US Foreign, Defense, & Nat'l Security Policies: Background for the Class Dave McCuan Masaryk University Fall 2009 The Roots of U.S. Foreign & Defense Policy When the United States was founded it was a weak country on the margins of world affairs, with an uncertain future. * Isolationism ­ A national policy of avoiding participation in foreign affairs ­ Not total; U.S. was a trading nation and did engage in foreign affairs to some extent * Unilateralism ­ A national policy of acting without consulting others * Moralism ­ The policy of emphasizing morality in foreign affairs * Pragmatism ­ Policy of taking advantage of a situation for national gain The U.S. Constitution * Founders desired a stronger national government that would keep the U.S. out of European affairs and vice versa. * Foreign policy power given to the national government * Divided this power between the president and Congress ­ Not exclusive to either branch ­ Checks and balances The Early History of U.S. Foreign & Defense Policy * Washington's Farewell Address ­ In it he declared that the U.S. should avoid becoming involved in foreign alliances ­ But he was not an isolationist ­ Accepted the need for trade, but this led to conflict * Barbary Wars ­ Impressment ­ Embargo Act: passed by the Congress in 1807 to prevent U.S. ships from leaving for foreign ports without the approval of the federal government * War of 1812 ­ Fought between the United States and Great Britain over impressment and U.S. territorial designs on Canada ­ 1814 Treaty of Ghent * Monroe Doctrine ­ James Monroe's 1823 pledge that the United States would oppose attempts by European states to extend their political control into the Western Hemisphere The United States as an Emerging Power * Process of U.S. emergence as a world power centered on three areas: ­ Trade Policy and Commerce ­ Continental Expansion and Manifest Destiny ­ Interests beyond the Western Hemisphere Trade Policy & Commerce * Principles of trade reciprocity and most favored nations ­ Worked well until the end of the Napoleonic Wars * Increased competition * U.S. adopted protectionist tariffs designed to keep the home market for domestic producers * First protective tariff was passed in 1816 * Tariffs ­ Taxes on imports used to raise government revenue and to protect infant industries ­ "American System" of trade protection * Increasing higher tariffs * Protected market for American producers, but also cut off foreign markers for American producers due to retaliation of foreign countries Continental Expansion & Manifest Destiny * During the 19th century the country expanded ­ Land taken from Native Americans ­ 1846 Mexican War ­ By the end of century, country reached from the Atlantic to the Pacific * Manifest Destiny ­ Theory that the United States was divinely mandated to expand across North America to the Pacific Ocean Interests Beyond the Western Hemisphere * By mid-nineteenth century, the U.S.: ­ Concluded a commercial treaty with China ­ Limited Europe's ability to restrict U.S. trade with China ­ Opened Japan to Western trade ­ Acquired Hawaiian Islands, Midway Island, Wake Island, and part of Samoa ­ The 1898 Spanish-American War made the world take note of U.S. as a rising power. * Acquired Puerto Rico, the Philippines, Guam and for a few years Cuba * Not very much public support for colonialism The Roosevelt Corollary * Concept developed by President Theodore Roosevelt early in the twentieth century that it was the U.S. responsibility to assure stability in Latin America and the Caribbean ­ U.S. intervened in the Caribbean and Latin America many times as Roosevelt and subsequent presidents sent U.S. troops into Latin America. ­ "Colossus of the North" World War I * 1914: WWI broke out in Europe ­ U.S. initially stayed out * No U.S. interests were involved. * Nation of immigrants--divided as to which side to support ­ U.S.-German affairs worsened ­ Wilson led the nation into conflict in 1917. * Entered the war late but its armed forces and economic assistance swung the tide of victory to the Allies' side ­ Wilson put faith in collective security after WWI. * The concept that peace would be secured if all countries collectively opposed any country that invaded another * League of Nations Interwar Years * Senate would not ratify the Treaty of Versailles ­ Never became member of the League of Nations * Americans supported isolationism and unilateralism * Tariffs continued * Great Depression caused shift in public opinion on foreign policy regarding trade ­ High tariffs not as popular * Isolationism was still supported even as aggression developed in Europe. U.S. as a World Power WWII and Its Aftermath: 1941 to 1947 * Pearl Harbor ­ U.S. naval base in Hawaii attacked by Japan on December 7, 1941, initiating U.S. entry into WWII * Entry into the war transformed American society ­ Birth of the nuclear age ­ Focus on keeping the peace * United Nations ­ An international governmental