The Use of Force in USFP,
Part II & Use of Diplomacy & Its
FIVE Tracks
US Foreign Policy
Fall 2009
Dave McCuan
Masaryk University
Use of Force
* The use of force almost always represents the partial
failure of policy
­ Thus, the outbreak of hostilities is considered a failure of policy
by most military leaders and planners.
­ War is a continuation of "policy" (or "politics") by other means.
* Clausewitz
* Because of the high costs of violence, the use of force is
tempered by restraints and bargaining
­ Even if countries differ enough to go to war, they usually share
some common interests that will encourage them to continue
bargaining
­ Only in the case of a "zero sum" situation in which everything is
good for one side & bad for the other does the motivation to
bargain not exist
Use of Force
* The distinction between diplomacy &
force is in the relation between
adversaries
­ Diplomatic bargaining seeks outcomes that,
though not ideal for each side, are better for
both than some of the alternatives
­ However, if it thinks it has enough military
force, a country may decide it has no need to
bargain. It may attempt to merely take what it
wants
The Costs of Violence
* Wars have become increasingly
destructive because of:
­ The steady technological improvements of
weaponry
­ The growth in capacity, and therefore need,
for states to field larger and larger numbers of
forces
­ The gradual "democratization" of war (the
expansion of the battlefield and hence the
increased involvement of noncombatants)
Use of Force
* In addition to traditionally defeating an enemy, force can
be used to "hurt" or "punish" an enemy
­ "This movement is not purely military or strategic, but
will illustrate the vulnerability of the South. They don't
know what war means, but when the rich planters of
the Oconee and Savannah see their fences and corn
and hogs and sheep vanish before their eyes they will
have something more than a mean opinion of the
`Yanks.'"
* Sherman's plan for his March to the Sea
* The threat of damage (or more damage to come) can
compel an enemy to yield or comply
* This type of threat is most valuable when held in reserve
* This type of force is "asymmetric" in its dimensions
Asymmetric Use of Force
* When one side desires to
use force but is clearly
outmatched in terms of
conventional forces, it may
use asymmetric force
­ Leveraging inferior tactical or
operational strength against
an enemy's to achieve
disproportionate effect with
the aim of undermining the
enemy's will in order to
achieve the asymmetric
actor's strategic objectives.
Functions That Force Can Serve
* Defense
­ Designed to ward off attack and to minimize
damage to oneself if attacked
* Deterrence
­ Prevent an adversary from doing something
that one does not want him to do and that he
might otherwise be tempted to do by
threatening him with unacceptable
punishment if he does it
Functions That Force Can Serve
(cont'd)
* Compellence
­ Designed to either stop an adversary from
doing something that he has already
undertaken or to get him to do something that
he has not yet undertaken
* "Swaggering"
­ Not aimed directly at defense, deterrence, or
compellence, but instead designed to
enhance the national pride of a people or to
satisfy the personal ambitions of a ruler
An Example in Practice:
China & Taiwan
* In April 2001, President Bush vowed to do
""whatever it takes" to defend Taiwan from
any Chinese attack
* Hypothetical situation:
­ US intelligence discovers China has
increased its ballistic missiles targeted on
Taiwan and Chinese officials make numerous
threats to squash what they perceive as a
dangerous independence movement in
Taiwan
Practical Exercise:
China & Taiwan
* Hypothetical situation cont'd:
­ The US responds by increased military sales
to Taiwan, including air defense systems, and
making diplomatic statements pledging its
resolve to defend Taiwan against an attack
from China
China's Military Options for Taiwan
* Launch an invasion of Taiwan or an
offshore island, using amphibious or other
sea or air transported forces.
* Impose a blockade on Taiwan's commerce
as a means of coercing political
concessions.
* Coerce Taiwan by means of air or missile
strikes on Taiwan's population, military
assets, or economic infrastructure.
Chinese Strategic Considerations
* Have a plan to avoid, discourage, forestall,
or react to a possible US intervention on
Taiwan's side
* Attempt to contain & limit the conflict, but
fight with sufficient force & tactics to
achieve a military solution before outside
powers could intervene militarily, & before
vital trade & foreign investment are
disrupted too much
Possible Chinese Indications of
Intent to Invade Taiwan
* Assembling an armada of amphibious
landing craft
* Sabotage or attacks on Taiwan's early
warning radar or intelligence collection
facilities
* A major logistics buildup opposite Taiwan
* Forward deployment of troops, movement
of equipment
* Major improvements in sealift capability
Force Comparison
* China
­ Air Force of 470,000
airmen and 4,000 combat
aircraft (perhaps 2/3
however are obsolete)
­ Army of 1.9 million
soldiers, 14,000 tanks, and
453 helicopters
­ Navy of 250,000 sailors,
63 submarines, 18
destroyers, and 35 frigates
* Taiwan
­ Air Force of 45,000 airmen,
and 420 combat aircraft
­ Army of 240,000 soldiers
and 900 tanks
­ Navy of 62,000 sailors and
marines, 4 submarines
­ Naval aviation wing
equipped with 32 combat
aircraft and 20 armed
helicopters.
