32 / Academic Writing for Graduate Students
Task Twenty-one
Mark these writing characteristics as H (helpful for positioning) or
U (unhelpful for positioning). In some cases there is room for dis-
agreement.
1. Choosing any writing style that you like
2. Expressing enthusiasm and commitment
3. Writing in a formal academic style
4. Making broad generalizations
5. Being cautious about generalizations
6. Using references
7. Writing only from experience and personal knowledge
8. Reevaluating the work of authorities in the field
Can you explain your choices?
Unit Two
Writing General-Specific Texts
Each remaining unit in this book deals with a particular kind of
writing task. We have chosen to begin with a type of text sometimes
called general-specific (GS) because its structure involves generalto-specific
movement. There are three reasons to begin with GS
texts. They are quite common in graduate student writing, they are
comparatively simple, and they are often used as introductions for
longer pieces of writing. You may need to produce a GS text for
a. an answer to an examination question,
b. an opening paragraph of an assignment,* or
c. a background (or scene-setting) paragraph to an analysis or
discussion.*
GS texts usually begin with one of the following:
a. a short or extended definition,
b. a contrastive or comparative definition, or
c. a generalization or purpose statement.
As their name implies, GS texts move from broad statements to
narrower ones. However, they often widen out again in the final
sentence. The shape is similar to that of a glass or cup (see fig. 5).
General statement
More specific
detail
Specific
detail
Broader statement
Fig. 5. Shape of GS texts
*Both b and c may also take the form of a descriptive summary (see Unit Five).
33
34 / Academic Writing for Graduate Students
Task One
Here is a short example of a GS text. Read the text and answer the
questions that follow. Sentence numbers have been added here (and
in subsequent texts) for ease of reference.
Writing
Writing is a complex sociocognitive process involving the construction
of recorded messages on paper or on some other material,
and, more recently, on a computer screen. 2
The skills needed
to write range from making the appropriate graphic marks,
through utilizing the resources of the chosen language, to anticipating
the reactions of the intended readers. 3
The first skill area
involves acquiring a writing system, which may be alphabetic (as
in European languages) or nonalphabetic (as in many Asian languages).
4
The second skill area requires selecting the appropriate
grammar and vocabulary to form acceptable sentences and then
arranging them in paragraphs. 5
Third, writing involves thinking
about the purpose of the text to be composed and about its possible
effects on the intended readership. 6
One important aspect of
this last feature is the choice of a suitable style. 7
Because of these'
characteristics, writing is not an innate natural ability like
speaking but has to be acquired through years of training or
schooling.
1. The "shape" of this passage is something like this. Complete
the diagram.
1)
2) Main skills involved
3)
4)
5)
Skill
Skill
fi)
area
area
1
3
7) Learning to write
Writing General-Specific Texts / 35
2. The author of this passage has decided it is too short. Here are
three additional statements. Where would you place them?
a. Although writing systems have been in existence for about
5,000 years, even today only a minority of the world's population
knows how to write.
b. Mandarin, for example, uses an ideograph system that is
particularly difficult to learn.
c. Because of its complexity, the study of writing has become a
multidisciplinary activity.
The GS Writing passage could have been a short answer to an inclass
exam, perhaps in English education or psychology. The exam
question could have been:
Outline briefly the main characteristics of two of the following.
Write seven to ten sentences.
1. Writing
2. Nonverbal communication
3. Speech
Alternatively, the passage on writing could also have been the opening
paragraph to a longer assignment—perhaps one asking the student
to analyze some experimental data or to assess the current
state of research.
As in many GS texts, the "Writing" passage began with a definition.
Definitions are a common way of getting started; they are
hooks" from which GS paragraphs can be hung. Such paragraphs
typically open with full-sentence definitions. Textbooks, in contrast,
often introduce the definitional information as a minor part of the
sentence, as in the following example.
The majority of corporate profits, or earnings after all the operatmg
expenses have been deducted, are subject to tax by the govern-
ment.
36 / Academic Writing for Graduate Students
Textbook definitional information is used to clarify terms that may
be unfamiliar to the reader. However, this is not your task, since
your audience is already familiar with the terms and expects you to
write a text that demonstrates your understanding of complex con-
cepts.
In the next part of this unit, we will highlight certain aspects of
the structure of these key definitional sentences. Then we will consider
more extended definitions, contrastive definitions (e.g., organic
versus inorganic chemistry), and comparative definitions (i.e., discussions
of the advantages and disadvantages of competing defini-
tions).
Sentence Definitions
Let us start by looking at sentence definitions. A sentence definition
is often a useful starting point for a GS paragraph. In a formal
sentence definition, such as the examples that follow, the term being
defined is first assigned to a class or group to which it belongs and
then distinguished from other terms in the class.
A sole proprietorship is a business which is owned and operated
by one individual for personal profit.
