerial Decision Research Question(s) Research Hypotheses Categorical Variable(s) Continuous Variable(s)
Retail grocer considering
Web-based delivery
service
Is there sufficient
demand?
How much should
delivery personnel be
paid?
Will delivery service (new
retail form) cannibalize
current business?
Projected sales volume will
exceed $5 M annually.
Delivery personnel can
be paid less than cashiers
and achieve the same job
satisfaction.
Web customers express
lower intentions to
visit store than other
customers.
Type of employee
(delivery, cashier, etc.)
Retail form (independent
variable): classifies
respondents based on
whether they shopped
(1) in store or (2) via the
Web (delivery).
Sales volume: dollar
amount based on a test
trial in one geographic
market (i.e., Phoenix/
Scottsdale).
Hourly wages and
satisfaction with pay.
Intentions to visit store
(dependent variable): the
percentage likelihood
that a survey respondent
would visit the store
within the next 7 days.
What market segments
should be served?
Does nationality matter?
Will French and German
consumers express
interest in our product?
Does the attitude toward
Korean companies
influence purchase
intentions?
French consumers have
more interest in purchasing
our product than German
consumers.
Attitude toward Korean
companies is related
positively to product
purchase interest.
Nationality (independent
variable): represents
which country a survey
respondent lives in:
(1) France (2) Germany.
Attitude toward Korean
companies (independent
variable): ratings scale that
describes how favorably
survey respondents
view Korean companies
(quality, reputation,
value—higher scores
mean better attitude).
Product purchase
interest: ratings scale that
shows how interested a
consumer is in buying the
Korean product (higher
scores = more interest).
T O T H E P O I N T
I don’t know the key
to success, but the key
to failure is trying to
please everybody.
—Bill Cosby
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A research question can be too vague and general, such as “Is advertising copy 1 better than
advertising copy 2?” Advertising effectiveness can be variously measured by sales, recall of sales
message, brand awareness, intention to buy, recognition, or knowledge, to name a few possibilities.
Asking a more specific research question (such as, “Which advertisement has a higher dayafter
recall score?”) helps the researcher design a study that will produce useful results, as seen in
the Research Snapshot above. Research question answers should provide input that can be used
as a standard for selecting from among alternative solutions. Problem definition seeks to state
research questions clearly and to develop well-formulated, specific hypotheses.
A sales manager may hypothesize that salespeople who show the highest job satisfaction will
be the most productive. An advertising manager may believe that if consumers’ attitudes toward
a product are changed in a positive direction, consumption of the product also will increase.
Hypotheses are statements that can be empirically tested.
A formal hypothesis has considerable practical value in planning and designing research. It
forces researchers to be clear about what they expect to find through the study, and it raises crucial
questions about data required. When evaluating a hypothesis, researchers should ensure that the
information collected will be useful in decision making. Notice how the following hypotheses
express expected relationships between variables:
• There is a positive relationship between buying on the Internet and the presence of younger children
in the home.
• Sales are lower for salespeople in regions that receive less advertising support.
• Consumers will experience cognitive dissonance after the decision to adopt aTiVo personal video
recorder.
• Opinion leaders are more affected by mass media communication sources than are non-leaders.
• Among non-exporters, the degree of perceived importance of overcoming barriers to exporting
is related positively to general interest in exporting (export intentions).8
Management is often faced with a “go/no go” decision. In such cases, a research question
or hypothesis may be expressed in terms of a meaningful barrier that represents the turning
Pricing Turbulence
A heavy equipment distributor sought out research because
it believed there was an opportunity to increase revenues by
raising prices. After several weeks of discussion, interviews, and
proposal reviews, they settled on a decision question that asked,
“In what ways could revenues be increased by altering pricing
policies across customers?” A research project was conducted
that offered the following deliverables: (1) demonstrate how
much customer characteristics and environmental characteristics
influence price elasticity and (2) identify market segments based
on price elasticity. This led to several hypotheses including the
following:
H1: The desired delivery time for equipment is negatively related to
price sensitivity.
