1 The Emotive Context of Terrorism: Part II Explaining "Terrorism" in the Context of "Political Violence" Spring 2010 Masaryk University Department of Int'l Relations & European Studies Dave McCuan "One man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter" What Makes a Terrorist? Explaining Political Violence What does this statement suggest? What does it suggest about defining the concept of terrorism? 2 First, Terrorism is Old * Definition in dispute: We focus in the class on violent attacks by nonstate actors for political purposes, outside of the context of war (more on state terror, insurgency, and civil warfare later in the course) * Terrorism has long, millennial-long history Second, Ample Examples of Zealots, Thugs, & Assassins as "Terrorists" Zealot attacks (63-72 CE) ­ Radical Jewish assassins (Sicarri in Latin), known for their fervent commitment to the Torah, kill Roman soldiers and suspected Jewish collaborators in an attempt to drive Rome from ancient Palestine. Many public assassinations using concealed swords in full daylight. Known for murdering Romans in broad daylight in Jerusalem 3 Thugs & Assassins as "Terrorists" Hindu "Thugee" ­ (1200s) Thugs from a religious sect that strangled & robbed victims in ritual sacrifice to delay arrival of goddess Kali. Muslim Assassins - Persian Shiites who targeted Sunni rulers with suicide attacks from the 1000s to 1200s. ­ It is a myth that the word assassin comes from the Arabic word haschishin for hashish user. ­ Assassin comes from Hassassin -- a follower of Hassan ­ Hassan was Persian not Arabic. Defining Terrorism: A First Look * Which of the following are terrorists? ­ Members of the African National Congress (ANC) who fought against the white South African government during the period of apartheid? ­ U.S. Revolutionaries fighting against British in late 1700s? ­ States that use weapons of mass destruction against civilian populations, whether intentionally or unintentionally? ­ Members of an "insurgency" in post-Hussein Iraq who attack both military and civilian targets? ­ Soldiers who murder and rape civilians? ­ Members of organizations, such as al Qaeda, who carry out attacks against civilian targets? What Makes a Terrorist? Explaining Political Violence, cont'd 4 Defining Terrorism: A Few Definitions "Terrorism is an anxiety-inspiring method of repeated violent action, employed by (semi-)clandestine individual, group, or state actors, for idiosyncratic, criminal, or political reasons, whereby, in contrast to assassination, the direct targets of violence are not the main targets." (Schmid and Jongman, 1983) "Terrorism constitutes the illegitimate use of force to achieve a political objective when innocent people are targeted." (Walter Laqueur) "Terror is nothing other than justice, prompt, severe, inflexible; it is therefore an emanation of virtue; it is not so much a special principle as it is a consequence of the general principle of democracy applied to our country's most urgent needs." (Maximilien Robespierre, 1794) "The deliberate, systematic murder, maiming, and menacing of the innocent to inspire fear in order to gain political ends .... Terrorism ...is intrinsically evil, necessarily evil, and wholly evil" (Paul Johnson) This definition tells us that there are many motivations for terrorism, from the purely individual, to the criminal, to the political: essentially, anyone, any group, or any state that commits "anxietyinspiring" violence is a terrorist This definition tells us that there are many motivations for terrorism, from the purely individual, to the criminal, to the political: essentially, anyone, any group, or any state that commits "anxietyinspiring" violence is a terrorist This definition tells us that terrorism is necessarily "illegitimate" (which technically means "not authorized by law"): but, this creates a very broad definition of terrorism, since most (violent) force is not authorized by law. It also raises the question: whose law? If a state authorizes the use of force against civilians, does that make it legitimate? This definition tells us that terrorism is necessarily "illegitimate" (which technically means "not authorized by law"): but, this creates a very broad definition of terrorism, since most (violent) force is not authorized by law. It also raises the question: whose law? If a state authorizes the use of force against civilians, does that make it legitimate? The last two definitions provide a useful contrast: one argues that terrorism, by definition, is virtuous while the other argues that it is inherently evil: these are examples of