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Journal of Contemporary East Asia Studies
ISSN: 2476-1028 (Print) 2476-1036 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/reas20
“One Belt, One Road”: China's New Global Strategy
Rumi Aoyama
To cite this article: Rumi Aoyama (2016) “One Belt, One Road”: China's New Global Strategy,
Journal of Contemporary East Asia Studies, 5:2, 3-22, DOI: 10.1080/24761028.2016.11869094
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"One Belt, One Road": China's New
Global Strategy
RumiAOYAMA
Abstract
The "One Belt, One Road" (OBOR) initiative has been a topic of hot debate
among Sinologists and pundits in recent years. What is the nature of this foreign
policy and how is it implemented under the Xi Jinping administration?
By examining China's OBOR initiative, this article argues that OBOR is not
only a regional policy but a grand global strategy for achieving the "Chinese
Dream". While there is little chance that China will be able to create a large area
of influence around the world, the potential impact on global politics cannot be
overlooked.
Keywords
China's foreign policy, "One Belt, One Road" (OBOR), East Asia
1. Ambitious Foreign Policy of Xi Jinping Administration
aiming toward "Great Rejuvenation of the Chinese Nation"
"The great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation" is a phrase that has been repeated
at every opportunity since the transition to the Xi Jinping administration. This
phrase should not be dismissed as simply the administration's slogan, but should
be seen as satisfying important functions, such as giving the political system
performance legitimacy, rallying the public together, and as a national strategy
goal in terms of foreign policy as well.
In order to achieve a "great rejuvenation," the Xi Jinping administration
set forth its "hundred-year dream" to coincide with the 1OOth anniversary of
the founding of the Communist Party of China. This "hundred-year dream" is
also referred to as the "Two 1OOs," and entails China achieving a moderately
4 The Journal ofContemporary China Studies, Vol. 5, No. 2
prosperous society by the hundredth anniversary (2021) of the establishment of
the Communist Party of China, and realizing its "dream of a great rejuvenation
of the Chinese nation" by the hundredth anniversary of the establishment of the
new China. If China achieves its plan to double its gross domestic product and per
capita national income by 2020 from 2010 levels, and realizes this "hundred-year
dream," China's influence on the political and economic landscape in Asia as well
as around the globe will certainly increase dramatically.
Entering the third year since the start of the Xi Jinping administration,
China's foreign policy direction is gradually becoming clearer. The Xi Jinping
administration's foreign policy aiming toward the "great rejuvenation of the
Chinese nation" consists of the following three principles:
1. Attaining stability in Sino-American relations
2. Creating a sphere of influence and increasing its own influence in the
international community
3. Not compromising on its "core interests"
Under the Xi Jinping administration, Sino-American relations are one of the
most important foreign relations for China, and the establishment of a cooperative
relationship between the United States and China is a matter of utmost urgency.
However in the meantime, China is not going to compromise on its "core interests"
including Tibet, Xinjiang, and the South China Sea, and is attempting to increase
its influence in the international community.
Such a direction in its foreign policy is of course nothing new. Already since
2009, the Chinese government switched from using the slogan formulated by
Deng Xiaoping "keep a low profile, achieve something" to the slogan "continue to
keep a low profile, actively seek to achieve something," which in reality indicates
a shift in focus to "achieve something" despite saying "continue to keep a low
profile." However, although the "keep a low profile, achieve something" policy
by Deng Xiaoping had already been revised during the Hu Jintao administration,
China's foreign policy since entering the Xi Jinping administration has clearly
become more audacious and assertive compared to the previous administration.
How is this foreign policy implemented under the Xi Jinping administration? By
examining China's "One Belt, One Road" strategy, this article seeks to clarify the
aims and realities of the Xi Jinping administration's foreign policy.
2. What is'' One Belt, One Road"?
Another slogan by the Xi Jinping administration is the "new normal". This entails
primarily aiming for stable growth while making structural reforms instead
"One Belt, One Road": China's New Global Strategy 5
of pursuing a high rate of growth. China's real growth rate in 2015 was 6.9%,
lower than the previous year. Based on the numbers, it can be seen that China is
currently in a transitional period from double-digit growth rates to stable growth.
However, since the leadership up to this point had been pursuing economic growth
as a means to reinforce its own legitimacy, the Xi Jinping administration would
likely be well aware of the fact that a marked drop in economic growth presents
the risk of increasing dissatisfaction with the administration and a resulting spread
of social instability.
Shifting our focus to foreign policy, stabilization of relations with the United
States has proved to be difficult. Since the autumn of 2011, the United States has
declared its "pivot to Asia", conveying the message that "the United States will
maintain its unipolar dominance in the Asian region." In terms of the economy
the United States has promoted the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP), and in terms
of security, the United States has strengthened its military cooperation with
allied nations in the Asia-Pacific such as Japan and Australia. Such policies by
the United States towards Asia have been interpreted by China as a "strategy
to contain China," and the government, feeling greatly threatened, has harshly
criticized the policies.
China, which is facing problems both domestically and abroad, has put forth a
new Silk Road strategy referred to as "One Belt, One Road". China's surrounding
environment has worsened dramatically, with escalating confrontation between
Japan and China, and an increase in tensions with surrounding nations due to
issues regarding territorial waters. Amid this, China is seeking new opportunities
for foreign relations both to the west and the south. In addition, the strategy entails
developing infrastructure, creating a large economic market by strengthening
relations between China and various nations in Central Asia, Europe, the Middle
East, North Mrica, Southeast Asia, and South Asia, and easing excess domestic
production through exporting, thereby stimulating its economy.