H2: The degree of market turbulence is negatively related to price
sensitivity.
In addition, a research question specifically addressing market
segments was asked:
RQ1: Are there market segments
that can be identified
based on customers’ desired
benefits or environmental
characteristics?
In other words, the more critical a piece
of heavy equipment is to a company, the
less concerned they are with the price.
Similarly, customers are less concerned with
price in markets that are more turbulent,
meaning there are ever-changing environmental,
competitive, and political pressures.
A study of heavy equipment purchasers around the world
supported both hypotheses. For business segments where delivery
time is of critical importance, higher prices can be charged
without the fear of losing business. Similarly, in turbulent international
markets, customers have other important concerns that
make them less sensitive to equipment price and more sensitive
to reliability and service. In the end, the heavy equipment company
was able to build customer characteristics data into a DSS
system that automated prices.
Interestingly, management did not express any concerns
about either market segments or market turbulence in the initial
interviews. Thus, this research succeeded because good research
objectives, questions, and hypotheses were developed before
any study was implemented.
Sources: Smith, M.F., I. Sinha, R. Lancianai, and H. Forman, “Role of Market
Turbulence in Shaping Pricing,” Industrial Marketing Management 28 (November
1999), 637–649; Peters, G., “Combating Too Much Information,” Industrial
Distribution 94 (December 2005), 22.
R E S E A R C H S N A P S H O T
©APPHOTO
h
en-
T
©GEORGEDOYLE&CIARANGRIFFIN
122
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Chapter 6: Problem Definition: The Foundation of Business Research 123
point in such a decision. In this case, the research involves a managerial action standard that
specifies a specific performance criterion upon which a decision can be based. If the criterion
to be measured (for example, sales or attitude changes) turns out to be higher than some predetermined
level, management will do A; if it is lower, management will do B.9
In Exhibit 6.6,
the specified sales volume of $5 million represents a managerial action standard for the retail
grocery chain.
Research objectives also should be limited to a manageable number. Fewer study objectives
make it easier to ensure that each will be addressed fully. It becomes easy to lose focus with too
many research objectives.
Exhibit 6.7 summarizes how a decision statement (corresponding to a business research problem)
leads to research objectives that become a basis for the research design. Once the research
has been conducted, the results may show an unanticipated aspect of the problem and suggest a
need for additional research to satisfy the main objective. Accomplished researchers who have
had the experience of uncovering additional aspects of a particular research problem after finishing
fieldwork recommend designing studies that include questions designed to reveal the
unexpected.
managerial action
standard
A specific performance criterion
upon which a decision can be
based.
Specific
objective – 1
Research
design
Results
Statement of
marketing
problem
Broad
research
objectives
Exploratory
research
(optional)
Specific
objective – 2
Specific
objective – 3
EXHIBIT 6.7
Influence of Decision
Statement of Marketing
Problem on Research
Objectives and Research
Designs
How Much Time Should Be Spent
on Problem Definition?
Budget constraints usually influence how much effort is spent on problem definition. Business
situations can be complex and numerous variables may be relevant. Searching for every
conceivable cause and minor influence is impractical. The more important the decision faced
by management, the more resources should be allocated toward problem definition. While not
a guarantee, allowing more time and spending more money will help make sure the research
objectives that result are relevant and can demonstrate which influences management should
focus on.
Managers, being responsible for decision making, may wish the problem-definition process
to proceed quickly. Researchers who take a long time to produce a set of research objectives
can frustrate managers. However, the time taken to identify the correct problem is usually time
well spent.
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124 Part 2: Beginning Stages of the Research Process
The Research Proposal
The research proposal is a written statement of the research design. It always includes a statement
explaining the purpose of the study (in the form of research objectives or deliverables) and a definition
of the problem, often in the form of a decision statement. A good proposal systematically
outlines the particular research methodology and details procedures that will be used during each
stage of the research process. Normally a schedule of costs and deadlines is included in the research
proposal. The research proposal becomes the primary communication document between the
researcher and the research user.
