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Generalist Social Work   Practice
Intervention Methods
JOSEPH WALSH
School of Social Work Virginia Commonwealth University
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General iSt Social Work Practice: Intervention Methods
Joseph Walsh
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ISBN-13: 978-0-534-64130-6 ISBN-10: 0-534-64130-X
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To all of my undergraduate students, past and present, at Virginia Commonwealth University, and to my first five students at Ohio Dominican University
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Brief Contents
PREFACE xiii
ABOUT THE AUTHOR xviii
part I     Introduction to Generalist Practice 1
1 Defining Generalist Practice 3
2 Problem Solving in Generalist Social Work Practice 22
3 Relationships with Client Systems 41
4 The "Person" of the Social Worker 75
part II    Intervention Theories and Applications 89
5 Behavior Theory 91
6 Cognitive Theory 108
7 Community and Social Support Theory 129
part III   Intervention Methods for Levels of Practice 149
8 Practice with Individuals 151
9 Practice with Families 174
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BRIEF CONTENTS V
10 Group Interventions 198
11 Organizational Practice 233
12 Community Interventions 264
REFERENCES 281 INDEX 295
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Contents
PREFACE xiii
ABOUT THE AUTHOR xviii
part I     Introduction to Generalist Practice 1
1 Defining Generalist Practice 3
JHJefminJlGenJFalist' Pjctice 3
A Model of Generalist Practice 5 Elements of Generalist Social Work Practice 6
The Bio-Psycho-Social-Spiritual Perspective 6 The Relationship of Theory to Practice 11 Roles of the Generalist Practitioner 12
Systems in Generalist Practice 14 The Value Base of Social Work Practice 14
Strengths-Based Practice 15
Client Empowerment 16
Ethical Dilemmas    17
Professional Value Principle: Service 19 Characteristics of Effective Practice 20
2 Problem Solving in Generalist Social Work Practice 22
Problems in Living 22 Stress and Coping Styles 24 Three Categories of Stress 24
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CONTENTS
Biological Coping 25
Psychological Coping 25
Coping Styles 26 The Problem-Solving Process 28
The Roles of Critical Thinking and Creativity 29 The Problem-Solving Model of Generalist Practice 30
Problem Identification and Exploration 30
Planning for Problem Resolution 31
Implementation of the Plan 31
Evaluation of the Plan 31 A "Problem" Focus Versus a "Solution" Focus 31 Client System Assessment 32
Goals of the Initial Social Worker—Client Meeting 32
Components of Problem Assessment 33
Sources of Assessment Information 33 Goal Setting and Contracts 34
Guidelines for Goal Selection and Definition 34
Contracts 36 Value Principle: Social Justice 36
3   Relationships with Client Systems 41
Beginning the Social Worker—Client Relationship 41
The Client's Orientation to the Service Setting 42
Communication Skills 43
Counterproductive Communication 45 Worker—Client Differences in Generalist Practice 45
Cross-Cultural Intervention 45 Understanding Culturally Competent Practice 48
The Ethnocentric Response 49
The Knowledgeable Response 49
The Curious Response 50
The Competent Response 50
Case Illustration: The Apache Tear 51 Reactant Clients 52
Motivational Interviewing 53 Establishing and Maintaining Boundaries in Relationships 61
Crossing Boundaries 62
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viii CONTENTS
Boundaries and Power 63
Boundaries and Professional Groups 63
Warning Signs of Possible Boundary Transgressions 63
Managing Boundary Dilemmas 65 Personal Reactions of Social Workers to Their Clients 66
Common Social Worker Reactions to Clients 67
Case Illustration: The Quiet Woman 69 Ending Relationships with Clients 70
Types of Endings 70
Tasks for Ending 71
Ending Rituals 72
Case Illustration: The Runaway Shelter 73
4   The "Person" of the Social Worker 75
Self-Awareness 76
Being a Social Worker 78
Cognitive, Physical, and Emotional Development 79
Spiritual Development 79
Social Development 80 Burnout and Compassion Fatigue 80 Good Social Worker Care: Agency Strategies 82 Social Worker Self-Care 83
Appreciate the Rewards of Social Work Practice 83
Do Not Deny or Minimize the Stresses Inherent in Social Work Practice 84
Nurture Relationships Inside and Outside the Office 85 Set Clear Boundaries with Clients 86
Create a Facilitative Physical Work Environment for Yourself 87 Cultivate a Sense of Mission 87
part II    Intervention Theories and Applications 89 5   Behavior Theory 91
Basic Assumptions of Behavior Theory 92 The Nature of Problems and Change 92
Classical Conditioning 93
Operant Conditioning 93
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CONTENTS ix
Social Learning 94 Goals of Intervention 95 Behavior Assessment 95 Goal Setting and Intervention Principles 97 Parenting Education 98 Systematic Desensitization 101 Professional Value Principle: Competence 104
6 Cognitive Theory 108
Cognitive Development 109 The Nature of Problems and Change 110 Cognitive Assessment 111 Interventions 114
Cognitive Restructuring 116
Cognitive Coping 119
Combining Cognitive and Behavioral Intervention 124 Value Principle: Integrity 126
7 Community and Social Support Theory 129
Definitions of Community 130 nSocifTLearning Theory 130
Social Exchange Theory 131 Value Principle: Importance of Human Relationships 131 The Nature of Social Organization 132 Four Perspectives on Community 134
Community as Spatial Relations 134
Community as Conflict 136
Community as Social System 137
Community as Social Bond 138
Final Thoughts: Dimensions of Community 139 Social Support 140
Operationalizing Social Support 142 Assessing Social Support 143
Measuring Social Support 144
Assessing and Utilizing Community Resources 145
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X CONTENTS
part III   Intervention Methods for Levels of Practice 149
8 Practice with Individuals 151
Assessing Individual Clients 151
Case Illustration: The Adolescent Mother 152 Assessment Outline for Individual Clients 153 Task-Centered Practice 155
Case Illustration: Robert's Vocational Training 159 Social Skills Development 160
Case Illustration: The Angry Adolescent 162 Stress Management 163
Relaxation Skills Development 164
Stress Prevention Skills Development 165 Crisis Intervention 167
Assessing Suicidal Ideation 168
Crisis Intervention Strategies 169
An Ethical Dilemma: The Social Worker—Client Relationship 171
9 Practice with Families 174
Self-Awareness in Family Work 175 Structural Family Theory 175
Major Concepts 176
Other Concepts 178
The Nature of Problems and Change    179
Assessment and Intervention 181
Ending Structural Family Interventions 187 Case Illustrations 188
The Dalton Family 188
The Family Drawings 192
A Mobile Home near the Woods 193 Ethical Dilemmas in Family Work 194
10 Group Interventions 198
Types of Treatment Groups 198 Forming Intervention Groups 200 Group Stages 203 Group Leadership Skills 204
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CONTENTS xi
Monitoring Group Process 205 A Word About Involuntary Groups 206 Cognitive—Behavioral Intervention in Groups 207 Examples of Intervention Groups 207