In September 2013, President Xi Jinping announced in Kazakhstan the idea of
a Silk Road Economic Belt, and in October, he announced in Indonesia the idea
of a 21st-Century Maritime Silk Road. Against this backdrop, at a Peripheral
Diplomacy Work Conference held that same October, "peripheral diplomacy"
was emphasized, and in November 2014, the Chinese government announced
the creation of a new Silk Road fund ($40 billion) at the Asia-Pacific Economic
Cooperation (APEC) meeting held in Beijing. In March 2015, the National
Development and Reform Commission, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and the
Ministry of Commerce jointly announced the One Belt, One Road concept.
In May 2015, specific policies pertaining to the "One Belt, One Road" concept
were revealed. As shown in Table. 1, "six international economic corridors" would
6 The Journal ofContemporary China Studies, Vol. 5, No. 2
be created1 with an estimated total investment of $890 billion or more2 for the "One
Belt (Silk Road Economic Belt)", while two routes for the Maritime Silk Road
would be deployed in the center.
(1) China-Mongolia-Russia Economic Corridor
Includes two economic corridors. One economic corridor starts in Northern
China, extends through Hohhot, Inner Mongolia, and reaches Mongolia and
Russia. Another corridor starts in Northeast China, extends through Manzhouli,
and reaches Chita, Russia. Both rely on the Trans-Siberian Railway to connect
China with Europe.
(2) New Eurasia Land Bridge (Second Eurasia Land Bridge) Economic
Corridor
A route divided into three parts that connects Lianyungang, Jiangsu Province
with the Port of Rotterdam in the Netherlands. Said to also be possible to
connect to Japan, South Korea, and Europe through Lianyungang. Can also
reach from Iran and Russia to Hungary by way of Kazakhstan. Covers over 30
nations.
(3) China-Central Asia-West Asia Economic Corridor
Starts in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region, extends through the
Persian Gulf, and reaches the coast of the Mediterranean Sea and the Arabian
Peninsula. Connects Central Asian nations such as Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan,
and Tajikistan as well as Iran and Turkey, includes regions that are rich in oil
and various mineral resources, and would serve as a resource/energy source for
China.
(4) China-Indochina Peninsula Economic Corridor
Starts in Nanning, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region and Kunming, Yunnan
Province and ends in Singapore. China has established an FTA with ASEAN
and cooperated in developing the Greater Mekong Subregion, but there are also
tensions in the South China Sea, and establishment of this economic corridor
faces great difficulties.
1 "Zhongguo Guihua 'Yidaiyilu' 6 da Jingji Zoulang [China Announces Plans to Develop
the"One Belt, One Road" Initiative by Creating Six Major Economic Corridors]," Peoples
Daily Online, May 28, 2015._http://world.people.com.cn/n/2015/0528/c1002-27069213.html
2 "Liuda Jingji Zoulang You Duochang [How long are the Six Major Economic Corridors],"
Peoples Daily, June 1, 2015
"One Belt, One Road": China's New Global Strategy
(5) China-Pakistan Economic Corridor
A 3000 km route connecting Kashgar, Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region
with Gwadar Port in Pakistan. Has the role of connecting the "One Belt" with
the "One Road". An agreement between China and Pakistan to cooperate
broadly in areas such as energy, infrastructure, and industry in addition to
developing Gwadar Port.
(6) BCIM Economic Corridor
To be established together with Bangladesh, India, and Myanmar. Through this
economic corridor, China can promote ties with Bangladesh and India, with
which it historically did not have close ties.
(7) 21st-Century Maritime Silk Road
Consists of routes from the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean to Europe
and Mrica, and routes from the South China Sea to the South Pacific. In order
to establish the Maritime Silk Road, China would concentrate its investment in
15 harbor cities including Shanghai, Tianjin, Ningbo, and Zhoushan.
Table 1: Land and Sea Corridors Constituting One Belt, One Road
Source: Created by the Author
7
As clear from the specific measures above revealed in the middle of 2015,
"One Belt, One Road" started off as a concept and gradually turned into specific
measures while the core of the concept is still very fluid. To put it directly, China
is aiming to create an economic and political sphere of influence in the Eurasian
continent through the land and maritime "One Belt, One Road" concept.
On the other hand, "One Belt, One Road" is not only a regional strategy for
China but is also a global strategy. China has only stated that "One Belt, One
Road" provides a focus and direction for cooperation, and that any nation that
wishes to participate can do so without any limits on nation or region. In fact,
similar strategies to the diplomatic initiatives in the Eurasian region can be seen in
Africa and Latin America, which are not included in the scope of OBOR.
3. Characteristics of' One Belt, One Road" as a
Global Strategy
The concept of "One Belt, One Road" has two characteristics: future extension of
diplomatic routes, and new aspects sought after by the Xi Jinping administration.
One Belt, One Road is seen as an abstract foreign policy by the Xi Jinping
administration, but we must not overlook the fact that this concept is being
8 The Journal ofContemporary China Studies, Vol. 5, No. 2
deployed atop achievements already made by the Hu Jintao administration. As
shown in Table 2, China has been actively involved in regional organizations
throughout the world since the latter half of the 1990s, and has established
cooperative relationships with them. One Belt, One Road can be seen as simply a
new name for the consolidation of efforts that China had already been making in
its relations with Asia, Europe, the Arab World, and Pacific Islands.
Region Start Cooperative FrameworkYear
Asia 1996 China-ASEAN talks (unofficial talks: since
2001 1991)
2003 SCO (start of predecessor Shanghai Five:
2005 1996)
Six-Party Talks
Observer of SAARC
Europe 1998 China-EU summit
2012 China-CEE summit
Africa 2000 China-Africa cooperation summit
2008 China-AU strategic dialogue mechanism
Arab world 2004 China-Arab States Cooperation Forum
2010 China-GCC Strategic Dialogue
Pacific Island states 2006 China-Pacific Island Countries Economic
Development and Cooperation Forum
Latin America/Caribbean 2014 China-CELAC Forum
Table 2: Major Cooperative Frameworks Forged by China with Regions
Source: Rumi Aoyama and Satoshi Amako, Chotaikoku Chugoku-no Yukue 2/Gaikou to
Kokusai Chitsujo [Where is China Going? The Future of a Superpower 2/ China and the
Future of International Order], University of Tokyo Press, 2015: 64.