Exhibit 6.8 illustrates an abbreviated proposal for a short research project conducted for the
Internal Revenue Service (IRS) that explores public attitudes toward a variety of tax-related
issues.
research proposal
A written statement of the
research design.
Current Situation
Public perception of the IRS appears to be extremely negative. The
IRS is the brunt of jokes, and the public avoids contact with any
IRS entity. As a result, taxpayers are more inclined to cheat on their
returns and many services provided by the IRS to assist taxpayers in
preparing their tax returns and to help them understand ways they
can avoid paying unnecessary taxes and penalties go unused. In
addition, negative attitude lessens the Service’s ability to effectively
lobby for policy changes. The key decision faced by the IRS due to
this situation can be stated as,
What steps could be taken to effectively improve consumer
perceptions of the IRS and help design more user-friendly
services?
Purpose of the Research
The general purpose of the study is to determine the taxpaying
public’s perceptions of the role of the IRS in administering the tax
laws. In defining the limits of this study, the IRS identified the study
areas to be addressed. A careful review of those areas led to the
identification of the following specific research objectives:
1. To identify the extent to which taxpayers cheat on their returns,
their reasons for doing so, and approaches that can be taken to
deter this kind of behavior
2. To determine taxpayers’ experience and level of satisfaction with
various IRS services
3. To determine what services taxpayers need
4. To develop an accurate profile of taxpayers’ behavior relative to
the preparation of their income tax returns
5. To assess taxpayers’ knowledge and opinions about various tax
laws and procedures
Research Design
The survey research method will be the basic research design.
Each respondent will be interviewed in his or her home. The
personal interviews are generally expected to last between 35 and
45 minutes, although the length will vary depending on the
previous tax-related experiences of the respondent. For example,
if a respondent has never been audited, questions on audit
experience will not be addressed. Or, if a respondent has never
contacted the IRS for assistance, certain questions concerning
reactions to IRS services will be skipped.
Some sample questions that will be asked are
Did you or your spouse prepare your federal tax return for
(year)?
Self
Spouse
Someone else
Did the federal income tax package you received in the mail
contain all the forms necessary for you to fill out your return?
Yes
No
Didn’t receive one in the mail
Don’t know
If you were calling the IRS for assistance and no one was able to
help you immediately, would you rather get a busy signal or be
asked to wait on hold?
Busy signal
Wait on hold
Neither
Don’t know
During the interview a self-administered questionnaire will be given
to the taxpayer to ask certain sensitive questions, such as
Have you ever claimed a dependent on your tax return that you
weren’t really entitled to?
Yes
No
Sample Design
A survey of approximately 5,000 individuals located in 50 counties
throughout the country will provide the database for this study. The
sample will be selected on a probability basis from all households in
the continental United States.
Eligible respondents will be adults over the age of 18. Within
each household an effort will be made to interview the individual
who is most familiar with completing the federal tax forms. When
there is more than one taxpayer in the household, a random process
will be used to select the taxpayer to be interviewed.
Data Gathering
The fieldworkers of a consulting organization will conduct the interviews.
Data Processing and Analysis
Standard editing and coding procedures will be utilized. Simple
tabulation and cross-tabulations will be utilized to analyze the data.
Report Preparation
A written report will be prepared, and an oral presentation
of the findings will be made by the research analyst at the
convenience of the IRS.
Budget and Time Schedule
Any complete research proposal should include a schedule of
how long it will take to conduct each stage of the research and a
statement of itemized costs.
EXHIBIT 6.8 An Abbreviated Version of a Research Proposal for the IRS
Based on A General Taxpayer Opinion Survey, Office of Planning and Research, Internal Revenue Service, March 1980.
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Chapter 6: Problem Definition: The Foundation of Business Research 125
The Proposal as a Planning Tool
Preparation of a research proposal forces the researcher to think critically about each stage of the
research process. Vague plans, abstract ideas, and sweeping generalizations about problems or
procedures must become concrete and precise statements about specific events. Data requirements
and research procedures must be specified clearly so others may understand their exact implications.