The Family Education and Support Group 208
The Art Therapy Group 211
An Anger Control Group: The Franklin Court Conjlict Resolution Group 212
An Education Group: The Living Skills Group 213
Education, Growth, and Socialization: The Multiple-Family Weekend Retreat 215
All Five Types of Groups: The Wilderness Group 216 Ethical Dilemmas in Group Work 218
APPENDIX A: SAMPLE PHONE SURVEY FOR PROSPECTIVE GROUP
MEMBERS 222 APPENDIX B: SAMPLE EVALUATION FORM 226
11 Organizational Practice 233
The Nature of Human Service Organizations 234
Characteristics of Formal Organizations 237
Task Groups in Agencies 239
Common Administrative Challenges in Human Service Agencies 240
Organizational Theories 242
Scientific Management 242
Human Relations 242
Contingency Theory 243
Theory Z and Total Quality Management 244 Agency Power and Politics 245
A Note on Interprofessional Relationships 246 An Agency Assessment Outline 246 Agency Intervention 248
Agency Opposition to Change 249
Program and Practice Evaluation 250 Ethical Dilemmas in Organizational Practice 259
Value Principle: Service 259
Value Principle: Dignity and Worth of the Person 261
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XÜ CONTENTS
12 Community Interventions 264
A Community Assessment Outline 265 Types of Communities 266 Intervention Strategies 267
Collaboration 267
Campaign 268
Contest 268 Social Advocacy 268
Community Intervention: Three Illustrations 269
A Partnership with the Community Mental Health Association 269
The Cobblestone Controversy Revisited 273 "Housing First" 275 Ethical Dilemmas in Community Practice 277
REFERENCES 281 INDEX 295
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Preface
Generalist social work practice can be defined as the comprehensive assessment of a problem situation in a client system, followed by planning and intervention at any of five levels including those of the individual, family, group, organization, or community. The generalist perspective assumes an interdependence between individuals and their social environments, and requires that social workers have a broad base of knowledge about the functioning of individuals, families, grows, organizations, and communities, and the ways in which they may reciprocally support or inhibit functioning. Generalist Social Work Practice: Intervention Methods is a textbook that provides undergraduate social work students with a wide range of specific intervention strategies for use with client systems at all levels of generalist practice. Six of the 12 chapters are so focused, and all of the other chapters include sections on practice implications of the topic material as well. Thus, the major strength of this book is its emphasis on intervention.
Regarding practice applications, this book is based on a strengths-based problem-solving model that can apply across all levels of intervention. Students are introduced to cognitive and behavioral theory for use with individuals and groups, and structural theory for use with families. These approaches have been selected because they are clearly understood by undergraduate students, practical in most social work settings, and have demonstrated effectiveness with a range of problems in living. Students are also introduced to the contingency, community systems, and social support theories for larger scale interventions. All of these intervention perspectives are consistent with each other, and thus provide the social work student with a systematic set of strategies for generalist practice. Each chapter also includes a list of classroom discussion topics and ideas for assignments.
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xiv PREFACE
Generalist Social Work Practice: Intervention Methods is divided into three sections, as follows:
■ An introduction to generalist practice, including attention to the special nature of social work, the problem-solving process, and the process of managing professional relationships
■ Intervention theories and applications, with special attention to behavior theory, cognitive theory, and social support theory
■ Specific intervention methods for use across all five levels of generalist practice
ORGANIZATION OF THE BOOK
Parts I and II consist of seven chapters that lay out a theoretical perspective for generalist practice. The well-known problem-solving model, with a clear strengths focus, is presented as the underlying conceptual framework for intervention. This model is practical for generalist practice because it is applicable across the five levels. Another advantage of the problem-solving model is that it provides a basis for client empowerment. A major theme of the book is that clients are always helped by the social worker to become better problem solvers. The cognitive, behavioral, and social support theories for practice are introduced in Part II. These theories and their related intervention strategies help practitioners to focus their work on a client system's cognitive, emotional, and behavioral functioning, including its development of new knowledge or new ways of approaching the environment. Concepts of community are also given special attention in Part II. Social support theory is presented with this material as it provides a link between work with smaller and larger systems.
Part III, focused more specifically on intervention methods, provides sets of strategies for use with client systems at all five levels of generalist practice. Each chapter includes at least four distinct strategies, and many of them build on each other. There are three reasons for taking this approach. First, it enables the instructor to cover as much material in each chapter as fits with the scope of the course. Thus, instructors who teach a practice course for only one semester may use half of the intervention strategies covered in each chapter. Secondly, an instructor may choose to emphasize some levels of practice more than others, if such an approach fits with the nature of his or her program. Thirdly, the instructor may want to cover some intervention strategies at all levels of practice early in the academic year, and then go through the sequence again to teach additional strategies later in the year. This way, students who are given caseloads or other practice assignments in their agencies early in the year (agencies are quite variable in this regard) do not have to wait long before getting to course material that lends guidance to their field activities.
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PREFACE XV
An in-depth discussion of agency-based practice is reserved for Part III. The first half of that chapter is theoretical and may be used earlier in the semester. At that time students will be adjusting to their field placement agencies and will probably experience many orientation activities before they are in a position to provide interventions. This content will help the students to make a successful adjustment to the field, and the recommended assignments and questions for discussion will help the instructor take advantage of the opportunity to teach students about large-systems practice. This concept is emphasized in the chapter on agency-based research, which provides students with the ability to develop empirical rationales for their interventions at that level.