Additionally, efforts by China in Mrica and Latin America up to now are being
continued, which means that the OBOR concept is not limited to Eurasia but
inevitably takes on a global scope. Furthermore, based on China's policies up to
now, deployment of OBOR depends on the establishment not only of bilateral ties
but also of ties with various regional organizations throughout the world.
On the other hand, The OBOR differs from China's previous foreign policy
in the following two ways. The first difference is that the geographical scope is
larger. It has been close to 20 years since the start of China's Western Development
project, which is linked with China's foreign policy in Asia (policy towards
surrounding countries), but there has been no marked reduction in economic
disparity between eastern and western China. One reason is the difficulty in opening
up western China to the outside world due to ethnic issues in the region, and
"One Belt, One Road": China's New Global Strategy 9
that China and Central Asian countries have not forged mutually complementary
economic relations. Based on these lessons, One Belt, One Road seeks to expand
China's economic sphere not only to Central Asia but further west to Europe and
Arab nations.
The second difference is that the OBOR involves simultaneous progression of
efforts to open up east and west as well as land and sea efforts. Through OBOR,
the Chinese government hopes to stimulate the economies of the northeast, central,
and western regions of China, whose economies have fallen behind, but unlike
the Western Development project, China is seeking to open up the eastern
region to the outside world to an even greater degree. In the 5th Plenary Session
of the 18th CPC Central Committee held in October 2015, a proposal for the 13th
five-year plan was adopted. As a result, the pairing of "land and sea" came to be
emphasized.
In this manner, OBOR is a foreign policy that incorporates foreign policy accomplishments
and lessons up to now and adds new ideas. In addition to creating
a uniform nation-state space by eliminating the economic disparity between the
eastern and western regions and switching to domestic production, OBOR is seen
as cure-all for the ills of China including by increasing China's influence in the
international community. Thus, there are high expectations for "One Belt, One
Road".
4. Changes in Foreign Policy since the Start of' One
Belt, One Road"
As economic growth has slowed, combating corruption, ensuring stable economic
growth, and the One Belt, One Road strategy are key to preserving the legitimacy
of the Xi Jinping administration. Against this backdrop, China is putting full effort
into achieving the goals of "One Belt, One Road" while stabilizing relations with
the United States.
1) China's Foreign Policy towards the United States- New Model of MajorCountry
Relations
In September 2015, President Xi Jinping visited the United States for the second
time since taking office. China has considered this visit to the United States as
a foreign policy success by the Xi Jinping administration, and while China uses
the phrase "new model of major-power relations" instead of "G2" (two major
nations), it has aimed to create a framework to manage regional and global issues
in concert with the United States.
10 The Journal ofContemporary China Studies, Vol. 5, No. 2
In addition to the issues surrounding the South China Sea, confrontation between
the United States and China is escalating, particularly regarding cyber
security. China is unwilling to compromise on the South China Sea, but when it
comes to cyber issues, it has aimed to create international rules together with the
United States, sending a special envoy in advance. In 2015, the United States Office
of Personnel Management (UNOPM) received a cyber-attack leading to the
leak of personal information of up to 4 million federal employees, and the National
Security Agency considers the Chinese government to have been involved.
It is also said that China has hacked into American companies resulting in the leak
of confidential information. In May 2014, US law enforcement officials charged
five members of the People's Liberation Army of China with having hacked into
computers of organizations including major American nuclear firms. China put effort
into establishing international rules concerning cyber issues together with the
United States through a China-US summit meeting, but the two nations ended up
only agreeing to create a channel for dialogue.
Concerning climate change, several talks have been held between the United
States and China since the beginning of 2015, and the two nations took on a leadership
role at COP21 (21st session of the Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC)
held in November, which yielded some results.
Building on an agreement to hold a US-China summit meeting, the United
States and China were in lockstep as they took on their leadership role at COP21
held in Paris. China declared that it would introduce an emissions trading system
starting in 2017, and that it would create a framework to the tune of $3.1 billion to
aid developing countries. This is how China persuaded developing nations, contributing
to the adoption of the COP21 agreement.3
2) Softening of China's Policies in Asia
With the announcement of the OBOR strategy, the west and south of China became
strategic areas. Since the establishment of the OBOR strategy, changes have
been seen in China's foreign policy towards Asia. Of course there is no significant
sign of softening in China's actions regarding the Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands or
South China Sea issues, but China has started working towards improving relations
with surrounding nations.
Regarding the South China Sea issue, China has set aside its principle of
bilateral agreements, and has started to accept limited multilateral agreements.
Chinese Foreign Minister Wang Yi made a proposal in August 2014 in a meeting
with ASEAN to resolve the South China Sea issue through dialogue with
concerned parties, and to maintain security in the South China Sea with the
3 Robert A. Manning, "Is China Becoming a 'Responsible Stakeholder'?", http://asia.nikkei.
com!ViewpointsNiewpoints!Is-China-becoming-a-responsible-stakeholder (July 10, 2016).
"One Belt, One Road": China's New Global Strategy 11
concerned parties.4
The aim here is to remove American influence and promote
security cooperation with ASEAN nations. Foreign Minister Wang's proposal had
another significance. Up to now, China had been strongly emphasizing bilateral
negotiations regarding territorial issues, but Foreign Minister Wang accepted
multilateral negotiations between China and ASEAN.5
Reflecting this change in stance, in October 2013, China had already signed a
bilateral agreement with Brunei to strengthen maritime cooperation and promote
joint development. China has also put effort into seeking a path to mutual
understanding through bilateral dialogue with Vietnam, a country with which
China has had particularly strong disagreements concerning territorial waters. In
an unprecedented move, in the beginning ofApril2015, China welcomed Nguyen
Phu Trong, General Secretary (top leader) of the Communist Party of Vietnam.