All ambiguities about why and how the research will be conducted must be clarified before
the proposal is complete.
The researcher submits the proposal to management for acceptance, modification, or rejection.
Research clients (management) evaluate the proposed study with particular emphasis on
whether or not it will provide useful information, and whether it will do so within a reasonable
resource budget. Initial proposals are almost always revised after the first review.
The proposal helps managers decide if the proper information will be obtained and if the
proposed research will accomplish what is desired. If the problem has not been adequately
translated into a set of specific research objectives and a research design, the client’s assessment
of the proposal will help ensure that the researchers revise it to meet the client’s information
needs.
An effective proposal communicates exactly what information will be obtained, where
it will be obtained, and how it will be obtained. For this reason, it must be explicit about
sample selection, measurement, fieldwork, and data analysis. For instance, most proposals
involving descriptive research include a proposed questionnaire (or at least some sample
questions).
The format for the IRS research proposal in Exhibit 6.8 follows the six stages in the
research process outlined in Chapter 4. At each stage, one or more questions must be answered
before the researcher can select one of the various alternatives. For example, before a proposal
can be completed, the researcher needs to know what is to be measured. A simple statement
like “market share” may not be enough; market share may be measured by auditing retailers’
or wholesalers’ sales, using trade association data, or asking consumers what brands they
buy. What is to be measured is just
one of many important questions that
must be answered before setting the
research process in motion. Exhibit
6.9 on the next page presents an overview
of some of the basic questions
that managers and researchers typically
must answer when planning a research
design.
The Proposal as
a Contract
When the research will be conducted
by a consultant or an outside research
supplier, the written proposal serves as
that person’s bid to offer a specific service.
Typically, a client solicits several
competitive proposals, and these written
offers help management judge the
relative quality of alternative research
suppliers.
A wise researcher will not agree to
do a research job for which no written
proposal exists.The proposal also serves
©APPHOTO/J.SCOTTAPPLEWHITE
Congress fights about
everything . . . including how
to spend taxpayers’ money on
federal research grants.
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126 Part 2: Beginning Stages of the Research Process
as a contract that describes the product the research user will buy. In fact, the proposal is in many
ways the same as the final research report without the actual results.Misstatements and faulty communication
may occur if the parties rely only on each individual’s memory of what occurred at a
planning meeting.The proposal creates a record, which greatly reduces conflicts that might arise
after the research has been conducted. Both the researcher and the research client should sign the
proposal indicating agreement on what will be done.
EXHIBIT 6.9 Basic Points Addressed by Research Proposals
Decisions to Make Basic Questions
Problem definition What is the purpose of the study?
How much is already known?
Is additional background information necessary?
What is to be measured? How?
Can the data be made available?
Should research be conducted?
Can a hypothesis be formulated?
Selection of basic research design What types of questions need to be answered?
Are descriptive or causal findings required?
What is the source of the data?
Can objective answers be obtained by asking people?
How quickly is the information needed?
How should survey questions be worded?
How should experimental manipulations be made?
Selection of sample Who or what is the source of the data?
Can the target population be identified?
Is a sample necessary?
How accurate must the sample be?
Is a probability sample necessary?
Is a national sample necessary?
How large a sample is necessary?
How will the sample be selected?
Data gathering Who will gather the data?
How long will data gathering take?
How much supervision is needed?
What procedures will data collectors need to follow?
Data analysis and evaluation Will standardized editing and coding procedures be used?
How will the data be categorized?
Will computer or hand tabulation be used?
What is the nature of the data?
What questions need to be answered?
How many variables are to be investigated simultaneously?
What are the criteria for evaluation of performance?
What statistical tools are appropriate?
Type of report Who will read the report?
Are managerial recommendations requested?
How many presentations are required?
What will be the format of the written report?
Overall evaluation How much will the study cost?
Is the time frame acceptable?
Is outside help needed?
Will this research design attain the stated research objectives?
When should the research begin?