organization created shortly before the end of WWII to guarantee the security of nations and to promote global economic, physical, and social well-being ­ International governmental organization (IGO) * Organization created by at least two and often many countries that operates internationally with the objectives of achieving the purposes that the member countries agree upon WWII and Its Aftermath: 1941 to 1947 * Bretton Woods Agreement ­ International financial agreement signed shortly before the end of WWII that created the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund * International Monetary Fund ­ Mandate is to stabilize international financial relations through fixed monetary exchange rates * World Bank ­ Provides loans for large economic development projects * General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) ­ Devised shortly after WWII as an interim agreement until a World Trade Organization could be created to help lower tariffs and increase trade * Multilateralism: U.S. foreign policy in which actions should be taken in cooperation with other states after consultation The Cold War & Containment: 1947-1960, 1961 * Truman Doctrine ­ U.S. policy initiated in 1947 of providing economic assistance and military aid to countries fighting against communist revolutions or political pressure * Marshall Plan ­ European Recovery Program, named after Secretary of State George C. Marshall, of extensive U.S. aid to Western Europe after WWII * Containment ­ Strategy to oppose expansion of Soviet power, particularly in Western Europe and East Asia, with military power, economic assistance, and political influence ­ North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) * The first peacetime military treaty the United States joined * NATO is a regional political and military organization created in 1950. Containment, Cuba, & Vietnam: 1961-1969 * John F. Kennedy ­ Continued containment policy, but expanded it to incorporate establishing cordial relations * Met Khrushchev in Vienna, but it did not go well ­ Soviets deployed intermediate-range ballistic missiles in Cuba. * Cuban Missile Crisis ­ U.S. reacted strongly; placed naval blockade around Cuba ­ Khrushchev backed down. ­ There would be no nuclear war. ­ Resulted in the installation of a "hotline" between the two countries * Vietnam War Détente and Human Rights: 1969-1981 * Nixon: "era of confrontation" to an "era of negotiation" with the Soviet Union ­ Détente: the relaxation of tensions between the U.S. and the Soviet Union that occurred during the 1970s ­ Nixon Doctrine * The policy implemented at the end of the Vietnam War -- the United States would provide arms and military equipment to countries but not do the fighting for them Détente and Human Rights: 1969-1981 * Jimmy Carter ­ Emphasized human rights ­ Morality in human rights ­ Iranian hostage crisis * Crisis during the Carter Administration when Iranian students with support of the Iranian government took over the U.S. embassy in Tehran, holding all the personnel hostage * Détente died in 1979. ­ Carter Doctrine * Policy announced after the 1979 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan -- the Persian Gulf area was a vital U.S. interest and the United States would fight to maintain access to it Containment Revisited & Renewed: 1981-1989 * Reagan ­ Confrontational relationship with Soviet Union ­ "Star Wars" strategic defense system ­ Heightened aggression by Soviets * Korean airline incident * Invasion of Grenada * Afghanistan activity * Soviet walkout from arms talk in Geneva ­ Reagan Doctrine * Policy in which the United States would provide military assistance to anti-communist groups fighting against pro-Soviet governments Containment Revisited & Renewed: 1981-1989 * Soviet Union also had serious internal problems. ­ Economic ­ Leadership crisis * Three leaders died between 1982 and 1985. * Gorbachev and Reagan ­ Focus on improving relations with U.S ­ Eventually agreements were signed that would facilitate the destruction of all intermediate nuclear forces. ­ End of the Cold War Searching for a New International Order: 1989-2001 * 1989 Revolt by Eastern Europe ­ Communist governments fell and the Soviet Union did nothing to quell the rebellion. ­ U.S. helped with transitions to democracy as did other countries. * 1990 Iraqi Invasion of Kuwait ­ Operation Desert Storm * Powell Doctrine ­ Advocates an all-or-nothing approach to military invention. Among other criteria, it emphasizes the use of overwhelming force to ensure a quick and decisive victory, and the adoption of an exit strategy prior to any intervention Searching for a New International Order: 1989-2001 * 1991 Soviet Union collapsed * 1993 United States had multifaceted foreign and military policy agenda ­ Somalia ­ Yugoslavia * Clinton faced complex world ­ Engagement: Policy implemented during the Clinton administration -- the United States would remain actively