To what class does the sole proprietorship belong? How is it different
from other members of the class? How would you define a partner-
ship?
A star is a celestial body that shines by itselfand whose source of
energy is nuclear fusion occurring in its core.
To what class does a star belong? Can you think of other celestial
bodies? How is a star different from these?
Annealing is a metalworking process in which a material is subjected
to elevated temperatures for a period oftime to cause structural
or electrical changes in its properties.
To what class does annealing belong? How is it different from other
members of the class, such as hammering or welding?
Writing General-Specific Texts / 37
Notice that each of these definitions is completed by some form of
restrictive clause and has the structure shown here.
(A)
A
term
solar cell
is
is
(a)
a
class
device
wh-word*
that
which
specific detail
converts the energy
of sunlight into
electric energy.
Language Focus: The Grammar of Definitions
Notice the use of the indefinite articles a and an in the first part of
the definitions. (For a more complete discussion of articles, see Appendix
One.)
A sole proprietorship is a business . . .
Annealing is a metalworking process . . .
A star is a celestial body . . .
Writing is a sociocognitive process . . .
In most definitions, the indefinite article is used before both the
term and the class. The indefinite article before the class indicates
that you are classifying a term, as you do in a definition. The indefinite
article before the term conveys the meaning that any representative
of this term will fit the assigned class. This use ofthe indefinite
article or the absence of an initial article signals a definition.
(As you know, a is used for countable nouns, but no article is used
before uncountable nouns.)
You may ask why the is not used in a formal sentence definition.
Take a look at the following sentences.
a. A disinfectant is an agent capable of destroying diseasecausing
microorganisms.
b. A disinfectant is the agent capable of destroying diseasecausing
micro-organisms.
*Although the Chicago Manual of Style and other style manuals recommend
using that instead of which in restrictive relative clauses, research shows that which
continues to be used in definition statements. Therefore, we have used both which
and that in the sample definitions presented in this unit.
44 / Academic Writing for Graduate Students
Now consider the sentence definitions in set a.
a.l. A solar cell is a device that converts the energy of sunlight
into electric energy.
2. A foundation is a base on which a structure can be built.
and their less academic counterparts in set b.
b.l. A solar cell is something that changes sunlight into electric-
ity.
2. A foundation is a base a structure can be built on.
The sentences in set b are perfectly acceptable in spoken English
or E-mail. However, they would not be the most effective means of
establishing yourself in your academic field. In b.l, for instance,
something is both too broad and informal, and the verb consists of a
verb + preposition combination (mentioned in Unit One as something
generally to be avoided in academic writing). In b.2, the placement
of the preposition at the end ofthe sentence may be considered
"wrong" by those who believe that an academic English sentence
should never end with a preposition. While it is valuable to understand
and acquire such structures for personal use, for example, in
E-mail messages, they should be avoided in academic writing (see
Appendix Three).
Here are two final pieces of advice about writing formal definitions.
Avoid using any form of your term in the definition. Using the
term itself in the definition can result in a circular definition and is
likely to be noted as such by your audience.
Erosion is a process during which the surface of the earth
erodes. —>
Erosion is a process during which the surface of the earth is degraded
by the effects of the atmosphere, weather, and human
activity.
Finally, avoid using when and where in definitions. These are less
appropriate for a formal definition.
Pollution is when the environment becomes contaminated as a result
of human activity. —>
Writing General-Specific Texts / 45
Pollution is a form of environmental contamination resulting from
human activity.
A fault is where there is a fracture in the earth's crust and the
rock on one side of the fracture moves in relation to the rock on
the other side. —»
A fault is a fracture in the earth's crust in which the rock on one
side of the fracture moves in relation to the rock on the other
side.
Task Six
Now write a one-sentence definition for two of the following terms
and for at least one term from your own field. Make sure you provide
enough specific detail to distinguish your term from other members
in its class.
a dormitory
a bridge
a plane
a computer virus
a conductor
a carcinogen
a market
Exchange and discuss your definitions with a partner.
Extended Definitions
So far we have only dealt with sentence definitions. In some cases,
one sentence may be enough before continuing with your GS passage
(as with the text on writing at the beginning of this unit).
However, in others, it may be relevant and important to expand your
definition. In this way you can demonstrate your knowledge of a
concept more fully. An extended definition usually begins with a
general, one-sentence definition and then becomes more specific as
additional details are provided. There may be a need to display one
or more of the following.
An analysis of components (if you are defining an object)
A microscope is an optical instrument with which the apparent
size of an object can be enhanced. A simple microscope consists
46 / Academic Writing for Graduate Students
of a double convex lens and a magnifying glass. A compound
microscope, on the other hand, will contain more than one
of each of these lenses, which are situated at the ends of a
cylinder.
Examples
Pollution is a form of environmental contamination resulting
from human activity. Some common forms of pollution are
wastes from the burning of fossil fuels and sewage running into
rivers. Even litter and excessive noise can be considered forms
of pollution because of the impact they can have on the environ-
ment.