Both nations agreed to establish an "infrastructure cooperation working group"
and a "finance and currency cooperation working group," and confirmed that
Vietnam would be one end of the 21st-Century Maritime Silk Road. Concerning
the South China Sea issue, which is a source of contention, China and Vietnam
issued a joint statement, agreeing to "actively [study] transitional solutions that
do not affect stances and policies of each side, including actively studying and
discussing cooperation for common development." Furthermore, the two nations
agreed on establishment ofhotlines in both defense ministries.
Sino-Japanese relations have shown a definitive improvement as a result of
an Asia-Pacific summit meeting held in November 2014. Following the APEC
summit meeting as well as a summit meeting in Jakarta, a Japan-China-South
Korea summit meeting was held in Seoul, South Korea in November 2015, and
Japan-China talks were held between Prime Minister Abe and Premier Li Keqiang.
As a recovery in relations has begun in earnest as a result of the resumption of
such summit meetings, various government level measures such as negotiation
mechanisms and interparty dialogue, which had been suspended, have been
restarted, and moves have intensified to strengthen political relations between
Japan and China. Various talks and conferences including Japan-China security
talks, talks between the legislative bodies of Japan and China, the New JapanChina
Friendship Committee for the 21st Century, and the Energy Conservation
and Environment Forum have been held one after the other. In the latter half of
2015, a channel for dialogue has opened up to discuss important issues between
4 Wang Yi: Yi 'Shuanggui Silu' Chuli Nanhai Wenti [Wang Yi: To Advocate the 'Dual-track'
Approach in Resolving the South China Sea Issue],"China News Service, August 9, 2014.
http://www.chinanews.com/gn/2014/08-09/6477091.shtrn (July 10, 2016).
5 "Zhongguo Dui Nanhai Wenti 'Shuanggui Silu' Xianxian [China's 'Dual-track' Approach
was seen in Resolving the South China Sea Issue]," December 8, 2014.
http:!/m.ftchinese.com/story/001059524 (July 10, 2016).
12 The Journal ofContemporary China Studies, Vol. 5, No. 2
Japan and China, examples of which include high level political talks started
between National Security Council head Shotaro Yachi and State Councilor
Yang Jiechi, and financial talks held in China with Minister of Finance Taro
Aso. Discussions were also started between defense officials of Japan and China
regarding a maritime and air communication mechanism, and even as tensions
continue around the Senkaku/Diaoyu Islands, both governments have agreed on
avoiding unforeseen situations, and share an understanding on the importance of
creating a crisis management mechanism.
As specific measures pertaining to OBOR are gradually taking form, foreign
relations between China and Northeast Asia and East Asia have increased in
importance. China and South Korea have established friendly relations in recent
years, and in 2015, negotiations to establish maritime borders have started. There
are some competing claims for exclusive economic zones (EEZ) between China
and South Korea in the Yellow Sea, and there is a territorial dispute between the
two nations regarding Socotra Rock where the South Korean government has
established an ocean research station. A total of 14 negotiations to establish a
border were held at the bureau director level between the two countries from 1996
to 20086, but from 2015, these negotiations would be raised to the vice-ministerial
level and held every year. Additionally, South Korea and China have strengthened
cooperation regarding the North Korea issue, and have opened up a national
defense hotline in December 2015.
There have even been ideas to include North Korea in One Belt, One Road.
Since North Korea held a nuclear test in 2013, relations between China and
North Korea have cooled, but since 2014, China has made moves to improve its
relations with North Korea. Liu Yunshan, the fifth-ranked member of the Politburo
Standing Committee of the Communist Party of China, visited North Korea during
their ceremony to mark the 70th anniversary of the founding of the Workers'
Party of Korea, and handed a personal message from Xi Jinping to Kim Jongun.
In March 2015, Foreign Minister Wang Yi said "we cherish the traditional
friendship between China and North Korea", but the revival of the phrase
"traditional friendship" has provoked criticism. In July 2015, President Xi Jinping
visited Changchun, and emphasized the importance of promoting the economy
of the three provinces in the northeast of China. With attention being paid to the
promotion of the three provinces in the northeast, the importance of developing
friendly relations with North Korea and Japan has also come to the fore. However,
improvement in China-North Korea relations has not gone the way China planned.
6 "Kan-Chu no kaiyou kyoukai kakutei koushou/jikan-kyu kaidan o maitoshi kaisai e [South
Korea-China maritime boundary negotiations/vice-ministerial meetings to be held every year]"
http://www.chosunonline.com/site/datalhtml_dir/20 15112/22/2015122203484.html (July 10
2016).
"One Belt, One Road": China's New Global Strategy 13
In December 2015, the Moranbong Band, which had been planning to perform in
Beijing, suddenly canceled their event and returned to North Korea, an illustration
of the awkward relationship between China and North Korea.
Against the backdrop of improved relations with surrounding nations, Chinese
President Xi Jinping and Taiwanese President Ma Ying-jeou held a summit meeting
in November 2015, the first such meeting since the 1949 separation of China
and Taiwan. Of course, this summit meeting was held in view of the Taiwanese
presidential elections to be held in the beginning of next year, but it is natural to
believe that China is also aiming to create a surrounding environment conducive
to OBOR. On December 30, 2015, a cabinet-level hotline was opened between the
Taiwan Executive Yuan's Mainland Affairs Council, which handles relations with
China, and China's Taiwan Affairs Office of the State Council.
As mentioned above, China places great importance in its relations with the
United States, and aims to create a cooperative relationship between the United
States and China regarding important international issues, while stabilizing relations
between the two nations. Amidst this, China has been proactive in improving
and strengthening relations with Japan, South Korea, North Korea, Taiwan, and
ASEAN in order to create a surrounding environment conducive to OBOR.