PROFESSIONAL VALUES AND ETHICS
Many textbooks include separate chapters about professional values. Intervention Methods incorporates attention to a single social work value principle in each chapter of Part III. This enables the instructor to place the teaching of values into a context of the other text material, and students can integrate this learning into their range of practice activities. A case vignette representing a value dilemma is included in each of the last six chapters, based on the intervention principles from that chapter, for student reading and discussion.
A RANGE OF INTERVENTION METHODS
Figure 1 outlines all of the theories and intervention activities for generalist practice that are described in the book. Each theory and activity is listed beneath the target of intervention to which it applies. If a line moves from the topic across a portion of the page, that topic is intended to be applicable to several levels of intervention. What should be evident from this table is that each level of intervention may call for the practitioner's application of different roles and interventions. A major principle of Generalist Social Work Practice: Intervention Methods is that, while generalist practice provides an overarching perspective for service delivery, the effective practitioner needs to be able to call on special knowledge and intervention skills to help clients resolve problems and challenges at each of the five levels of practice.
Social work is a challenging profession, one in which even the most seasoned practitioners face new dilemmas every day that test their abilities to help clients solve problems. This book can help new social workers develop the competence, confidence, and sense of optimism to embark on a lifelong career in service to others.
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XVI
PREFACE
FIGURE 1   Generalist Social Work Practice Interventions
Target Systems
Individuals
Families Groups Organizations
Communities
Theories and Interventions
Problem-solving theory
Problem-solving model, Task-centered practice Cognitive-Behavior theory_
Cognitive restructuring, Skills training, Stress management, Stress prevention, Behavioral reinforcements, Crisis intervention
Social support theory_
Formal and informal linkage development and maintenance
Family systems
Structural (includes communications) Educational
Group process
Five types, Four stages, Leadership strategies
^antingency theory Changing: People,
Approach:
Strategy:
Research:
Processes, Structures Policy, Program, Project, Personnel, Practice Collaboration, Campaign, Contest
Needs assessment, Evaluation
Social action Collaboration, Campaign, Contest
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PREFACE
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I have enjoyed teaching undergraduate social work students throughout my 15 years in academia. Writing this book has been a dream of mine, and many people have helped me in the process. First I want to acknowledge my most influential mentor in teaching and working with undergraduate students—Jane Reeves, former BSW program director at Virginia Commonwealth University. For their assistance with preparing the manuscript I want to recognize the contributions of colleagues Lori Thomas, Jeanne Crowell, and Jacqueline Corcoran. From Cengage Learning and the Newgen—Austin production team I want to thank Marcus Boggs, Stephanie Rue, Dan Alpert, Christy Krueger, Michele Chancellor, Caidin Cox, Bharathi Sanjeev, Rebecca Logan, Debra DeBord, and Randa Dubnick.
A special thanks goes to Lisa Gebo, formerly of Thomson Brooks/Cole, who offered me the contract for this book.
The reviewers listed in the following section provided excellent suggestions for improving early drafts of the manuscript.
REVIEWERS
Roseanna McCleary (California State University, Bakersfield) Kenneth Hermann (State University of New York) Santos Torres (California State University, Sacramento) Barbara Rio (Stephen F. Austin State University) Andrew Scharlach (University of California, Berkeley) Ronald Polon (Ball State University) Diane Calloway-Graham (Utah State University) Sabrina Sullenberger (Indiana University)
Frederick Stephens (University of North Carolina, Pembroke) Margaret Elbow (Texas Tech University) Phillip Ortiz (Eastfield College)
Anthony Mallon (Virginia Commonwealth University) Sandy Cook-Fong (University of Nebraska) Jay Bishop (University of Maryland, Eastern Shore) Freddi Avant (Stephen F. Austin State University)
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About the Author
Joseph Walsh is a professor of social work at Virginia Commonwealth University. He has been a direct service practitioner in the field of mental health for many years, first in a psychiatric hospital and later in community mental health center settings. He has mosdy specialized in services to people with serious mental illnesses and their families. Since 1993 Joe has been at VCU, teaching courses in generalist and clinical practice, human behavior, research, and social theory. He was the 1998 recipient of the National Mental Health Association's George Goodman Brudney and Ruth P. Brudney Social Work Award, given annually to recognize significant contributions to the care and treatment of people with mental illnesses. Joe is the author or coauthor of six other books related to social work practice.
