PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS OF WOMEN‘S VOICE IN POLITICS POL612 April 24 FACTORS INFLUENCING WOMEN‘S POLITICAL LIFE •Political factors •Structural factors •Cultural factors •What about psychology? • HOW INVOLVED ARE WOMEN? •Consistent gender gaps in political interest •How much knowledge people have? •How much they participate in discussions •How much they consume the media •Efficacy? •- an important predictor of political behavior! GAP IN POLITICAL ENGAGEMENT •Women‘s policy preferences matter less in public discussion •Depriving women of representation •Why?? •Structural resources )education, income, woring outside home) •Psychologcal resource (confidence, awareness) ATKESON, LONNA R., RAPOPORT, RONALD B. 2003 ATKESON, LONNA R., RAPOPORT, RONALD B. •Role of socialization in family! •Women influenced by political interest of their mothers •Reported highly interested mothers -> reported high interest •Problem? (only 20 % of all respondents reported to have highly interested mothers) •No such effect for men •Female role models! • GENDER GAPS IN KNOWLEDGE? •Consistent •Across countries •Persistent •Women are less knowledgeable than men • EXPLAINING KNOWLEDGE GAP •SURVEY QUESTIONS •Men have high “propensity to guess” •Women select “Don‘t know“ option •SOCIETAL STRUCTURE AND RESOURCES •Surveys ask for specific type of knowledge •Women have different experiences (more practical, public services, welfare) (Dolan 2011) •Political attentiveness, education, socialization, motivation •POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS •Proportional electoral rules provide additional incentives for parties to mobilize women , this leads to more engagement (Kittilson and Schwindt-Bayer 2012) JESSICA FORTIN-RITTBERGER: CROSS-NATIONAL GENDER GAPS IN POLITICAL KNOWLEDGE •106 post-election studies, 74 countries, 1996-2011 •Positive Knowledge Scale (only correct answers) •Political Expression Scale (any indicated answers) •Political Accuracy Scale (without DKs) • CROSS-NATIONAL GENDER GAPS IN POLITICAL KNOWLEDGE INTERESTING RESULTS •Highest gap: Greece (2009), Switzerland (1999, 2003, 2007), and Taiwan (1996, 2004, 2008) •Finland 0.03 in 2011; but 0,15 in 2003 •Mexico (same questions): from 0.06 to 0.14 over four elections •What warning does it give us? MONDAK, JEFFREY, ANDERSON MARY R. 2004 •Men are less prone to indicate DK •Women less pro ne to guessing, indicate DK •Vocabulary data for Citizen Participation Study •Women indicate more DKs in vocabulary test then men •The phenomenon related not only to politics MONDAK AND ANDERSON 2004 HOW ABOUT ROLE MODELS IN POLITICS? •Presence of women in politics •Descriptive representation •Substantive representation •Feedback to voter that women can win • •Descriptive underrepresentation creates psychological barriers •Signals uneven status • • ATKESON, LONNA R. 2003. •Visibility of the female candidate is curtail •Not visible candidates = not powerful •Visibility as viability FEMALE POLITICIANS AS ROLE MODELS FOR ADOLESCENTS • “What made the 1994 campaign [for governor] worthwhile was the realization that I had become a role model for women and young girls,” Collins said, adding that a girl told her after the election, “You made me feel I could do anything.” – Susan Collins (R, ME), U.S. Senator • VISIBILITY OF CANDIDATES •Character of office •Viability •When gender is salient •The first woman to run • ADOLESCENTS‘ POLITICAL ENGAGEMENT (CAMPBELL AND WOLBRECHT) GENDER GAP IN POLITICAL ABITIONS •Politics as a reasonable career for men not for women •Women in eligible positions consider political career less often • LAWLESS AND FOX 2014 LAWLESS AND FOX 2014 WHY? •Parties ask women less then men to run •Women tend to perceive themselves as underqualified •Gap in perceived objective skills and confidence •Men more likely to be confident in skills they do not possess and confident in skills they possess (Kling et al. 1999) •Women modest in their achievement (Wigfield, Eccles, Pintrich 19996) •Men overestimate intelligence and women underestimate intelligence (Furnam Rawles 1996) • ACTUAL DECISIONS TO RUN IS WOMEN‘S VOICE ACTUALLY HEARD •Question of equal participation •Is presence of women enough? •Women‘s contributions to debates less valued •Not all reasons and forms of communication constructed socially equal KARPOWITZ, CHRISTOPHER F., MENDELBERG, T. •Gap in authority! •Results in gap in interaction in discussions •Women not motivated or able to articulate their views •Women less comfortable in competitive discussions (role of norms of the institution) • •Gap in deliberation exists, but not based on ability! •Gender composition and norm of decision making rules matter • • • SILENT SEX? •“Early in my career, I went to numerous meetings where I was the only woman present. I would want to contribute to the conversation but would think, if I say that, everybody will think that it‘s really stupid.“ – Madeleine Albright CONFIDENCE GAP •Confidence stereotypical masculine •Schools and gap in perception of boys and girls, girls are silenced in classrooms •Emphasis on physical appearance, low self-esteem •