NOTES TO LECTURES HANS_JØRGEN WALLIN WEIHE NOVEMBER 2010 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES BRNO H-J.Wallin.Weihe@hil.no FORRAYS INTO VANISHING LANDSCAPES In the book Palestinian Walks the Palestinian lawyer describes his landscape, the memory of the landscape and the traditions. It is a landscape were the traditional Palestinian have been rapidly disappearing and were another population is rapidly moving in and using the landscape in a different way. The changes happen due to a number of reasons. The most obvious are political reasons, war and ethnic conflicts between Palestinians and the settlers of Israel. However, there are other reasons as well such as the technological development and economy. Displaced populations and new populations settling and after a while identifying with the land is a common situation in many areas of the world. In Europe we have many such cases and the same is true for other part of the world. We also have the case of migratory populations being forced into more restricted areas and sometimes into settled life. BASIC CONCEPTS SELF AND IDENTITY INDIVIDUAL SELF COLLECTIVE SELF SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONS SELF - SEEING ONESELF AS SOCIAL OBJECT ME – COLLECTIVE US – COLLECTIVE ME - SEEING ONESELF AS SOCIAL SUBJECT I IDENTITY SELF KNOWLEDGE SELF-AWARENESS PERSONAL IDENTITY SOCIAL IDENTITY SELF MOTIVES SELF-ESTEEM UNDERSTANDING OF CULTURE ANTHROPOCENTRIC NON ANTHROPOCENTRIC USE OF SPACE RELATIONSHIP TO TIME LINEAR TIME CIRCULAR TIME NATURE BASED TIME SPIRITUALITY/RELIGION IDENTITY OF THE GROUP LANGUAGE ATTITUDES ONE COMPONENT MODEL (OSTROM, GREENWALD- PSYCHOLOGY) AN ATTITUDE CONSISTS OF AFFECT TOWARD OR EVALUATION OF THE OBJECT TWO COMPONENT MODEL ((ALPORT – PSYCHOLOGY) - AN ATTITUDE CONSISTS OF A MENTAL READINESS TO ACT. - GUIDES EVALUATIVE -JUDGEMENTAL- RESPONSES THREE COMPONENT MODEL (PHILOSOPHICAL) - AN ATTITUDE CONSISTS OF COGNITIVE, AFFECTIVE AND BEHAVIOURAL COMPONENTS (THOUGHT, FEELING, ACTION BASIC TO HUMAN EXPERIENCE) ATTITUDES MIGHT SERVE DIFFERENT FUNCTIONS -KNOWLEDGE -INSTRUMENTALITY (MEANS TO END OR GOAL) -EGO DEFENCE (PROTECTING SELF- ESTEEM) -VALUE EXPRESSIVENESS (DISPLAY VALUES THAT IDENTIFY AND DEFINE THEM) CONFLICTING VALUES WILL MOST OFTEN CREATE MOTIVATION FOR CHANGE ONE OR MORE CONTRADICTORY BELIEFS – THE OUTCOME WILL BE CONSISTENCY CULTURE Culture is the social habits of a community Culture is a system of shared meanings Culture is a shared system of communication and meanings VARIATION IN CONFORMITY Culture of honour Culture of machismo (South America) THE KINDS OF SELF Independent self Interdependent self POWER DISTANCE Degree to which unequal power is accepted UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE Degree of stability required MASCULINITY-FEMININITY Valuing attributes that are either typically feminine or masculine INDIVIDUALISM-COLLECTIVISM (Allocentrism- Idiocentrism) Degree to which identity is dependent upon personal choice or those of the collective POWER DISTANCE UNCERTANITY AVOIDANCE INDIVIDUALISM MASCULINITY Denmark 0.18 Denmark 0.23 Denmark 0.74 Denmark 0.16 Norway 0.31 Norway ? Norway ? Norway 0.08 Sweden 0.31 Sweden 0.29 Sweden 0.71 Sweden 0.05 India 0.77 India 0.40 India ? India ? Singapore 0.74 Singapore ? Singapore 0.20 Singapore ? Columbia 0.67 Phillipines 0.44 Columbia 0.13 Columbia 0.64 Great Britain 0.35 Great Britain 0.35 Great Britain 0.89 Great Britain 0.66 COOPERATION, COMPETITION AND SOCIAL IDENTITY AUTHORITY Reward power The ability to give or promise rewards for compliance Coercive power The ability to give or threaten punishment for no-compliance Informational power The target’s belief that the influencer has more information than oneself Expert power The target’s belief that the influencer has generally greater expertise and knowledge tan oneself Legitimate power The target’s belief that the influencer is authorised by a recognised power structure to command and make decisions Referent power Identification with, attraction to or respect for the source of influence Spiritual power The target’s belief that the influencer is authorised by God or some kind of spiritual power Mental/psychological power The ability to influence someone psychologically and in extreme cases make the dependent Dependency power The ability to control and distribute necessary resources Social influence can produce surface compliance with requests, obedience with commands and internalised conformity to group norms People tend to be more readily influenced by reference groups, because they are psychologically significant for our attitudes and behaviour, than by membership groups, as they are simply groups to which we belong by some external criterion, Give the right circumstances, we all have the potential to obey commands blindly, even if the consequences of such obedience include harm the others. Milgram chock generator Adminsistrating