ideologically-based and highly polemic definitions The last two definitions provide a useful contrast: one argues that terrorism, by definition, is virtuous while the other argues that it is inherently evil: these are examples of ideologically-based and highly polemic definitions What Makes a Terrorist? Explaining Political Violence, cont'd Defining Terrorism: Key Points There is little agreement on how to define terrorism: one study in the 1980s, noted that there were 109 separate definitions in the literature The difficulty of defining terrorism is compounded by the ideological, political and emotional "baggage" the term carries Still, despite the extreme difficulty of defining terrorism, any study of terrorism requires a clear-cut definition, an operational definition ... as one scholar puts it, we need to transform the concept of terrorism "into a useful analytical term rather than a polemical tool" (Martha Crenshaw) 5 Here is one "analytical definition" [Terrorism is ...] the deliberate creation and exploitation of fear through violence or the threat of violence in the pursuit of political change....Terrorism is designed to create power where there is none or to consolidate power where there is very little. Through the publicity generated by their violence, terrorists seek to obtain leverage, influence and power they otherwise lack to effect political change on either a local or international scale. In addition, terrorists are subnational or non-state actors. ~ Bruce Hoffman (The terrorism "expert") Key Elements of Definition: What does the statement that terrorism is premised on the "pursuit of political change" suggest? What does it tell us about the underlying basis or motivation of terrorist activities? Key Elements of Definition: What does the statement that terrorism is premised on the "pursuit of political change" suggest? What does it tell us about the underlying basis or motivation of terrorist activities? Key Elements of Definition: Terrorism is "design to create power where there is none." What does this suggest or tell us? Key Elements of Definition: Terrorism is "design to create power where there is none." What does this suggest or tell us? Key Elements of Definition: In this definition, terrorists cannot be "states." Is this a legitimate, non-ideological, analytically significant distinction? Key Elements of Definition: In this definition, terrorists cannot be "states." Is this a legitimate, non-ideological, analytically significant distinction? Summing Up: Is this a reasonable definition of terrorism? Does it serve the purpose of distinguishing terrorism from other types of violence? Does it avoid emotionalism and polemics? Summing Up: Is this a reasonable definition of terrorism? Does it serve the purpose of distinguishing terrorism from other types of violence? Does it avoid emotionalism and polemics? Defining Terrorism * One Last Caveat: No matter how try to define the word "terrorism," just the mere mention of it causes problems. For this reason, it might be preferable to come up with a new term altogether ... * One set of scholars proposes this alternative: "Violent sub-state activism""Violent sub-state activism" This is a very useful term, but for our purposes, we will use the word "terrorism" in our discussion that concentrates on this level of analysis & which is closest to Hoffman. Further Caveats & Concerns 6 * Vision * Power * Strategy * Tactic * Duty * Shame * Freedom fighter * Self-sacrifice * Will to kill * Skill to kill AB95- 5. PPT / / ## Terrorism: Key Terms, Definitions * Ideology * Indoctrination * Radicalization * Rationalization * Emotions * Moral Disengagement * Communicative Acts * Facilitators/Causes * Learning Organization * Counter vs. Anti * Hard/Soft Power Certain Aspects are Fundamental * Political Acts, Action ­ Desire for political change ­ Terrorism is typically non-state in character * (Note the separate but related topic of state terrorism typically antithetical to the desire for political change.) * States can terrorize, but they are not terrorists. ­ Terrorists do not abide by norms * They target innocents * They seek psychological trauma 7 What Do Terror Organizations Fight For? * Political autonomy/Separatism (the Basques, the PKK, ETA, in Kashmir, the Bodo tribes in Assam, Uigher in China, Chechens in Russia, Sikhs in Khalistan). * Ideology (left-wing groups such as as the Turkish Revolutionary People's Liberation Party - Front (DHKPC), the Peruvian Sendero Luminoso, and the Naxalites of India). (17th November, Greece). * Religious differences (Sunni and Shia Groups in Pakistan) * Spillover: of the Algerian strife (France). * Creation of an Islamic state (al-Qaeda of Iraq, the Shabab in Somali, Algerian Armed Islamic Group (GIA). * Resistance of an occupation (Hamas + the Palestine Islamic Jihad) AB95- 5. PPT / / ## Primary Types * Ideological: Left-wing * Ideological: Right Wing * Ethno-nationalist (and/or separatist) * Narco-terrorist groups * Religious groups Defining Terrorism: Categories to Consider 8 Left Wing Terror Groups * Driven by liberal or idealist political concepts * Prefer revolutionary anti-authoritarian antimaterialist agendas * Typically target elites that symbolize authority * Examples? Right Wing Terrorists * Often target race and ethnicity * Examples? * Let's check some out on the web... 9 Ethnonationalists & Separatists * Usually have clear territorial objectives ­ Liberation/separation ­ Popular support usually along ethnic/racial lines. * Examples? Religious Terrorists * Believe involved in a struggle of good vs evil * Acting along desires of a diety ­ audience is thus not necessarily human. * Feel unconstrained by law ­ higher calling * Complete alienation from existing socio/political order * Support may be diffuse * Ideologies are supremacist & absolutist * Examples? 10 Historical Examples * French Revolution: Modern Root of "Terrorism" ­ Use of revolutionary tribunals to prop up the French republic. ­ Rule by fear/terror ­ Robespierre's "lists" * Iraq ­ Hussein regime uses chemical weapons to subdue uprising among Kurdish villages ­ Rule by fear/terror ­ Recent historical & contemporary groups using terrorism include. . . The Invention of "Terrorism" as a Concept & Term ­ The French Revolution * The "Reign of Terror" (September 5, 1793 - July 28, 1794): struggles between rival factions led to mass executions by guillotine. About 40,000 executed: 8% aristocrats, 6% clergy, 14% middle class, and 70% workers or peasants accused of hoarding, evading the draft, desertion, rebellion, etc. "Terrorism" used to describe such methods in 1795. 11 Historical Examples Irish Republican Army Hizballah ETA (Basque Separatists) LEHI, Stern Gang and Zvi Irgun (Jewish extremists) Tamil Tigers (LTTE) Sendero Luminoso FARC MRTA (Tupac Amaru movement) Al Qaida Jemaah Islamiya Aum Shinrikyo Moro Islamic Liberation Front Egyptian Islamic Jihad Algerian GIA and GSPC Syrian Muslim Brotherhood Hizb ut-Tahrir Al Qaeda in Iraq Lashkar-e Taiba (and other Kashmir groups) Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan Italian Red Brigades Red Army Faction (Baader Meinhof Gang) U.S.-based militia groups The Order, the Aryan Brotherhood, Christian Identity, The Sword, the Covenant & Arm of the Lord Many, many others . . . More on the Long History of Terrorism * First VBIED (or "Car Bomb") terrorist attack? * VBIED: "Vehicle Borne Improvised Explosive Device" New York City, September 1920 * Terrorist: Italian anarchist Mario Buda * Vehicle: Horse-drawn wagon * Target: Corner of Wall and Broad streets (directly across from the J.P. Morgan Company) * Attack: The wagon--packed with dynamite and iron slugs-- exploded at precisely noon in a fireball of shrapnel, killing 40 and wounding more than 200. 12 More History, cont'd * Second VBIED (or "Car Bomb") terrorist attack? Haifa, Palestine (now Israel) January, 1947 * Terrorists: Stern Gang (a pro-fascist splinter group led by Avraham Stern that broke away from the right-wing Zionist paramilitary Irgun) * Vehicle: Truck * Target: British police station in Haifa * Attack: A truckload of explosives was driven into the station, killing 4 and injuring 140. * The Stern Gang would soon use truck and car bombs to kill Palestinians as well, as part of their extremist political agenda. VBIED: http://www.metacafe.com/watch/124933/us_convoy_hit_with_vbied/ and http://thetension.blogspot.com/2008/12/combat-camera-video-vbied-blast-in.html VBIED Technique History, cont'd 13 Basic Trends in Modern Terrorism * More violent attacks (With increasing lethality) * Increasing use of suicide bombers (The "ultimate smart bomb") * Religious terrorist groups most common (Even insurgencies and ethnic separatist groups use religion to justify violence) Key Questions to Consider From Weeks 1, 2 & Our Future Readings ­ What is a `terrorist?' ­ Who is a `terrorist?' ­ Terrorists do not want a "terrorist state" so, what do terrorists desire and what motivates terrorists? ­ How do we define "terrorism?" ­ Why do definitions matter? ­ Is "terrorism rational?" ­ Can terrorism be classified as a series of "directed networks?" As some other model or organizational decision-based hierarchy? More loose-knit?