5. Realistic Implementation of' One Belt, One
Road"
Specific policies pertaining to One Belt, One Road are still being developed, and
the domestic system and cooperative relations with other nations relating to the
implementation of One Belt, One Road are still being created. The Chinese government
has indicated its position of "starting with what we can," and thus, they
anticipate that OBOR will change according to the changing international situation,
making the concept very fluid.
How far has OBOR progressed? There are two key elements necessary to
implement "One Belt, One Road". One is obtaining funds, and the other is cooperation
with involved nations. As far as funds are concerned, preparations are progressing
under Chinese leadership, but the nations involved in OBOR are dealing
with their own complicated issues, and cooperation would not be easy.
1) Source of Funds for "One Belt, One Road"
According to estimates by China, a total of $6 trillion in investments would be
required for OBOR.7 Provinces and autonomous regions have invested a total
7 "Jianshe 'Yidaiyilu' Qian Cong Nali Lai? [Where the Money Comes From to Support
14 The Journal ofContemporary China Studies, Vol. 5, No. 2
of up to 1.04 trillion RMB in infrastructure planned for One Belt, One Road, of
which 500 billion RMB, 123.5 billion RMB, 116.7 billion RMB, and 170 billion
RMB would go to roads, high speed rail, airports, and harbors, respectively.8
Since the leadership of provinces and autonomous regions is emphasized in One
Belt, One Road, the central government likely needs to incorporate regional plans
into One Belt, One Road.
The Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB), the China-led international
financial institution, will of course play an important role in China obtaining such
a large amount of funds.
Of the 57 founding members, 17 nations including China, South Korea, the
United Kingdom, and Germany have completed ratification procedures9
as of
December 2015, and the total investment ratio of ratifYing members has exceeded
50%. Thus, AIIB was officially launched. AIIB is headquartered in Beijing, and
has $100 billion in capital.
Although it will be some time before AIIB activities begin in earnest, China's
state owned banks have taken the initiative in financing OBOR in order to
compensate. By September 2015, the China Export-Import Bank has already
financed 2057 projects in 49 nations. 10
The China Development Bank has also
financed over 400 projects in 48 nations as ofAugust 2015.11
The already existing ASEAN Foundation, Eurasia Foundation, and CEE
Foundation have started financing projects pertaining to One Belt, One Road,
including the New Silk Road Fund. China has already encouraged member states
to participate in One Belt, One Road. By incorporating projects for OBOR in
the national strategies of other nations, China hopes to increase the probability
of OBOR being implemented. It is amidst these trends that China has started
softening its foreign policy as described above. In other words, OBOR has
brought about changes in China's foreign policy.
the China's"One Belt, One Road" Initiative?]," December 16, 2015. http://toutiao.com/
i6228714268225700354 (January 10, 2016).
8 '"Yidaiyilu' Zhe Liangnian Toule Duoshao Qian? Ruhe Ruxuan Guanfang Xiangmuku
[How Much Money Has Been Spent on China's "One Belt, One Road" Initiative? How to Get
a Project Chosen to Be Listed in the Official Projects? ]," December 25, 2015. http://www.
wxmwl23.com/finance/20151225/12759l.html (July 10, 2016).
9 The 17 nations are Myanmar, Singapore, Brunei, Australia, China, Mongolia, Austria,
the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Luxembourg, South Korea, Georgia, the Netherlands,
Germany, Norway, Pakistan, and Jordan.
10 "Jianshe 'Yidaiyilu' Qian Cong Nali Lai? [Where the Money Comes From to Support
the China's"One Belt, One Road" Initiative?]," December 16, 2015. http://toutiao.com/
i6228714268225700354/
11 '"Yidaiyilu' Zhe Liangnian Toule Duoshao Qian? Ruhe Ruxuan Guanfang Xiangmuku
[How Much Money Has Been Spent on China's "One Belt, One Road" Initiative? How to Get
a Project Chosen to Be Listed in the Official Projects?]," December 25, 2015. http://www.
wxmwl23 .com/finance/20151225/12759l.html
"One Belt, One Road": China's New Global Strategy 15
2) Deployment of One Belt: Five Economic Corridors
Among the five economic corridors constituting the Silk Road Economic Belt
started in mid-2015, China places the most importance in the China-Pakistan
Economic Corridor and the BCIM Economic Corridor.
The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor stretches a total of 3000 km. In April
2015, President Xi Jinping visited Pakistan, and during that visit, China and
Pakistan agreed to a plan for creating roads, railways, oil and natural gas pipelines,
and optical fiber networks from Kashgar, Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region
to Gwadar Port, Pakistan. The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor amounts to $46
billion in scale, and during the meeting in April, China and Pakistan agreed to 51
cooperative projects and $28 billion in investment, and in December, the China
Export-Import Bank decided to finance $2.89 billion.
A pipeline from Gwadar Port, Pakistan to Urumqi, Xinjiang had been
considered since the Hu Jintao administration, and the Pakistani government
was very enthusiastic about construction. However, construction encountered
difficulties due to the fact that the pipeline would need to pass through regions
with cold climates and was anticipated to incur major costs, and as a result, the
Hu Jintao administration became hesitant.12 While pipeline construction was still
not decided, China decided to provide assistance in construction of Gwadar Port
in 2001, which took precedence. However, as One Belt, One Road was being
considered, construction of the pipeline from Gwadar Port, Pakistan to Kashgar,
Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region suddenly became more realistic, and in
2015, this project was added to the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor, for which
the Xi Jinping administration took the initiative.
There are security risks and there is no guarantee of revenue. Furthermore, antigovernmental
forces in Pakistan have moved to obstruct creation of this economic
corridor. The Xi Jinping administration has a strong desire to allow the ChinaPakistan
Economic Corridor, which would serve as a model case for One Belt,
One Road, to succeed, but implementation faces difficulties.