electrical chock Up to 65% of people were obedient right to the very end – administrating electrical chock well above the danger zone. Men leaders are evaluated more favourably than women leaders when the role is defined in more masculine terms Female leaders are evaluated more favourably than men leaders when the role is defined in more feminine terms Authoritarian personality. Personality syndrome originating in childhood that predisposes individuals to be prejudiced Autocratic leaders Leader’s who use a style based on giving orders to followers. Glass ceiling An invisible barrier that prevents women, and minorities, from attaining top leadership positions Role congruity theory Mainly applied to the gender gap in leadership – because social stereotypes of women are inconsistent with people’s schemas of effective leaders. The type of power exercised will be influenced by the cultural context. Factors such as age, sex, ethnicity, social class, religion, political identification and a number of individual personality factors might all influence how the leader and her/his leadership style is experie CULTURE Etic- emic distinction Contrast between psychological constructs that are relatively culture- universal and those that are relatively culture-specific (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:641) ATTITUDES Attitude A: A relatively enduring organisation of beliefs, feelings and behavioural tendencies towards socially significant objects, groups, events or symbols B. A general feeling of or evaluation – positive or negative – about some person, object or issue. (Hogg, 2008:637) Attitude change Any significant modification of an individual’s attitude. In the persuasion process this involves the communicator, the communication, the medium used, and the characteristics of the audience. Attitude changes can also occur by inducing someone to perform an act that runs counter to an existing attitude. (Hogg, 2008:637) Attitude formation The process of forming our attitudes, mainly from our own experiences, the influences of others and our own emotional reactions. (Hogg, 2008:637) Cognitive dissonance State of psychological tension, produced by simultaneously having two opposing cognitions. People are motivated to reduce the tension, often by changing or rejecting one of the cognitions. Festinger (1957) proposed that we seek harmony in our attitudes, beliefs and behaviours and try to reduce tensionfrom inconsistency among these elements. (Hogg, 2008:190) Induced compliance A special case of cognitive dissonance inconsistency is experienced when a person is persuaded to behave in a way that is contrary to an attitude (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:219) Disconfirmation bias The tendency to notice, refute and regard as weak arguments that contradict our prior beliefs (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:204) Effort justification A special case of cognitive dissonance inconsistency is experienced when a person makes a considerabl effort to achieve a modest goal (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:217) Ultimate attribution error Tendency to attribute bad outgroup behaviour internally, and to attribute good outgroup and bad ingroup behaviour externally (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:648) MANIPULATIVE TECHNIQUES USED IN BUSINESS Door-in-the-face tactic Multiple request technique to gain compliance, in which the focal request is preceded by a larger request that is bound to be refused. (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:211) Foot- in-the –door tactic Multiple request technique to gain compliance, in which the focal request is preceded by a smaller request that is bound to be accepted. (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:209) Low-ball tactic Technique for inducing compliance in which a person who agrees to a request still feel committed after finding that there are hidden costs (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:211) Multiple requests Tactic for gaining compliance using a two-step procedure, the first request functions as a set-up for the second real request (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:209) Third person effect Most people think that they are less influenced than others by stimuli like advertisements. In reality they are just as susceptible. (Hogg, 2008:194) GROUPS 1. A collection of individuals who are interacting 2. A collection of individuals who are interdependent 3. A collection of individuals who join together to achieve a goal 4. A collection of individuals joining in order to satisfy a need 5. A collection of individuals whose interaction are structured by a set of roles and norms 6. A collection of individuals who influence each other Entiativity The property of a group that makes it seem like a coherent, distinct and unitary entity Community (interpersonal bonds) Gemeinschaft (Tönnies) Association (Formalised and impersonal associations) Gesellschaft (Tönnies) GROUPS AND AGGREGATES Not all collections of people can be defined as groups from a psychological sense. For example people waiting for a bus can merely social aggregates Individualists believe that people in groups behave very much as they do in pairs or by themselves. Collectivists believe that the behaviour of people in groups is influenced by unique social processes and cognitive representations than can only occur in and emerge from groups SOCIAL FACILITATION (PRESENCE AND AUDIENCE EFFECTS) - Doing the same thing but not interacting - Passive audience Social presence can produce: Positive results Increased performance Negative results Social inhibition Decreased performance DRIVE THEORY People are relatively unpredictable Presence of others can cause us to be in a state of alertness and readiness Increased arousal or motivation and better results “a drive” result if we have a task we can manage Decreased performance if we do not have the skills/knowledge (Impaired performance) GROUP COHESIVENESS (Solidarity, team spirit , morale) - Personal attraction - Social attraction GROUP SOCIALISATION Prospective member New member Full member Marginal member Ex-member Recruitment Reconnaissance Accommodation Assimilation Role negotiation Accommodation Assimilation Tradition Reminiscence ENTRY ACCEPTANCE DIVERGENCE EXIT INITIATION RITES Graduation Marriage - Symbolic (Public recognition of identity and discontinuity) - Apprenticeship (Rites to help individuals to be accustomed to new roles and normative standards) - Loyalty elicitation Pleasant initiations involving gifts or special dispensation NEGATIVE EFFECTS IN GROUPS Social loafing (persons who idle their time away – or literally just keeping on top like loaf sugar serving no purpose) resulting in a decrease in individual performance - Coordination loss - Motivation loss Free-rider effect Reasons for loafing: - Output equity (loaf on collective tasks because they believe people loaf in groups) - Evaluation apprehension (groups provides a sense of being anonymous and unidentifiable) - Matching to standard (no clear performance standard to match) - The group serves a social purpose rather than a production purpose - Doing time in groups ( like being in the lock up or the military – You have to do time to pass class) Deviants and marginal members - Core members highly prototypical for the group - Those who do not marginal or non-prototypical members COGNITIVE DISSONANCE Sate of psychological tension produced by simultaneously having two opposing cognitions. People are motivated to reduce tension, often by changing or rejecting one of the cognitions. We seek harmony in attitudes, beliefs and behaviours, and try to reduce tension from inconsistency among these elements. NORMS Attitudinal and behavioural uniformities that define group membership and differentiate between groups Many norms are hidden. In social psychology a method called Ethnomethodolgy involves violation of hidden norms to reveal their presence. STEREOTYPE Widely shared and simplified evaluative image of a scial group and its memebers AUTHORITY -CROSS CULTURAL Reward power The ability to give or promise rewards for compliance Coercive power The ability to give or threaten punishment for no-compliance Informational power The target’s belief that the influencer has more information than oneself Expert power The target’s belief that the influencer has generally greater expertise and knowledge tan oneself Legitimate power The target’s belief that the influencer is authorised by a recognised power structure to command and make decisions Referent power Identification with, attraction to or respect for the source of influence Spiritual power The target’s belief that the influencer is authorised by God or some kind of spiritual power Mental/psychological power The ability to influence someone psychologically and in extreme cases make the dependent Dependency power The ability to control and distribute necessary resources Social influence can produce surface compliance with requests, obedience with commands and internalised conformity to group norms People tend to be more readily influenced by reference groups, because they are psychologically significant for our attitudes and behaviour, than by membership groups, as they are simply groups to which we belong by some external criterion, Give the right circumstances, we all have the potential to obey commands blindly, even if the consequences of such obedience include harm the others. Milgram chock generator Adminsistrating electrical chock Up to 65% of people were obedient right to the very end – administrating electrical chock well above the danger zone. Men leaders are evaluated more favourably than women leaders when the role is defined in more masculine terms Female leaders are evaluated more favourably than men leaders when the