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Index
ABC review, 113, 116-117, 118, 124
cognitive restructuring and, 116 Abuse, domestic, 195 Accessibility, 134
ADHD school programs, 136—137 Adolescents, 152-153, 154
social skills development and, 160—161 Advocacy for agency change, 126 African Americans, 45, 58, 130
adolescents, 154
Caucasian social workers and, 50 cultural heritage, 121 kin networks and, 141 multigenerational family systems,
141-142 slavery era, 142 Agencies
hierarchy, 82
host settings for social workers, 235
people-changing, 235
people-processing, 235
people-sustaining, 235
primary settings for social workers, 235
solvency, 260 Agencies, employing
administrative concerns, 235
social workers and, 235 Agencies, human service
accessing information from all stakeholders, 241
common administrative challenges in,
239-241 efficiency of resource use, 241 evaluations of staff performance, 241 informal power, 245 insuring client access to services, 240 lack of clarity about agency mission or
program, 240 public and private, 234 quality of interprofessional relationships,
241
staff alienation and burnout, 241 upholding client dignity, 241 variable program quality, 240 Agency assessment outline, 246—247 the agency, 247 the community, 247 record keeping, 248 service gaps, 247 social work practice, 247 supervision and evaluation, 247 Agency change activities
case illustration: consumers as board
members, 251—252 case illustration: "gender suitability" of
staff at a homeless shelter, 256—259 case illustration: length of stay at the
Salvation Army, 255—256 case illustration: parent participation at
Sacred Heart Center, 252—255 Agency intervention, 248—259
295
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296 INDEX
Agency intervention (continued)
agency opposition to change, 249—250
people-focused change, 248
program and practice evaluation, 250-251
structural change, 248
technological change, 248 Agency power and politics
interprofessional relationships, 246 Agency program and policy developer, 13 Agency requirements, 53 Agency sanctions, sources of
clients, 236
community agencies, 236 foundations and other funding sources, 237
government bodies, 237 key community supporters, 237 national credentialing organizations, 236 professional organizations, 236 Agency values, 15 Alcohol and other drugs, 154 Alcoholics Anonymous, 139, 199 Alcohol use, negative reinforcement and, 94
Americans, definitions of community and, 129
American society, ethic of individualism in, 138
Analysis patterns of clients, 49 Anxiety, 101, 102
"Apache tear," 51 Appalachia, 123
cultural background, 187 Arts activity, directed, 208 Art Therapy group, 211—212 Asian Americans, 45 Assessing individual clients, case illustration: the adolescent mother, 152—153 Assessing involuntary families, intervention, 185-187 Assessment, sources of information, 33—34 Assessment and intervention, structural family theory, 181-187, 193-194 assessing involuntary families, 185—187 beginning procedures, 181—182 case illustration: the Dalton family, 188-192
case illustration: the family drawings, 192-193
ending structural family interventions, 187-188 Assessment outline
for families, 182-183
for individual clients, 153—155 Assessment questions, examples of, 96 Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), 137
parent advocates, 137 Attitudes of clients, 48 Attribution training, 118 Authenticity, 44 Autonomy, 19
Bagarozzi, 91
Baseline, 99, 100
Beginning procedures, 181—182
Behavior, 91
Behavioral analysis, five domains of, 97 Behavioral problems of adolescents
motivational interviewing and, 53 Behavior assessment, 95—98
questions, 96 Behaviorism, 91 Behaviors
of clients, 48
directive, 70
supportive, 70 Behavior theory, 91—107
basic assumptions of, 92
covert actions, 108
the nature of problems and change, 92-95
overt actions, 108 Billable hours, 260 Biofeedback, 165
Biological factors and functioning, 153
Body image and awareness, 7
Boundaries
benefits for clients, 62 benefits for social workers, 62 crossing, 62—63
guidelines for managing dilemmas,
65-66 intervening factors, 65 legal liabilities and, 65 power and, 63 professional groups, 63 warning signs of possible boundary
transgression, 63—64
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Boundaries, rules about contact time, 61 emotional space, 62 physical closeness, 61—62 territoriality, 62
types of information to be shared, 61 Boundaries in relationships, establishing and maintaining, 61—66 rules about, 61 Boundary transgressions
accepting or giving gifts, 64
dual relationships, 64
intrusion into the client's territory, 64
investigating certain details of a client's
personal life, 64 loaning, trading, or selling items to a
client, 65 referring to a client as a friend, 65 self-disclosure by the social worker, 64 sharing information about a client, 65 socializing with a client, 64—65 touching or physically comforting the
client, 64 warning signs of, 64 BSSW (Bachelor of Science in Social Work), 3
BSW (Bachelor of Social Work), 3, 75, 233
Burnout, 5, 80
compassion fatigue and, 81 effects of, 81
Campaign, 268, 275 Case illustrations
the adolescent girls group, 120—121
the adolescent mother, 152—153
the Apache tear, 51—52
consumers as board members, 251—252
the Dalton family, 188-192
the family drawings, 192—193
"gender suitability" of staff at a homeless
shelter, 256-259 length of stay at the Salvation Army,
255-256 Leonora's odd lifestyle, 145—146 managing family friction with
communication skills, 123—124 parent participation at Sacred Heart
Center, 252-255 the quiet woman, 67, 69—70
INDEX 297
Robert's vocational training, 159—160
the runaway shelter, 73
the school brawler, 58—61 Caseloads, 82 Case management, 6 Catholics, 8
Catholic youth organization, 199 Caucasians, 45
kin networks and, 141 Causal attributions, 109, 117
problematic, 111 Challenge, 24 Change
ambivalence toward, 54
people-focused, 248
structural, 248
technological, 248 Childhood, 109
Children, social skills development and,
160-161 Class conflict, 136 Classical conditioning, 93, 101 Client rights, 53
professional knowledge and, 17 Clients, 154
gifts from, 72
motivation, 35
outreach, 5
overidentification with, 67
power and, 16
racial experiences of, 48
resources of, 49
responsibilities to, 104—105
spiritual beliefs of, 49
worldview beliefs, 49 Clients, ending relationships with, 70—73
case illustration: the runaway shelter, 73
ending rituals, 72—73
tasks for ending, 71—72
types of endings, 70 Clients, involuntary, 51
court orders and, 52 Clients, reactant, 52—61
motivational interviewing, 53
ways to help, 52—53 Client's thoughts, assessing validity of, 113 Client system, 32 Client system assessment, 32—34
components of problem assessment, 33
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298 INDEX
Client system assessment (continued)