The BCIM Economic Corridor pertaining to Bangladesh, India, and Myanmar
has three proposed routes: north, central, and south. The southern route would be
the same route as that of the oil/natural gas pipelines from Ruili, Yunnan Province
to Kyaukpyu Port in the western part of Myanmar, facing the Bay of Bengal. The
central route would pass through four nations from Kunming, Yunnan Province
to Kolkata, India, and the northern route would pass alongside the Brahmaputra
River.
In October 2013, just after President Xi first announced the "Silk Road
12 Rumi Aoyama, Chuugoku no Ajia Gaikou [China's Asia Policy in the Post-Cold War Era],
University of Tokyo Press, 2013: 251.
16 The Journal ofContemporary China Studies, Vol. 5, No. 2
Economic Belt" concept, Prime Minister Singh of India visited China and the
two nations agreed to promote the BCIM Economic Corridor. Working groups
consisting of the four nations including India, Bangladesh, and Myanmar
have been held three times as of the end of 2015. However, the nations have
found it difficult to reach an agreement, and in reality, the routes still remain
undetermined.13
Furthermore, there is strong opposition within India against the BCIM
Economic Corridor. In addition, the National League for Democracy (NLD) led by
Aung San Suu Kyi won a major victory in Myanmar's November 2015 elections,
and the political situation in Myanmar as it approaches regime change has also
complicated issues with creating the economic corridor.
The other three economic corridors have yet to be established. In reality,
movement has centered on bilateral cooperation. In May 2015, President Xi
Jinping visited Russia, Kazakhstan, and Belarus, and confirmed links with
Kazakhstan's Bright Road (Nurly Zhol) strategy.14 China and Belarus agreed to
create an industrial park as a symbol for cooperation on the Silk Road. China and
Russia have signed an agreement covering 32 items and costing $25 billion in
areas such as energy, high speed rail, aviation, and space. The important point is
that China and Russia issued a joint statement concerning a link between the Silk
Road Economic Belt led by China and the Eurasian Economic Union (EEU: five
member states of Belarus, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Kazakhstan, and Armenia) led by
Russia.
Discussions have also been held concerning the creation of international
traffic corridors between Primorsky Krai in the Russian Far East and China.
Such international traffic corridors (Primorye-1 and Primorye-2 projects) are
seen as a symbol of the link between the Russia-led Eurasian Economic Union
and the China-led Silk Road Economic Belt1S, with the aim of creating a freight
transportation route from Jilin and Heilongjiang Provinces in China to the Port of
Vladivostok, the Port of Troitsa (formerly Zarubino), and the Port of Nakhodka in
Russia.
13 "Liu Zongyi: Woguo 'Yidaiyilu' Changyi Zai Dongnan, Xinan Zhoubian de Jinzhan
Xianzhuang, Wenti ji Duice [The "One Belt, One Road"" Initiative at the Southeast and
Southwest Peripheral Areas in China: The Present Situation, Problems and Solutions], "
September 22,2015. http://rdcy-sf.ruc.edu.cnldisplaynews.php?id=l5049.
14 Announced by Kazakh President Nazarbayev in the legislature in November 2014.
Emphasizes the importance of infrastructural investment.
15 "Development of Primorye-1 and Primorye-2 International Transport Corridors will be
Discussed at Eastern Economic Forum", http://www.forumvostok.ru/enlnews/development-ofprimorye-l-and-primorye-2-international-transport-corridors-will-be-discussed-at-east.html
(
July 10, 2016).
"One Belt, One Road": China's New Global Strategy 17
3) Deployment of One Belt: Progress in Relations with Europe
As development of relations between China and Germany, the United Kingdom,
and France has accelerated since 2010, cooperation between China and EU nations
has also shown strong progress. The EU Economic and Financial Affairs Council
announced a €315 billion investment plan to encourage growth and job creation
in the EU. Voting within the European Council must be unanimous, but nations
that are economically less well developed are largely taking a cautious stance
regarding China's One Belt, One Road. 16 Against this backdrop, in December
2015, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD) has
solidified its intent to admit China as a new member. Thus, a path for coordination
between China's EU New Silk Road plan and the EU's investment plan has
opened upY
In June 2015, Foreign Minister Wang Yi visited Hungary and the two nations
signed a memorandum of understanding on promoting the Silk Road Economic
Belt and the 21'1
Century Maritime Silk Road. This is the first international agreement
on One Belt, One Road with an EU member state.
In a China-EU summit meeting held in July 2015, Premier Li Keqiang strongly
promoted cooperation with EU member states and signed an agreement with
France to develop third party markets, and agreed to a China-France joint fund. In
October 2015, President Xi Jinping visited the United Kingdom, and made reference
to a "golden era" of China-UK relations. During the UK visit, the two nations
not only reaffirmed a strengthening of cooperation in finance but also agreed
on Chinese investment in a power company in Hinkley Point in the western part
of the UK, as well as the installation of the Chinese nuclear reactor Hualong One
in Bradwell in the eastern part of the UK.
Among EU nations, China has made most progress in relations with Germany.
Germany is the largest European trading partner for China and relations between
the two nations are becoming closer. Cooperation agreements have been signed
between China and Germany in many areas such as finance, energy, information
and communications, industry and agriculture, and education. Besides Germany,
16 "Cao Xin: 'Yidaiyilu', Ouzhou You Ziji de Xiangfa Zhongguo Rengyou Jihui [The "One
Belt, One Road" Initiative: (Although) Europe Has Its Own Thoughts, China Still Has a
Chance]," June 26,2015. http://www.infzm.com/content/110332
17 The EU hopes that with its enormous financial power, China will invest through the following
four channels: to contribute to investment plans for European Fund for Strategic
Investments; to become the loan guarantee fund of"European Fund for Strategic Investments";
to support projects and investments in key areas such as infrastructure of transport system; to
purchase bond launched by European Investment Bank, which is also the main contributor of
"European Fund for Strategic Investments". http://www.ftchinese.com/story/0010629277full
=y (July 10, 2016).