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Chapter 6: Problem Definition: The Foundation of Business Research 127
The proposal then functions as a formal, written statement of agreement between marketing
executives and researchers. As such, it protects the researcher from criticisms such as, “Shouldn’t
we have had a larger sample?” or “Why didn’t you use a focus group approach?” As a record of the
researcher’s obligation, the proposal also provides a standard for determining whether the actual
research was conducted as originally planned.
Suppose in our Deland Trucking case, following the research, David is unhappy with the
nature of the results because they indicate that higher cents per mile do, in fact, impact driver
loyalty.This is something that David may not wish to face. In his despair, he complains to James
saying,
“What I really wanted was a recruitment expense study, yet you provide results indicating my wages are
too low! Why should I pay you?”
James can refer back to the research proposal, which is signed by David. He can point right to
the deliverables described above showing that David agreed to a study involving driver loyalty and
the organizational characteristics that lead to loyalty. The proposal certainly protects the researcher
in this case. In most cases like this, after the initial emotional reaction to unflattering results, the
client comes around and realizes the report contents include information that will be helpful.
Realize too that the proposal protects David in case James produced a study that addresses only
research objectives not included in the proposal.
In basic research efforts, a formal proposal serves much the same purpose. Funded business
research generally refers to basic research usually performed by academic researchers and
supported by some public or private institution. Most commonly, researchers pursue federal
government grants. A very detailed proposal is usually needed for federal grants, and the agreement
for funding is predicated on the research actually delivering the results described in the
proposal.
One important comment needs to be made about the nature of research proposals. Not
all proposals follow the same format. A researcher can adapt his or her proposal to the target
audience or situation. An extremely brief proposal submitted by an organization’s internal
research department to its own executives bears little resemblance to a complex proposal submitted
by a university professor to a federal government agency to research a basic consumer
issue.
Anticipating Outcomes
As mentioned above, the proposal and the final research report will contain much of the same
information. The proposal describes the data collection, measurement, data analysis, and so forth,
in future tense. In the report, the actual results are presented. In this sense, the proposal anticipates
the research outcome.
Experienced researchers know that research fails more often because the problem-definition
process breaks down or because the research client never truly understood what a research project
could or couldn’t do. While it probably seems as though the proposal should make this clear, any
shortcoming in the proposal can contribute to a communication failure. Thus, any tool that helps
communication become as clear as can be is valued very highly.
■ DUMMY TABLES
One such tool that is perhaps the best way to let management know exactly what kind of results
will be produced by research is the dummy table. Dummy tables are placed in research proposals
and are exact representations of the actual tables that will show results in the final report
with one exception: The results are hypothetical. They get the name because the researcher
fills in, or “dummies up,” the tables with likely but fictitious data. Dummy tables include the
tables that will present hypothesis test results. In this way, they are linked directly to research
objectives.
funded business research
Refers to basic research usually
performed by academic researchers
that is financially supported
by some public or private institution,
as in federal government
grants.
dummy tables
Tables placed in research proposals
that are exact representations
of the actual tables that will show
results in the final report with
the exception that the results are
hypothetical (fictitious).
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128
A research analyst can present dummy tables to the decision maker and ask, “Given findings
like these, will you be able to make a decision?” If the decision maker says yes, the proposal may
be accepted. However, if the decision maker cannot see how results like those in the dummy
tables will help make the needed decision(s), it may be back to the drawing board. In other words,
the client and researcher need to rethink what research results are necessary to solve the problem.
Sometimes, examining the dummy tables may reveal that a key variable is missing or that some
dependent variable is really not relevant. In other words, the problem is clarified by deciding on
action standards or performance criteria and recognizing the types of research findings necessary
to make specific decisions.
■ EXAMPLE DUMMY TABLE
Exhibit 6.10 shows a dummy table taken from the research proposal for David Deland’s trucking
company. From it, David can see that it shows what things most determine driver loyalty.
If the results turn out as shown in the dummy table, it would suggest that David needs to perhaps
increase his compensation or reduce the number of long-haul routes that his drivers must
conduct.