goals of the initial social worker—client
meeting, 32—33 sources of assessment information, 33-34 Clinical practice, 6 Clinton administration, 276 Cobblestone controversy revisited, 273— 275
community assessment, 274 interventions, 275 objectives and intervention tactics, 274-275 Cognition, 91
Cognitive assessment, 111-114 Cognitive assumptions, adjusting, 111 Cognitive biases, 109 Cognitive coping, 115, 118—124 communication skills development,
115, 122-124 problem solving, 115 problem-solving skills development, 120
relaxation skills development, 115
self-instruction, 115, 119
social skills development, 115
techniques for, 115 Cognitive deficits, 111, 114 Cognitive development, 109—110 Cognitive distortions, common, 112 Cognitive distortions of reality, 25, 111,
114, 117 Cognitive functioning, 153 Cognitive interventions, 109 Cognitive mediation, 94 Cognitive questioning, 118 Cognitive restructuring, 113, 114, 116— 118
the ABC review, 115, 116-117 attribution development, 115 education, 115 point—counterpoint, 115 single parent and, 117—119 strategies for, 115 Cognitive theory, 108—128 cognitive assessment, 111—114 cognitive development, 109—110 cognitive restructuring, 114 cognitive therapy, 116
combining cognitive and behavioral
intervention, 124—126 emotions in, 108 interventions, 114—126 the nature of problems and change,
110-111 rational-emotive therapy, 116 value principle: integrity, 126 Collaboration, 267—268 Collaborative process, 35 Collateral information, 33 College students, stress and coping styles, 26
Combining cognitive and behavioral
intervention, 124—126 Command-giving, parent training and, 99 Communication patterns of clients, 49 Communication skills, 30, 191
case illustration: managing family friction with communication skills, 123-124
development, 123—124
training, 186 Communities, 266—267
anomic, 266—267
diffuse, 266-267
integral, 266—267
parochial, 266—267
stepping stone, 266—267
territorial, 130
transitory, 266—267 Community, 198, 264
as conflict, 136—137
definitions of, 130
dimensions of, 139-140, 140
multicultural, 139
as social bond, 138—139
as a social system, 137—138
as spatial relations, 134—136 Community and social support theory, 129-147
assessing social support, 143—144
definitions of community, 130
four perspectives on community, 134-140
the nature of social organization, 132-134
social exchange theory, 131
social learning theory, 130—131
social support, 140-143
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Community and social support theory (continued)
value principle: importance of human relationships, 131—132 Community as a social system, 137—138
the sibling support group, 138
the supervised apartment program, 137-138 Community as conflict, 136—137
ADHD school programs, 136—137
the family support group, 136—137 Community assessment outline, 265—266 Community as social bond, 138—139
gangs, 139 Community as spatial relations, 134—136
the cobblestone controversy, 135—136
the shelter relocation, 135 Community interventions, 129, 264—280
the cobblestone controversy revisited, 273-275
a community assessment outline, 265-266
ethical dilemmas in community practice, 277-278 Housing First, 275—277 intervention strategies, 267—268 a partnership with the community
mental health association, 269—273 social advocacy, 268—269 types of communities, 266—267 Community resource developer and
advocate, 13 Community resources, assessing and utilizing, 145 case illustration: Leonora's odd lifestyle, 145-146 Compassion fatigue, 81 Compulsive behaviors, reinforcement
and, 94 Conditioning, 93 Confidentiality, 17 in family work, 194 threats of violence and, 196 Conflict, 136
Conflict resolution group, 212—213 Conscious thoughts, cognitive theory
and, 108 Consumerism, 133 Contemplation, 54 Contingency theory, 243—244
INDEX 299
Continuum of Care, 276, 277 Contracts, elements of 36 Coping, 24
biological, 25
emotion-focused, 26
problem-focused, 26
psychological, 25—26 Coping skills, 91
of clients, 49 Coping styles, 26, 26—28 Core beliefs, influence of 110 Countertransference, 66—67
negative, 67
positive, 67
problematic, 67 Covert actions, 108 Creativity, 29, 153
characteristics of 30 Crises, 167, 168
assessment and intervention activities, 168
failure of usual coping efforts, 168 implementation of solutions,
maladaptive or adaptive, 168 sharp and sudden increase in tension,
168 stages of 168 suicide and, 168 Crisis intervention, 167—171
assessing suicidal ideation, 168—169 case illustration: a mid-life crisis,
170-171 skills, 5
strategies, 169—171
Critical thinking, 29
Crowell, Jennifer Hause, 264
Cultural factors and transitions, 154
Cultural heritage of clients, 48 Latino, 121
Cultural knowledge, 48
Culturally competent practice, understanding, 48—52 case illustration: the Apache tear, 51—52 the competent response, 50—51 cultural knowledge, 48 the curious response, 50 the ethnocentric response, 49 the knowledgeable response, 49—50
Cultural norms, boundaries and, 65
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300 INDEX
Cultural sensitivity, 48—49
Deaf culture, 130 Deaf people, 130
Deciding on an intervention strategy in
cognitive theory, 114 Deep breathing, 115 Deviance, 133
Diabetes, motivational interviewing and, 53
Diagnostic labels, 5 Direct practice, 6
Direct practitioner with individuals,
families, and groups, 13 Disabilities, 273 Disposition, 154 Divergent thinking, 29 Diversity, 243 Duelin' Daltons, 188
Eating disorders, motivational interviewing and, 53 Education, growth, and socialization: the multiple-family weekend retreat, 215-216 Empathy, 43 Employees
institutional, 244
managerial, 244
technical, 243 Empowerment
developmental process, 17
liberation from oppression, 17
psychological state, 17
strengths-based practice, 16
three themes of, 17 Endings in group intervention: leader
tasks, 208 Environmental practitioner, 13 Erikson, Erik, psychosocial theory of, 7 Ethical dilemmas, 38
common sources of, 17—18
in community practice, 277—278
in family work, 194—196
in group work, 218—219
questions for resolving, 18
value principle: dignity and worth of the person, 261—262
value principle: service, 259—261
values hierarchy #1, 18
values hierarchy #2, 18—19 Ethical values hierarchy, 18 Ethics, 14 Ethnocentrism, 49 Evaluations
outcome, 250
process, 250
sample form, 226—232 External environment, adaptation to, 132 Extinction, 100
reinforcement systems, 100
Families
Chinese, 175 defining problems, 174 dynamics of relationships in, 184 Hispanic, 175 involuntary, 185—187 Italian American, 175 Jewish, 175
Mexican American, 175
Native American, 175
types of, 174
Vietnamese, 175
West African, 175 Family Assessment and Prevention Team
(FAPT), 193, 194 Family Education and Support Group,
200, 201, 202, 208-211 Family factors, 154