18 The Journal ofContemporary China Studies, Vol. 5, No. 2
the UK, and France, other nations such as the Netherlands and Belgium have also
indicated their interest in China's OBOR.
The cooperative relationship between China and Central and Eastern Europe
has been set up through the China-CEE Summits. China Railways has started
work on a railway project linking Serbia and Hungary. This railway is a portion
of the trans-Balkan trunk line from the Port of Piraeus in Greece to the Danube
Delta, and is the second largest investment project by China in Europe after the
bridge construction project across the Danube River in Belgrade. The project
was proposed by Premier Li Keqiang during the 3rd China-CEE Summit held in
Belgrade in December 2014, and signed during the 4th China-CEE Summit held
in Suzhou in November 2015. At the 4th China-CEE Summit, Premier Li Keqiang
further proposed the creation of a financial company between China and the CEE.
Premier Li Keqiang also proposed building ports on the Arabian Sea, the Baltic
Sea, and the Black Sea18
. China has particular interest in construction and railway
operations in the Port of Koper in Slovenia, and Chinese companies are aiming
to participate in the municipalization process of nationally owned companies in
Slovenia.
China has also been involved in projects such as Macedonian high speed rail,
the bridge over the Danube River in Serbia, and wind farms in Bosnia and Herzegovina,
making use of such sources as China's fund for use by China and the CEE
and investment cooperation funds. Cooperation between China and Arab nations
has taken place through the China-Arab States Cooperation Forum and the ChinaGCC
Strategic Dialogue.
4) Deployment of "One Road": Emphasis on Overseas Construction of Ports
China has placed emphasis on the construction of ports in order to move forward
the One Road concept. It is possible to interpret as a part of these efforts the
previously mentioned proposals by China to construct Gwadar Port in the ChinaPakistan
Economic corridor as well as to construct ports in the Arabian Sea, the
Baltic Sea, and the Black Sea.
China is already involved in the construction of ports in nations such as
Cambodia, Myanmar, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Djibouti, Tanzania,
and Mozambique. As One Belt, One Road is being deployed, China is also
constructing the Port of Piraeus, 19 which is located in the northern part of the
Mediterranean Sea and is the closest in proximity to the Suez Canal through
18 "Zhongfang Changyi Tantao Sheli 16+1 Jimong Gongsi[China Proposes All Parties to
Discuss on the Establishment of a 16+1 Finance Company]," Beijing Youth Daily, November
25,2015.
19 Already by 2009, China Ocean Shipping Company (COSCO) has obtained the rights to
operate two container terminals for 35 years.
"One Belt, One Road": China's New Global Strategy 19
which Chinese manufactured goods are transported to the EU market.
In November 2015, the Landbridge Group from Shandong Province, which
takes the form of a private company of China, has obtained operating rights in
Darwin Port in Australia, where US Marines are based. The lease is for 99 years,
and was obtained for A$506 million.
Chinese naval vessels were deployed off the coast of Somalia from December
2008 in order to deal with the piracy issue, and China has also been involved in
security in Africa through UN peacekeeping operations. Against this backdrop,
in December 2015, China revealed plans to construct a naval supply station in
Djibouti. By constructing its first overseas military site in Djibouti, China has
managed to further expand its military presence.
Through the China Pacific Island Countries Economic Development and
Cooperation Forum, China is already deeply involved in the affairs of Pacific
Island nations, and with the Pacific Island nations being incorporated inOBOR,
China will be even further involved in this region such as in infrastructural
development.
5) "One Belt, One Road" as a Global Strategy
Through "One Belt, One Road", China plans to foster a strengthening ofrelations
in five areas (Wu Tong): policy, finance, trade, infrastructure, and people-topeople
exchanges.
The "One Belt, One Road" is not limited to Eurasia but is a global strategy,
and thus, the strengthening of relations in the five areas of policy, finance, trade,
infrastructure, and people-to-people exchanges also applies to Africa and Latin
America. In December 2015, a China-Africa Media Summit was held in Beijing.
Participants included 47 African nations and executives of 120 communications
companies. At this summit, China promised to provide aid to communications
companies in Africa while calling for media cooperation to weaken the influence
ofWestem media inAfrica20•
At the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation Summit held in December 2015,
President Xi Jinping promised a total of $60 billion in financial assistance over
the next three years, as well as the creation of a $10 billion China-Africa Fund for
Production Capacity Cooperation. China also reaffirmed its $6 million in grant aid
over the next five years to the African Union (AU), which it originally announced
at the United Nations General Assembly in September 2015. Strengthening of
cooperation in ten areas including industry, agriculture, infrastructure, finance, and
20 ''Meiti Hudong Tisheng Zhongfei Hezuo Shuiping [Media Interactions upgrade ChinaAfrica
Cooperation]," Peoples Daily Online, December 1, 2015. http://politics.people.eom.cn/
n/2015/1201/cl001-27875538.html.
20 The Journal ofContemporary China Studies, Vol. 5, No. 2
peacekeeping was also agreed at the Forum on China-Africa Cooperation Summit.
Relations with Latin American and Caribbean nations have also been
developed, primarily around building of infrastructure and harbors. In May 2015,
Premier Li Keqiang visited Brazil, Colombia, Peru, and Chile, and during this
visit, signed an agreement to conduct a feasibility study on an Amazonian railway
linking Peru and Brazil. A railway cutting across South America was proposed by
President Xi Jinping in July 2014, and is estimated to be 5000 km in total length
with a construction cost of over $10 billion.
6. Direction of Xi's Foreign Policy
The Xi Jinping administration's foreign policy is aimed at the "great revival of the
Chinese people". One Belt, One Road, which is not only a regional policy but a
global one, is an important foreign policy for achieving the "Chinese Dream".