involved in foreign affairs ­ Enlargement: Policy implemented during the Clinton administration -- the U.S. would actively promote the expansion of democracy and free markets throughout the world ­ NAFTA, Free Trade Area of the Americas, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation agreement and the World Trade Organization The Global War on Terrorism (GWOT) aka "The Long War:" 2001 to the Present * September 11 ­ Al-Qaeda ­ War on Terrorism ­ Taliban ­ Afghanistan * Bush Doctrine ­ Policy advocated by President G.W. Bush of using preemptive military action against a perceived threat to U.S. interests ­ WMD ­ War in Iraq The Executive Branch & Foreign Policy Making * The President ­ Preeminent in foreign policy and military policy but does not have absolute power * Access to and control of information * Department of State and Defense ­ Responsible for formulations and implementation of U.S. foreign policy * Central Intelligence Agency ­ Responsible for collection and analysis of information and intelligence about foreign countries and events * National Security Council ­ Responsible for advising the president about foreign and defense policy and events * Department of Homeland Security ­ Cabinet department created after the 9/11 attacks to coordinate domestic U.S. security efforts against terrorism ­ 9/11 Commission * Bipartisan, independent group was authorized by congress and President Bush in 2002 to study the circumstances surrounding the September 11 terrorist attacks Groups that Influence Foreign Policy * Congress ­ Congressional Leadership ­ Congressional Oversight ­ Treaties and Executive Agreements ­ Appointments ­ Appropriations ­ War Powers Act * Passed by Congress in 1973; the president is limited in the deployment of troops overseas to a sixty-day period in peacetime (which can be extended for an extra thirty days to permit withdrawal) unless Congress explicitly gives its approval for a longer period The Military Industrial Complex * The grouping of the U.S. armed forces and defense industries ­ Economic clout ­ Access to technical expertise and political information ­ Share many interests ­ Personal and professional relationships are close ­ Military and defense industry officials work closely with legislators and their staffs. The News Media * Key participants in foreign and military policy formulation and implementation * Roles: ­ Reporting and investigation ­ Agenda setting ­ Influencing public opinion The "Mass Publics" Thesis * Some scholars suggest that public opinion on issues of foreign affairs and defense has two dimensions resulting in four opinion groups. ­ Militarism/nonmilitarism ­ Isolationism/internationalism * Generally more interested in domestic rather than foreign affairs * Elections are a means to express approval or disapproval of existing policy * Public Action ­ Example of widespread resistance to the draft during the Vietnam War ­ May work through nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) such as Amnesty International Twenty-First Century Challenges * How does the Obama Agenda differ from the Bush one? * Bush Agenda: A new order? ­ Relations with Mexico and other Latin American States ­ European and Russian meetings with heads of state ­ Intention to pursue ballistic missile defense ­ Intrusion of 9/11 ­ Focus on combating terrorism * War on Terrorism: multifaceted, global undertaking * Priorities: defense of the homeland and war on terrorism * Other areas: strategic stability with Russia ­ Strategic Offensive Arms Reduction Treaty Iraq War * Bush administration made clear in the summer of 2002 that Saddam Hussein was an immediate danger to the security of the U.S. * WMDs and U.N. Inspectors * Bush and Blair convinced other countries of the need for ousting Hussein, but did not convince the U.N. Security Council. ­ France and Russia in opposition ­ Proceeded anyway and Hussein overthrown in the spring of 2003 ­ Aftermath complex and difficult in terms of maintaining order. ­ Abu Ghraib ­ Elections ­ Ongoing effort Other Twenty-First Century Challenges * Identifying policies to pursue in the national interest * Balancing foreign and domestic affairs * Meeting threats from weapons of mass destruction and information warfare * Addressing drug and environmental problems * Deciding when to intervene overseas * Choosing between unilateralism and multilateralism Building a Grand Strategy * Refers to the choices a government makes to balance and apply economic, military, diplomatic, and other resources to preserve the nation's people, territory and values * First component: "What should our grand strategy be?" * Second component: "How can we develop consensus for a grand strategy?" * Third component: Leadership to implement the policies. * Today the U.S. is the world's only superpower, yet is vulnerable to terrorist attacks. * How to take current challenges and turn them into a strategy is the greatest challenge of all.