While some tables may require some additional explanation from the researcher, every effort
should be made to allow tables to stand alone and be interpreted by someone who is not an experienced
researcher. In other words, the user should be able to understand the results and surmise
implications that the results imply. When the final report is compiled, these tables will be included
with the dummy results replaced with the actual research results.
● Researchers should allocate a substantial amount of time
toward identifying and refining decision statements, research
problems and questions, and research hypotheses. This is a
way that the relevance of the research can be increased.
● Use qualitative research tools to probe the key decision makers
during early interviews.
● Ask what has changed.
● Ask the decision maker to tell more about situations for
clarification.
● Ask the decision maker to compare and contrast
situations.
● Express decision statements in creative
terms whenever possible. For example,
state them in plural form by using terms
such as “what ways” might solve a problem
rather than trying to find “the way” to solve a
problem.
● Research questions and research hypotheses clearly identify
the variables that need to be studied.
● Dummy tables are a very effective way to communicate
exactly how a research problem might be linked to better
decision making.
©GEORGEDOYLE&CIARANGRIFFIN
T I P S O F T H E T R A D E
em
lve a
eses clearly identify
CIARANGRIFFIN
Standardized
Regression Coefficient Rank (Importance)
Increase cents/mile .50** 1
Number of long-haul routes (per month) −.45** 2
Days off (per month) .30** 3
Vehicle quality .25* 4
Benefits provided .15 5
* p-value < .01
** p-value < .05
EXHIBIT 6.10
A Dummy Table for David
Deland
Regression Table: Results Showing Which Variables Determine Driver Loyalty
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Chapter 6: Problem Definition: The Foundation of Business Research 129
Summary
1. Explain why proper “problem definition” is essential to useful business research. Problem
definition is the process of defining and developing a decision statement and the steps involved
in translating it into more precise research terminology, including a set of research objectives.
While it is difficult to point to any particular research stage as the most important, a strong case
can be made for this, the first stage. If this step falls apart, the entire research design is misguided.
Effective problem definition helps make sure the research objectives are relevant and useful—
meaning the results will actually be used. If problem definition is glossed over or done poorly,
the results are likely irrelevant and potentially harmful.
2. Know how to recognize problems. Problems and opportunities are usually associated with
differences. The differences can occur because of changes in some situation, or they can occur
because expectations were unrealistic. Problems occur when there is a difference, or gap, between
the current situation and a more ideal situation. One very common type of gap is when business
performance does not match the expectations of performance in that dimension. In addition,
opportunities exist when actual performance in some area does not match the potential performance.
Research can supply information to help close the gap. Thus, problems are noticed by
spotting these gaps. While many of these gaps may just be symptoms, further steps are taken to
make sure that research addresses relevant issues, not just symptoms.
3. Translate managerial decision statements into relevant research objectives. The problemdefinition
process outlined in the chapter can help make sure that the research objectives are relevant.
A situation analysis is helpful in this regard. In particular, interviews that identify symptoms
and then probe the respondent for potential causes of these symptoms are helpful. One tool to
help in this process is the “what has changed?” technique. The research objectives, once written,
also indicate what variables are likely needed in the study.
4. Translate research objectives into research questions and/or research hypotheses. Research
questions simply restate the research objectives in the form of a question. When the researcher
has sufficient theoretical reasoning to make a more specific prediction that includes the direction
of any predicted relationship, the research question can be translated into one or more research
hypotheses.
5. Outline the components of a research proposal. The research proposal is a written statement of
the research design that will be followed in addressing a specific problem. The research proposal
allows managers to evaluate the details of the proposed research and determine if alterations are
needed. Most research proposals include the following sections: decision description, purpose of
the research including the research objectives, research design, sample design, data gathering and/
or fieldwork techniques, data processing and analysis, budget, and time schedule.
6. Construct dummy tables as part of a research proposal. Dummy tables are included in research
proposals and look exactly like the real tables that will be included in the final research report.