Family preservation, motivational interviewing and, 53 Family Preservation Services, 191 Family structure, 175
alliances, 176
boundaries, 177
communication skills, 178
disengagement, 176
enmeshment, 176
executive authority, 176
external systems influences, 179
family myths, 179
flexibility, 178
manipulating space, 186
member resistance to normal family change process, 180
power imbalances, 179
roles, 177
rules, 177
subsystems, 176
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Family structure (continued)
system boundaries that are too rigid or too diffuse, 179
triangles, 177 Family support group, 136—137 Family system, visual portrayal of, 183 Feminist theorists, 26 Focusing, 44
Formal assessment instruments, 34 Formal organizations, characteristics of, 237-239
agency planning and goal setting, 239
culture, 239
detachment, 238
documentation, 239
formal power, 237
hierarchy, 237
informal power, 237
power, 237
productivity, 238
qualifications, 238
rules, 238
specialization, 238
structure, 237 Franklin Court Conflict Resolution
Group, 212-214 Franklin Court Elementary School, 212 Freud, Sigmund, psychosexual theory of, 7 Functional analysis, 96
behavioral assessment and, 95 Functional behavioral analysis, 96
Gangs, 139
General adaptation syndrome, 25 Generalist practitioner, roles of, 12—14, 134
agency program and policy developer, 13
community resource developer and
advocate, 13 direct practitioner with individuals,
families, and groups, 13 environmental practitioner, 13 information manager, 13 outcome evaluator, 13 service accessibility advocate, 13 Generalist social work practice, 20 components of, 5 defining, 3—6 elements of, 6—11
INDEX 301
model of, 5—6 problem solving in, 22—40 problem-solving model of, 30—31 relationship of theory to practice in,
11-12 systems in, 14 General social work practice, elements of, 6-11 the "bio," 7
the bio-psycho-social-spiritual perspective, 6-7
the "psycho," 7—8
the "social," 8
the "spiritual," 8—11 Genogram, 183 Goal attainment, 132 Goals, 154
functions of, 34
of intervention, 95
realistic and attainable, 35 Goal selection and definition, guidelines
for, 34-36 Goal setting and contracts, 34
contracts, 36 Goal setting and intervention principles,
steps in, 97-98 Group interventions, 198—232
forming intervention groups, 200—203
group stages, 203—204
sample evaluation form, 226—232
sample phone survey for prospective group members, 222—225
types of treatment groups, 198—200 Group leaders
interventions, 205
roles of, 201 Group leadership skills, 204—205
power and control stage, 204
pre-afliliation stage, 204
separation stage, 204—205
shared working stage, 204 Group process, monitoring, 202, 205—206
communication and group interaction, 206
decision making, 206 group cohesion, 206 group norms, 206 group structure, 205 leadership style of the social workers, 206
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302 INDEX
Group process, monitoring (continued)
presentations of group members, 205 Groups
cognitive—behavioral intervention in, 207
disruptive behavior and, 207 involuntary, 206—207 open versus closed, 201 rules for, 202
sample phone survey for prospective
group members, 222—225 screening candidates for, 202 Group stages, 203—204
power and control stage, 203 pre-affiliation stage, 203 separation stage, 203 shared working stage, 203
Harm, 24
Health and wellness, 7 Health care issues, motivational interviewing and, 53 Helpful factors for clients in groups, 199 High-probability behaviors, 99 Historic experiences of clients, 48 HIV high-risk behavior, motivational
interviewing and, 53 Housing First, 275, 276
community assessment, 276 interventions, 277 objectives and intervention tactics, 276-277 Human relations, 242—243
diversity, 243 Human service organizations, nature of, 234-241
characteristics of formal organizations, 237-239
common administrative challenges in
human service agencies, 239—241 task groups in agencies, 239—240 Human service practitioners, 141
Identifying information, 153, 183 Information manager, 13 Informed consent, 17 Initial social worker—client meeting,
goals of, 32—33 Integrative functions, 132 Integrity, 126
Intelligence, 153
Intervention, advantages of group vs.
individual, 199 Intervention, cross-cultural competence in, 48—51, 49 dominant culture social worker and minority culture client, 46—47 majority culture social worker and
majority culture client, 48 minority culture social worker and
minority culture client, 47 minority social worker and dominant culture client, 47 Intervention groups, 208—218
all five types of groups: the wilderness
group, 216-218 anger control group: the Franklin Court Conflict Resolution Group, 212-214 Art Therapy group, 211—212 education, growth, and socialization: the multiple-family weekend retreat, 215-216 examples of, 208—218 Family Education and Support Group,
208-211 forming, 200-203 Intervention in cognitive theory, 114—126 Intervention methods for levels of practice, 149-280
community interventions, 264—280 group interventions, 198—232 organizational practice, 233—263 practice with families, 174—197 practice with individuals, 151—173 Intervention plan/client contract, sample, 37
Interventions
communication skills training, 186—187 effectiveness (outcome), 20, 31 efficiency, 31 ending stages of, 70 principles of, 55
verbal interventions and adolescence, 92 Intervention strategies, 267—268
campaign, 268
collaboration, 267—268
contest, 268 Intervention theories and applications, 89— 147
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Intervention theories and applications (continued)
behavior assessment, 95—98
behavior theory, 91—107
cognitive theory, 108—128
community and social support theory, 129-147
goal setting and intervention principles, 97-98
goals of intervention, 95 parenting education, 98—99 professional value principal: competence, 104-106 systematic desensitization, 101—104
Jews, 8, 175
Job descriptions, 82
Judgment, 153
Kohlberg and Gilligan's theories of moral development, 7
Latinos, 130
Leader activities during the first session, 208
Legal requirements, 53 Life-cycle s$Fge, "154 f Life or role transitions, critical developmental stages of life, 23 Living Skills Group, 213—214 Logotherapy, 10
Marwood Counseling Center, 37 Marx, Karl, 136
Meals on Wheels (MOW), 251-252
Meaning, categories of creative (music, art), 10 defiant (resisting oppression), 11 experiential (responding to natural beauty or to works of art), 10 religious, 10
social (engagement in a variety of social activities to advance some value), 10
Meditation, 165 Mental Health Association, 272 Mental health centers, 235 Mental health interest groups, 138 Mental health systems, 37
INDEX 303
Metropolitan House Community
Homeless Shelter (MHCHS), 257
Minuchin, Salvador, structural family theory of, 175
Modeling, 94-95
Moods, 154
Motivational interviewing, 53—61 case illustration: the school brawler, 58-61