A sense of historical change and development
Perspective is a technique in art that is used to represent
three-dimensional objects and depth relationships on a flat surface.
Modern linear perspective (which involves making objects
seem smaller the more distant they are from the observer) was
probably first used in the 1400s by the artist Masaccio and the
architects Filippo Brunelleschi and Leon Battista Alberti in
Florence, Italy. Before this time, artists paid little attention to
realistic perspective. In recent decades, many modern artists
have returned to the practices of early artists and have abandoned
realistic perspective.
A knowledge of applications
An acrylic plastic is a polymer which can take a high polish, is
clear and transparent, and can be shaped while hot. Because of
these and other characteristics, acrylic plastic is used in situations
where glass is not suitable or desirable, for instance, in
certain types of windshields.
An extended definition may also include information regarding
operating principles or causes and effects. A description of operating
principles is also known as a process analysis. A process analysis
has some unique characteristics, which will be discussed in greater
Writing General-Specific Texts / 47
detail in Unit Three. Extended definitions may also include information
about many other features, such as rarity and cost.
You can even go beyond the type of specific detail just described
and display your breadth of understanding by discussing problems,
exceptions, and future predictions.
An awareness of problems with or exceptions to the general defi-
nition.
Lateralization is a developmental process during which the two
sides of the brain become specialized for different functions. As
a child develops, the two sides of the brain become asymmetric
in that each side controls different abilities. Language, for instance,
is controlled by the left side of the brain, and certain
types of pattern recognition by the right. However, there is
some disagreement as to when this specialization is complete.
Some researchers believe the process is not complete until puberty,
while others maintain that the brain is lateralized by
age five.
Future predictions
A compact disc (CD) is an optical storage medium onto which
information has been recorded digitally. In a CD recording of
sound, sound waves are converted into digital numbers and inscribed
on the disc. The digital data on the disc is read by a laser
beam, thus eliminating any form of mechanical friction that
could distort sound quality. CDs can also be used to store images
as well as information. As optical data storage techniques
improve, CD technology will become more widespread and may
someday entirely replace magnetic storage.
Notice in the above definition that the full name of the term compact
disc is given before introducing and using the acronym (CD).
Task Seven
Now read the following extended definition and answer the questions
that follow.
48 / Academic Writing for Graduate Students
1
Navigation is a process by which means of transport can be
guided to their destination when the route has few or no landmarks.
2
Some of the earliest navigators were sailors, who steered
their ships first by the stars, then with a compass, and later with
more complicated instruments that measured the position of the
sun. 3
We are reminded of this by the fact that the word navigation
comes from the Latin word for "ship." 4
However, the history and
importance of navigation changed radically in the 20th century
with the development of aircraft and missiles, which fly in three
dimensions. 5
Today, both ships and aircraft rely heavily on
computerized navigational systems that can provide a continuous,
immediate, and accurate report of position.
(Benny Bechor, student, minor editing)
1. What type of information is included in each of the sentences
in the definition?
2. How is the passage organized?
3. What tenses are used for which sentences? Why?
4. Sentence 3 begins with we. Is this appropriate?
Notice how the paragraph moves from a very general statement at
the beginning to specific details, then "widens out" again in the final
sentence to describe the current status ofnavigation. This pattern is
quite common in paragraphs of this type.
Task Eight
Here are the sentences of a GS passage on an unusual but interesting
topic. Work with a partner to put them back in the correct order.
Write 1 next to the first sentence, 2 next to the second, and so on.
Palindromes
a. The term itself comes from the ancient Greek word palindromos
meaning "running back again."
b. Another good and more recent example is "If I had a Hi-
Fi."
Writing General-Specific Texts / 49
c. Some very common English words are palindromes, such
as pop, dad, and noon.
d. A palindrome is a word or phrase that results in the same
sequence of letters no matter whether it is read from left
to right or from right to left.
e. One of the classic long palindromes is "A man, a plan, a
canal, Panama."
f. Long palindromes are very hard to construct, and some
word puzzlers spend immense amounts of time trying to
produce good examples.
Task Nine
1. Write an extended definition of a term in your field of study as
if you were taking an examination. You will have 10 to 15 min-
utes.
2. For homework, write an extended definition of another term in
your field of study. Take as long as you like!
Contrastive Definitions
So far, we have concentrated on developing a text starting from the
definition of a single term. Often, however, you may be asked to
display your knowledge about two (or more) related terms. Consider,
for example, the following pairs.
a. An optical and an electron microscope
b. Pollution and adulteration
c Writing and copying
d. An acrylic and a polyester
e. Annealing and welding
f. A compact disc and magnetic tape
g. A good-news and bad-news letter
h. A star and a planet
i. Formal and informal English
If you were asked in an in-class examination to explain the differences
between the members of each pair, how many could you
do?