However, they cannot actually contain results since the study has not yet been done. So, they
include hypothetical results that look as much as possible like the actual results. These tables are
a very good tool for communicating the value of a research project to management because they
provide a real sense for implications that may result from the research.
categorical variable, 119
classificatory variable, 119
constant, 119
continuous variable, 119
decision statement, 108
dependent variable, 120
dummy tables, 127
funded business research, 127
independent variable, 120
interrogative techniques, 114
managerial action standard, 123
probing, 114
problem, 112
problem definition, 108
research proposal, 124
research questions, 121
situation analysis, 112
unit of analysis, 119
variable, 119
Key Terms and Concepts
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130 Part 2: Beginning Stages of the Research Process
Research Activities
1. ’NET Examine the Web site for International Communications
Research (http://icrsurvey.com).10
What services do they seem to
offer that fall into the problem-definition process?
2. Consider the current situation within your local university
music department. Assuming it stages musical productions to
which audiences are invited and for which tickets are sold,
describe the marketing situation it faces. Prepare a research
proposal that would help it address a key decision. Make sure
it includes at least one dummy table.
Questions for Review and Critical Thinking
1. What is a decision statement? How does the focus on an irrelevant
decision affect the research process?
2. Define problem recognition. How is this process like translating
text from one language into another? What role does “probing”
play in this process?
3. List and describe four factors that influence how difficult the
problem-definition process can be.
4. What are three types of gaps that exist, indicating that research
may be needed to assist a business in making some decision?
5. Examine an article in the Wall Street Journal or a similar source
that discusses a business situation of a company in the electronics
or defense industry. Identify a problem that exists with the
company. Develop some research objectives that you believe
correspond to the problem.
6. What is a situation analysis? How can it be used to separate
symptoms from actual problems?
7. Define unit of analysis in a marketing research context.
8. Find some business journal articles that deal with culture and
international expansion. Find one that lists some hypotheses.
What kinds of decisions might be assisted by the results of
testing these hypotheses?
9. List and describe at least four terms that can describe the nature
of a variable.
10. For each of the following variables, explain why it should be
considered either continuous or categorical:
a. Whether or not a university played in a football bowl game
during 2006
b. The average wait time a customer has before being served
in a full-service restaurant
c. Letter grades of A, B, C, D, or F
d. The job satisfaction of a company’s salespeople
e. A consumer’s age
11. Write at least three examples of hypotheses that involve a
managerial action statement. Provide a corresponding decision
statement for each.
12. What are the major components of a research proposal? How
does a research proposal assist the researcher?
13. The chapter provides an example dummy table for the Deland
Trucking vignette. Provide another example dummy table that
corresponds to this same situation.
14. Evaluate the following statements of business research problems.
For each provide a decision statement and corresponding
research objectives:
a. A farm implement manufacturer: Our objective is to learn
the most effective form of advertising so we can maximize
product line profits.
b. An employees’ credit union: Our problem is to determine
the reasons why employees join the credit union, determine
members’ awareness of credit union services, and
measure attitudes and beliefs about how effectively the
credit union is operated.
c. The producer of a television show: We have a marketing
problem. The program’s ratings are low. We need to learn
how we can improve our ratings.
d. A soft-drink manufacturer: The marketing problem is that
we do not know if our bottlers are more satisfied with us
than our competitors’ bottlers are with them.
e. A women’s magazine: Our problem is to document the
demographic changes that have occurred in recent decades
in the lives of women and to put them in historical perspective;
to examine several generations of American
women through most of this century, tracking their roles
as students, workers, wives, and mothers and noting the
changes in timing, sequence, and duration of these roles;
to examine at what age and for how long a woman enters
various stages of her life: school, work, marriage, childbearing,
divorce. This will be accomplished by analyzing demographic
data over several generations.
f. A manufacturer of fishing boats: The problem is to determine
sales trends over the past five years by product category
and to determine the seasonality of unit boat sales by
quarters and by region of the country.
g. The inventor of a tension-headache remedy (a cooling pad
that is placed on the forehead for up to four hours): The
purpose of this research is (1) to identify the market potential
for the product, (2) to identify what desirable features
the product should possess, and (3) to determine possible
advertising strategies/channel strategies for the product.