decisional balancing, 57—58 eliciting self-motivational statements, 55 handling reactance, 56—57 intervention principles and, 55 major concepts of, 53—61 perspectives of, 54 the social worker—client relationship, 54-55
supporting self-efficacy and developing
a change plan, 58 Transtheoretical Stages of Change (TSOC) model, 53-54 MSW (Master of Social Work), 3 Muslims, 8
NASW Code ofEthics 18, 19, 36,42, 104-106, 125, 126, 131, 172, 234, 267 competence, 104—105 National Association of Social Workers (NASW), 8, 236 Mental Health Association, 38 person-in-environment (PIE) system, 8 political action committee, 38 National Council of Community Mental
Health Centers, 236 Native American culture, 51 Natural breathing technique, 103 Neo-Marxists, 136 New York City, 46
Objectives, measurable, 35 Operant conditioning, 93—94 Optimism, 87
Organizational management, human
relations approach, 242 Organizational practice, 233—263
an agency assessment outline, 246—248
agency intervention, 248
agency power and politics, 245—246
ethical dilemmas in, 259—262
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304 INDEX
Organizational practice (continued)
nature of human service organizations,
234-241 organizational theories, 242—245 Organizational theories
contingency theory, 243—244 human relations, 242—243 scientific management, 242 Theory Z and total quality management, 244-245 Organizational traditions, American, 244— 245
Organizations, 233
dimensions of, 247 Outcome evaluator, 13 Overeating, 94 Overt actions, 108
Pain management, 53 Panic disorder, 101—104 Paperwork, 85
Parenting education, 98, 98—99 classical conditioning, 101 components of, 98—99 do's and don'ts, 100 operant behavior intervention principles, 101
Parents
behavioral theory and, 101
overinvolvement, 179—180 Partnership with the community mental health association, 269—273
community assessment, 270
interventions, 271—273
task force objectives and intervention tactics, 270-271 Pattern maintenance, 132 Pavlov, Ivan Petrovich, 91
conditioned response in dogs, 93 Personal functioning, ineffective, 23 Personalization of negative events, 118 Person-in-environment (PIE), 8, 17, 23
classification system, 9—10 Piaget, Jean, 109
theory of cognitive development, 7 Plan, 154
Pleasure and pain, 92 Postmodernism, 133
Postmodern society, characteristics of, 133 Poverty, 130, 175
Practice, characteristics of effective, 20
Practice theory, 11
Practice with families, 174—197
ethical dilemmas in family work, 194-196
structural family theory, 175—188 Practice with individuals, 151—173
assessing individual clients, 151—153
assessment outline for individual clients, 153-155
crisis intervention, 167—171
an ethical dilemma: the social worker-client relationship, 171—172
social skills development, 160—163
stress management, 163—167
task-centered practice, 155—160 Practitioner licensure boards, 236 Pre-contemplation, 54 Problem assessment, components of, 33
concern as presented by the client system, 33
developmental stage of the client system, 33
impact of environmental factors on presenting situation, 33
significant role transitions, 33 Problem behavior, reinforcement of, 96 Problem definition, 153 Problems
definition, 183
identification, 153, 183 Problems and change, nature of, 110—111
classical conditioning, 93
operant conditioning, 93—94
social learning, 94—95 Problem solving, 22-40, 120, 155-156
assumptions of, 29
brainstorming, 120
choosing and implementing an alternative, 120
defining the problem, 120
evaluating the implemented solution, 120
"problem" focus versus "solution"
focus, 31—32 problems in living, 22—24 process of, 28—30
roles of critical thinking and creativity,
29-30 steps in, 155—156
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Problem solving (continued)
stress and coping styles, 24—28 theory, 22
Problem solving model of generalist practice, 30—31 evaluation of the plan, 31 implementation of the plan, 31 planning for problem resolution, 31 problem identification and exploration, 30-31
Problem tracking, 185
Professional growth, 83
Professional roles, 12—13
Professionals, conflicts with bureaucrats, 235-236
Program and practice evaluation, 250—251 Progressive muscle relaxation, 165 Protestants, 8
Psychological factors and functioning, 153 Psychological kinship, 174 Puerto Ricans, 46 Punishment, 91, 92, 100 reinforcement systems, 100
Quality circle, 244 Quality of life, 19
Rational-emotive therapy, 116 Rational thinking, 109, 111 Reactance, handling, 56—57
agreement with a twist, 57
amplified reflection, 56
clarifying free choice, 57
double-sided reflection, 57
reframing, 57
shifting focus, 57
simple reflection, 56 Reciprocal obligation, 131 Reciprocity, 131 Referral statement, 153, 183 Reflective listening, 122 Reframing, 190 Reinforcement, 91, 91—92
negative, 94
positive, 94 Reinforcement systems
high-probability behaviors, 99
social reinforcements, 99
token economies, 99—100 Relabeling, 185
INDEX 305
Relationships with client systems, 41—74 Relaxation
case illustration: the niece and the nursing home, 165
skills development, 163, 164—165
techniques, 103 Religion
American, 8
spirituality and, 8 Resilience, 16
Ridgedale High School, 120-121 Role-playing, 94, 124, 184, 187, 191, 207 Role transitions, 23
Sacred Heart Center, 252
Salvation Army, 255—257
Schemas, 109
Schizophrenia, 37, 69-70
Schools of social work, 234, 236, 273
Scientific management, 242
Self-disclosure, authenticity and, 44
Self-motivational statements, eliciting, 153
concern questions, 55
intention to change, 56
optimism about change, 56
problem recognition questions, 55
questions about extremes, 56 Service accessibility advocate, 13 Seventh Day Adventist Church, 234—235 Sex offenses, motivational interviewing
and, 53 Sexual abuse of children, 180 Shaping, 99
Sibling support group, 138 Single parents, 152
cognitive restructuring and, 117—119 Skinner, 91
Social advocacy, 268—269 Social bond perspective, 139 Social change efforts, 36 Social exchange theory, 130, 131
reciprocity, 131 Social factors, 154 Social justice, 36—39
promotion of, 38 Social learning theory, 130—131
modeling, 94 Social networks, 142
church or religious groups, 142
clusters, 142-143
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Social networks (continued)
extended family, 142
family of choice, 142
family of origin, 142
identified friends, 142
informal community relations, 142
members of associations, 142
neighbors, 142
recreational partners, 142
school colleagues, 142
work or volunteer contacts, 142 Social organization
nature of, 132—134 Social skills development, 125, 160—163
behavioral interventions, 161
case illustration: the angry adolescent, 162-163
cognitive aspects of, 160—161
improving behavioral skills, 125
improving cognitive capacity, 125 Social support, 140-144
assessment form, 144