Taiwanese Strategic
Considerations
* Do not provoke a Chinese attack
* Avoid vulnerability to a sudden assault
from China that occurs so quickly that
Taiwan is forced to capitulate before the
US is able to respond in a meaningful,
timely manner.
US Strategic Considerations
* Ideally, avoid any use or threat of force to
resolve differences in the Taiwan Strait.
* Persuade China against or deter China from
attacking or threatening attack
* If those efforts fail, facilitate Taiwan's ability to
defend itself without outside assistance or, as a
fallback, defend itself long enough to permit
outside assistance
* If China attacks & the US decides to intervene,
the combination of Taiwan & US forces must be
able to defeat the Chinese attack
Possible US Deterrent Actions
* Diplomatic activity in the UN
* US Navy show of force
* Increased military sales to Taiwan
* Forward deployment of US troops to a
staging area closer to Taiwan
* Joint exercise with Taiwanese troops
* How could this situation be defused?
Part II
USFP Diplomacy & the FIVE Tracks
of Problem Solving in Diplomatic
Relations
Actors in the
Peace-Building & Diplomatic Process
* Diplomacy & Peacebuilding Activities
involve a widerange of actors
* Approaches here make a distinction
between actors on the state level (Track
One) and actors on the civil society level
(Track Two)
Track One & Two
Track One
* Governments
* International &
regional institutions &
organizations (EU,
UNO, AU)
Track Two
* International & local
NGOs
* Research institutes
* Churches
* Individuals
* Non-traditional actors
Track One Diplomacy
Mediation is the normal practice
* Mediation by states is practiced in the form
of official or quiet diplomacy
* The usual types of mediation (umbrella
term) are good offices, facilitation,
consultation, negotiation and mediation
Examples of Track One Mediation
* Office support: Low-intervention mediation efforts (e.g. logistical
support for peace talks)
* Facilitation: Prior or parallel to negotiations, facilitators try to create
space for the conflicting parties to come together. Facilitators talk to
the parties separately, often through shuttle diplomacy
* Consultations: Mediators act as advisors to the conflicting parties
* Mediation: Characterized by a higher degree of interference than
other mediation types, mediators articulate their opinion & usually try
to develop a peace plan
Power Mediation as a Special Form of
Mediation
* Outcome-orientation: The aim of mediation is to
identify representative leaders of the conflicting parties,
to bring them together to negotiate a cease fire and/or a
peace accord
* Power Mediation: Outcome-oriented, explicit possibility
of use of power, including military force. This approach is
practiced by states that are able to bring resources into
the negotiations (financial carrots or military sticks)
Criticisms of Track One Diplomacy
* State diplomacy focuses on the top leadership
level of conflicting parties:
... the international community most often seeks out and
relates to hierarchical leaders [...] even when, as it is
often the case, power may be far more diffuse and
fractionated. In situations such as Bosnia, Somalia, and
Liberia, the degree to which hierarchical power is
operational is decidedly unclear."
- Jean Paul Lederach, Levels of Leadership, in: Luc Reychler/Thania
Paffenholz (Hrsg.), Peacebuilding. A Field Guide, Boulder 2001, pg. 147.
And more criticism...
* State mediation only occurs in rare, highprofile
cases & is often not neutral
* Outcome-oriented approaches are not
sufficient in tackling deeper roots of
conflict
Track Two Diplomacy / Civil Society
Peace-Building
* Rather a complementary concept than an
alternative to Track One
* Process-oriented rather than outcome-oriented
* Tackles the relationships of actors at all societal
levels (grass-roots level, middle-range level, top
level)
Example of Track Two Instruments:
Interactive Problem-Solving Workshops
* Influential persons of conflicting parties are
brought together in a neutral, informal setting
* In a three-stage process, accompagnied by
practicioners and academics or scientists,
proposals are worked out for a solution that
satisfies the security & identity needs of all
parties
* Used in Middle East peace negotiation process
Limits to the Problem-Solving Workshop
* Recruitment: It is difficult to find participants who are
motivated to actively get involved in the peace process &
are at the same time in a position that enables them to
feed the workshop results into the political process
* Asymmetry: Workshop has limited output when the
constellation of conflicting parties is characterised by an
asymmetric power structure
Multi-Track Diplomacy: The natural answer to the
multi-causal nature of conflict?
Peace in the largest sense cannot be accomplished by
the United Nations or the Governments alone.
Nongovernmental Organizations, academic institutions,
parliamentarians, business and professional
communities, the media and the public at large must all
be involved.