15. Comment on the following statements and situations:
a. “The best researchers are prepared to rethink and rewrite
their proposals.”
b. “The client’s signature is an essential element of the research
proposal.”
16. You have been hired by a group of hotel owners, restaurant
owners, and other people engaged in businesses that benefit from
tourism on South Padre Island, Texas. They wish to learn how
they can attract a large number of college students to their town
during spring break. Define the marketing decision statement.
17. You have been hired by a local Big Brothers and Big Sisters
organization to learn how they can increase the number of
males who volunteer to become Big Brothers to fatherless boys.
Define your research objectives.
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In the 1990s, a task force was formed among
executives of seven regional transportation
agencies in the New York–New Jersey area.11
The mission of the task force was to investigate
the feasibility and desirability of adopting
electronic toll collection (ETC) for the interregional
roadways of the area. Electronic toll collection is accomplished
by providing commuters with small transceivers (tags) that
emit a tuned radio signal. Receivers placed at tollbooths are able
to receive the radio signal and identify the commuter associated
with the particular signal. Commuters establish ETC accounts
that are debited for each use of a toll road or facility, thus eliminating
the need for the commuter to pay by cash or token.
Because the radio signal can be read from a car in motion, ETC
can reduce traffic jams at toll plazas by allowing tag holders to
pass through at moderate speeds.
At the time the New York and New Jersey agencies were
studying the service, electronic toll collection was already being
used successfully in Texas and Louisiana. Even though several of
the agencies had individually considered implementing ETC, they
recognized that independent adoption would fall far short of the
potential benefits achievable with an integrated interregional system.
The task force was most interested in identifying the ideal
configuration of service attributes for each agency’s commuters and
determining how similar or different these configurations might be
across agencies. The task force identified a lengthy list of attributes
that was ultimately culled to six questions:
• How many accounts are necessary and what statements will be
received?
• How and where does one pay for E-ZPass?
• What lanes are available for use and how they are controlled?
• Is the tag transferable to other vehicles?
• What is the price of the tag and possible service charge?
• What are other possible uses for the E-ZPass tag (airport
parking, gasoline purchases, and so forth)?
From a researcher’s perspective, it also seemed important to
assess commuter demand for the service. However, the task force
was not convinced that it needed a projection of demand, because
it was committed to implementing ETC regardless of initial commuter
acceptance.The task force considered its primary role to be
investigating commuters’ preferences for how the service should be
configured ideally.
Questions
1. Evaluate the problem-definition process. Has the problem been
defined adequately so that a relevant decision statement can be
written?
2. What type of research design would you recommend for this project?
3. What research questions might be tested?
4. What might a dummy table include in this research proposal?
Case 6.1 E-ZPass
Raising Cane’s is a fast-food chicken finger
establishment based in Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
Cane’s restaurants are popular throughout the
Gulf South. Cane’s recently has been approached
by people interested in opening Cane’s restaurants
in other countries. The best contact is an
Australian. However, Cane’s has also been approached about outlets
in Montreal, Quebec, and in Monterrey, Mexico. Cane’s prepares
high-quality fried chicken fingers and has a limited menu consisting
of fingers, fries, slaw, and lemonade (http://www.raisingcanes.com).
1. Write a decision statement for Raising Cane’s.
2. Write corresponding research objectives and research questions.
3. What role would a proposal play in assisting this research effort
and in assisting Cane’s in improving their business situation?
Based on the case scenario described throughout
this chapter, prepare a research proposal that
addresses this situation.
Case 6.2 Cane’s Goes International
Case 6.3 Deland Trucking
©GETTYIMAGES/
PHOTODISCGREEN
©GETTYIMAGES/
PHOTODISCGREEN
©GETTYIMAGES/
PHOTODISCGREEN
Chapter 6: Problem Definition: The Foundation of Business Research 131
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