emotional support, 143—144
instrumental support, 143—144
material support, 143—144
measuring, 144—145
operationalizing, 142—143 Social support deficits
abusive and neglectful parents, 141
chronically ill, 141
culturally isolated people (refugees and immigrants), 141
disabled adults and children, 141
elderly, 141
homeless people, 141
people living in rural isolation, 141 Social support theory, 8, 129, 140
buffering model, 141
main effect model, 141 Social work practice, 75
value base of 14—20 Social worker, self-awareness of, 76—78
being a social worker and, 78—79
cognitive, physical, and emotional development, 79
social development, 80
spiritual development, 78—79 Social worker agency research, 250 Social worker—client relationship, 54—55
beginning, 41—45
client's orientation to the service setting, 42-43
communication skills, 43—44
counterproductive communication, 45 Social workers, 75—88
agency strategies for care of, 82
burnout and compassion fatigue, 80—81
goals of intervention, 19
self-awareness, 76—78 Social workers, personal reactions to clients, 66—70
case illustration: the quiet woman, 69-70
common social worker reactions to
clients, 67—68 countertransference, 66—67 transference, 66 Social worker self-care, 83—87 appreciating the rewards of social
work practice, 83—84 creating facilitative physical work
environment, 87 cultivating a sense of mission, 87—88 nurturing relationships inside and
outside the office, 85—86 recognizing the stresses inherent in
social work practice, 84—85 set clear boundaries with clients, 86—87 Social Workers with Disabilities
Association, 135 Socioemotional skills, 13 Sociopolitical skills, 13 Socratic questioning, 111 Spirituality, 8
Staff development programs, 82
Step-down process, 194
Strengths-based practice, principles of 16
Strengths orientation, 35
Stress
biological, 23
psychological, 23
sociological, 23
three categories of, 24 Stress and coping styles, 26, 26—28
among social work students, 27—28 Stress events, 81
Stress management, 24, 163—167
relaxation skills development, 164—165 stress prevention skills development, 165-167
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Stress management (continued)
teaching skills, 186 Stress prevention skills development, 165— 167
case illustration: every day was overwhelming, 166—167 Structural family theory, 174, 178-179 alliances, 176
assessment and intervention, 181—187
boundaries, 177
communication, 178
cultural considerations, 178
executive authority, 176
external systems influences, 179
family goals, 178
family life cycle stage, 178—179
family myths, 179
flexibility, 178
major concepts of, 176—178
the nature of problems and change, 179-181
other concepts, 178—179
roles, 177
rules, 177
subsystems, 176
triangles, 177 Structural functionalism, 132 Substance abuse, 94
motivational interviewing and, 53
Transtheoretical Stages of Change (TSOC), 53 Substance use, 154 Suicide, 168
assessing ideation, 168—169 Supervised apartment program, 137—138 Supervision, 82, 105
characteristics of successful, 105—106
competence and, 105 Supervisory support, 85 Support, characteristics of effective, 141 Support, perception of, 143
observed external support, 143
sense of acceptance by others, 143 Support appraisals, 143 Support groups, 198 Supporting self-efficacy and developing a change plan
asking questions about hypothetical change, 58
brainstorming, 58
INDEX 307
discussing personal strengths and supports, 58
evocative questions, 58
giving information and advice, 58
reviewing past successes, 58
ruler assessment, 58 Supporting system strengths, 185 Supportive behaviors, 143 Systematic desensitization, 93, 101—104
behavioral intervention technique, 101 Systems, 198
Systems in generalist practice, 14 the action system, 14 the change agent system, 14 the client system, 14 the initiator system, 14 the professional system, 14 the referral system, 14 the target system, 14
Task-centered practice (TCP), 155—160
case illustration: Robert's vocational training, 159—160
follow-up sessions, 158—159
problem solving, 155—156
sample form, 157 Task-centered practice form, 157 Task groups in agencies, 239—240
administrative groups, 239
agency teams, 239
committees, 239
delegate councils, 239
social action groups, 239 Temperament, 154 Theory
criteria for selection of, 12
definition of, 11
less predictable role transitions, 23 relationship to practice, 11—12
Theory Z
Japanese companies and, 244 total quality management (TQM), 244-245
Thinking patterns of clients, 49
Thomas, M. Lori, 264
Thought record, 116
Thought stopping, 165
Threat, 24
Thyer, 91
Time out, 101
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308 INDEX
Token economies, 99—100 Total quality management (TQM), 244— 245
Transference, 66
Transtheoretical Stages of Change (TSOC), 53 model, 54
six stages of change and, 53—54 Treatment groups, types of, 198—200
educational groups, 199
growth groups, 199
socialization groups, 200
support groups, 198
therapy groups, 199 Triangles, 190
United States
perspectives on community in, 138
scientific management, 242
Theory Z, 244 United Way, 236, 237 Utah, 215-216
Value base of social work practice, 14—20
client empowerment, 16—17
ethical dilemmas, 17—19 I profeptpnai vajpe princidBL serJTee, 19-20
strengths-based practice, 14—16
Value principle: importance of human
relationships, 131—132 Value principle: integrity, 126 Value principle: service, 259—261 Value principle: social justice, 36—39 Values, 14
of clients, 48
personal, 15
societal, 15 Values, professional
competence, 15
dignity and worth of the person, 15
importance of human relationships, 15
integrity, 15
service, 15
social justice, 15 Violence, threats of, 195 Visualization, 165
Watson, 91
Weekend Family Retreat, 215—216 Wilderness Conquest Program
Native American traditions, 217
Utah, 215-216 Wilderness Group, 216—218 Wodarski, 91
Worker—client differences in generalist practice, 45-48 cross-cultural intervention, 45—48
Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
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Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
Licensed to: iChapters User
Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
Licensed to: iChapters User
Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
Licensed to: iChapters User
Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
Licensed to: iChapters User
Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
Licensed to: iChapters User
Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
Licensed to: iChapters User
Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
Licensed to: iChapters User
Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
Licensed to: iChapters User
Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.
Copyright 2009 Cengage Learning, Inc. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.