(Boutros-Ghali, Agenda for Peace 1992)
Multi-Track Diplomacy
* There are a number of approaches to integrate Track
One and Track Two Diplomacy into a complementary
concept
* Diamond & McDonald name 9 different actor groups
* Media as an interconnecting communication channel
Citation: Louise Diamond & John McDonald,
Multi-Track Diplomacy. A Systems
Approach to Peace. 3rd edition, West
Hardford Publishers. 1996.
An Example in Practice:
Track One of Diplomacy:
Official Gov't-to-Gov't Diplomatic Interaction
Example:
The official American
embassy Ambassador or
Senior Diplomatic Officer
has a meeting with a
Senior Official of the
Czech Gov't to discuss
political affairs.
Track 1: "Official Diplomacy"
Pros & Cons of approach:
* Pro: Official exchanges have more
power than an individual. Since
governments generally have power over
the general public, the governments can
possibly do some good for their people.
* Con: Governments can become corrupt,
and government to government
interaction can possibly become non-
diplomatic.
For example, under the role of Pol Pot
the government did not serve the people
and human rights were violated.
USG (US Gov't) officials are often asked
­ "Where was America during the war?"
Photo Source:
www.news.yahoo.com
Further Example in Practice, Track 1
"Following an investigation involving
U.S. Immigration and Customs
Enforcement (ICE), the Cambodian
National Police (CNP), and the
Department of State's Diplomatic
Security Service (DSS), Pepe was
arrested by the CNP in June
2006. According to the affidavit filed
in the case, the investigation began
after two non-governmental
organizations alleged that Pepe had
raped and sexually abused local
children using bondage, drugs, and
beatings."
(news release from:
http://phnompenh.usembassy.gov/pr_021207.html)
AFP/File Photo from yahoo news
"A retired US Marines captain was in
custody here after being expelled
from Cambodia for allegedly
sexually abusing children in the
Southeast Asian nation, justice
officials said."
(www.newsyahoo.com ­ Feb. 9, 2007)
More on Track Two Diplomacy
* "Unofficial, non-
governmental,
analytical, policyoriented,
problemsolving
efforts by
skilled, educated,
experienced &
informed private
citizens interacting
with private citizens."
* Example:
US nonprofit or
educational
institutions partnering
with educational
institutions in the CR.
* Thus, the Fulbright
Program is ONLY a
partial example of this
two-way, Track Two
Diplomatic process
Pros & Cons, Track 2 Diplomacy
* Pro: NGOs & individual actors can do a lot of, if they perform
and go about doing their service in a solid, effective way. This
includes trust, patience, relationship building, & hard work.
* Con: Problem of "cultural superiority" & "rigidity" in approach. If
we begin to think of local people, as `Target beneficiaries' or
`clients' educators & NGOs, development practitioners begin to
see him/herself as the `powerful helper' and local people ask `the
ones who need help.' This is destructive of genuine
development of the community. The locals become more
passive than before. There is disempowerment rather
empowerment.
Track Three:
Definition: Businessperson-to-businessperson, private sector, freeenterprise,
multinational corporation interactions"
Pro:
Brings jobs to boost an economy. Multi-national, trans-national
manufacturing facilities as an example.
Con:
If the infrastructure can't support the national corporation, it may lead to
exploitation of unfair wages and poor working conditions. Also, small,
native country businesses are at risk of being bought out or exploited,
unless they can find an exporter that will be fair.
The solution to this could be using "fair trade" models. "The fair trade
movement is a global network of producers, traders, marketers,
advocates and consumers focused on building equitable trading
relationships between consumers and the world's most economically
disadvantaged artisans and farmers." (http://www.world-shoppe.com/FairTrade.htm)
Track Four Diplomacy
* Track Four is People to People in a most simple respect.
* Track Four is on a base level where it is far more easier for the people
extending the diplomacy to practice and mutually experience more empathy
from one another. This empathy and understanding leads to not only a
good relationship with the people but also sure success on whatever project
that you are working on.
* "Citizen-to-citizen exchange programs of all kinds, such as scientific,
cultural, academic, educational, student, film, music, art, sports, & youth
exchanges." This IS the Fulbright exchange program.
* Pro: Local groups are working together to accomplish a common goal.
* Con: Generally, it is hard for people from poor countries to come to more
wealthy countries. So the exchange might be a bit more hard to balance.
Track Five Diplomacy
* Definition: "Media-to-media based efforts designed to expose and educate
large segments of the population in conflict to the philosophy, ideas, culture
and needs of the other national, society, or ethnic group with whom they are
in conflict."
* Examples: Angelina Jolie, Bono, & U2
* Pros: Helps Raise awareness of issue to mass population
* Con: May misinform and mock a serious problem