As OBOR progresses, there is a power game at play in the Asia-Pacific to seek
a balance of power, which has raised concerns of a new cold war. The TPP has
largely been agreed upon, the Japan-US alliance has been strengthened, and USled
military alliance networks in Asia such as Japan-US-Australia and Japan-USIndia
networks are progressing. A change in power balance in the Asia-Pacific
region has alarmed not only China but Russia as well. As Russia develops its
Far East region, it is planning to hold naval military exercises with Asia-Pacific
nations.21
Based on a shared perception that the US pivot to Asia is a threat, China and
Russia have suddenly become closer. Russia, which up to now had hesitated to
provide the latest military technology to China, agreed in 2015 to sell arms such
as the S-400 surface-to-air missile system to China22
. In May 2015, following
a joint military exercise between the Chinese and Russian navies held in the
Mediterranean Sea, China and Russia once again conducted a large scale military
exercise in the Sea of Japan in August off the coast of Vladivostok, Russia and
conducted the first landing exercises between the two navies. Such military
exercises are generally seen as a move to counter the strengthening of the JapanUS
alliance. As for economic ties, Russia's Far East development plan and the
Russia-led Eurasian Economic Union have been linked with China's One Belt,
One Road.
In reality, Japan and the US, and China and Russia have struggled for
21 "Russia will Take Part in Naval Military Exercises together with its Asia Pacific Allies, according
to Russian Deputy Defense Minister Anatoly Antonov."
22 "Sold: Russian S-400 Missile Defense Systems to China," http:!/thediplomat.com/2015/04/
sold-russian-s-400-missile-defense-systems-to-china!?allpages=yes&print=yes (July 10, 2016).
"One Belt, One Road": China's New Global Strategy 21
supremacy in the Asia-Pacific region. However, as argued in this paper, US-China
relations and China-Russia relations are not necessarily in a trade-off relationship
with each other. The Xi Jinping administration places special importance in its
policies towards the US, and cooperates with the US in important international
issues while aiming to stabilize US-China relations. The creation of a cooperative
framework between the US and China is an important element in the Xi Jinping
administration's policies towards the US.
While pushing for stabilization and cooperation in US-China relations, China
aims to expand its own influence in the international community while defending
its core interests. It is through such strategies that China is aiming towards
achieving the "great revival ofthe Chinese people".
OBOR has brought about changes in China's foreign policy. Regarding the
South China Sea issue, China has set aside its principle of bilateral agreements,
and has started to accept limited multilateral agreements. Also, China has put
effort into improving or strengthening relations with its neighbors including Japan,
South Korea, North Korea, and Taiwan. China aims to improve its surrounding
international environment by involving as many nations as possible in One Belt,
One Road. In order to achieve this, China has softened its foreign policy compared
to the past.
China has put its full effort into One Belt, One Road, but there are many issues
building up.
First, as the Chinese economy slows down, China's ability to drive forward
One Belt, One Road is being called into question.
Second, a large portion of the regions covered by One Belt, One Road has
an unstable security and political situation, and also includes regions where the
Islamic State (IS) has been actively engaged. In 2015, Chinese citizens were killed
by extremist organizations in Syria and Mali, and in 2013 a car crashed and burst
into flames in Tiananmen Square. In 2014 an indiscriminate attack was perpetrated
in Kunming Station. As Islamic extremist organizations are active internationally
and extremists in Xinjiang are active domestically, China faces difficult challenges
in leading OBOR forward.
OBOR has only just started and there are many uncertainties as to how
specifically it will progress in the future, but OBOR has in reality not always
gone the way China planned. Although some progress has been seen in the ChinaPakistan
Economic Corridor, relations between China and some European nations,
and cooperation between China and Africa, in reality progress on economic
corridors has slowed.
As mentioned above, as OBOR is being implemented, competition for
supremacy is escalating between Japan and the US, and China and Russia, but
US-China cooperation is showing definitive progress. There is little chance that
22 The Journal ofContemporary China Studies, Vol. 5, No. 2
China will be able to create a large area of influence in Eurasia through OBOR.
On the other hand, through strengthening of relations in the five areas ("Wu
Tong") of policy, finance, trade, infrastructure, and people-to-people exchanges,
which is promoted as a part of OBOR as a global strategy, China also retains
the ability to expand its influence. China has been able to further enter the world
economic order by signing FTAs and investment and trade agreements, which increases
China's economic presence. China's presence in the world financial order
will also likely to increase through financial cooperation. The construction of ports
in some nations also has the potential to expand China's military presence.
Will China be able to convince the world that it is not a threat but rather an opportunity?
Policies to win over popular sentiment will be an important key as to
whether China will be able to succeed in its "One Belt, One Road" concept and
emerge as a true superpower. There will be calls for domestic reforms in China,
and Xi Jinping's foreign policy will be put to the test.
About the Author
Rumi AOYAMA is currently professor of the Research Institute of Current
Chinese Affairs, School of Education, Waseda University, Japan. She was a
visiting researcher at the Stanford University between 2005 and 2006. She
received her Ph. D. in Law from Graduate School of Law, Keio University.
Her specialty is Contemporary Chinese Diplomacy. Her Contemporary Chinas
Foreign Policy (Gendai chuugoku no gaikou) was honored with the 24th
Masayoshi Ohira Foundation Memorial Prize. Her other most recent publications
include: China and the Future ofInternational Order (Co-authored with Satoshi
Amako, University of Tokyo Press, 2015); Chinas Asia Policy in the Post-cold
War Era, (University of Tokyo Press, 2013); Chinas Global Strategy (Akashi
Press, 2011); Chinas Public Diplomacy Strategy (The Japan Foundation, 2009).
Address: School of Education, Waseda University, 1-6-1 Nishi-waseda, Shinjukuku,
Tokyo, 169-8050, Japan.
Email: luming@waseda.jp