role is defined in more feminine terms Authoritarian personality. Personality syndrome originating in childhood that predisposes individuals to be prejudiced Autocratic leaders Leader’s who use a style based on giving orders to followers. Glass ceiling An invisible barrier that prevents women, and minorities, from attaining top leadership positions Role congruity theory Mainly applied to the gender gap in leadership – because social stereotypes of women are inconsistent with people’s schemas of effective leaders. The type of power exercised will be influenced by the cultural context. Factors such as age, sex, ethnicity, social class, religion, political identification and a number of individual personality factors might all influence how the leader and her/his leadership style is experienced. GENDER, AGE AND KINSHIP Sylvia Junko Yanagisko and Jane Fishborne Collier, Toward a unified Analysis of Gender and Kinship, Conference on Feminism and Kinship Theory in Athropology (1982. GENDER - Biological differences exist both between male and female just as they do aiming men and women - Biological facts of sexual reproduction - Women’s consciousness - Men’s consciousness - Historical development - Sex-stereotypical attributes of a person SEX ROLES Behaviour deemed sex-sterotypically appropriate GLASS CEILING An invisible barrier that prevents women, and minorities, from attaining top leadership positions FACE-ISM Media depiction that gives greater prominence to the head and less prominence to the body for men, but vice versa for women Thus it is communicated that women are more important due to their physical appearance than their intellectual performance. LANGUAGE TERMS like mankind talking about humanity in general conveys the impression that women are an aberration from the basic masculine mould of humanity. SUCCESS attributed to ability among men and luck among women AGISM The existence of age related, or generational, stereotypes is undeniable. We all have them, and they can generate expectancies and misunderstandings that are felt particularly strongly in work contexts. In some situations old people have high status as they have culturally important knowledge and skills. KINSHIP - Relationships based upon sexual reproduction ”Family” - Mutual constitution of Gender and Kinship - Historical development DOMESTIC/PUBLIC - Historical development NATURE/CULTURE UNIVERSAL ASYMMETRY THEORY REPRODUCTION/PRODUCTION - Control over labour - Control over means of production - Control over reproduction means control over women. In traditional agricultural societies production is dependent upon reproduction of human beings and, consequently upon control over women. PRODUCTIVE SPHERE REPRODUCTIVE SPHERE Material Goods Technology Male or gender neutral Wage work Factory Money People Biology Female or gendered Nonwage work Family Love Human reproduction is never simply a matter of conception and birth. A wide range of activities and relationship is related to the production of human beings. Social facts are culturally constructed. Those in favour of what can be defined as “Egalitarian society” will argue against the universality of “sexual asymmetry”. Do we naturally want to do; “Women’s tasks” “Men’s tasks” Do we regard all societies as systems of inequality forces? The cultural Analysis of Meaning Prestige oriented action as part of the male and female culture, IMPORTANT CONCEPTS FROM SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY ON CROSS CULTURAL COMMUNICATION Attitude A: A relatively enduring organisation of beliefs, feelings and behavioural tendencies towards socially significant objects, groups, events or symbols B. A general feeling of or evaluation – positive or negative – about some person, object or issue. (Hogg, 2008:637) Attitude change Any significant modification of an individual’s attitude. In the persuasion process this involves the communicator, the communication, the medium used, and the characteristics of the audience. Attitude changes can also occur by inducing someone to perform an act that runs counter to an existing attitude. (Hogg, 2008:637) Attitude formation The process of forming our attitudes, mainly from our own experiences, the influences of others and our own emotional reactions. (Hogg, 2008:637) Audience Intended target of persuasive communication (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:195) Averaging A method of forming positive or negative impressions by averaging the valence of all constituent person attributes (Hogg 2007:48) Cognitive algebra Approach to the study of impression formation that focuses on how people combine attributes that have value into an overall positive or negative impression (Hogg 2007:47) Cognitive dissonance State of psychological tension, produced by simultaneously having two opposing cognitions. People are motivated to reduce the tension, often by changing or rejecting one of the cognitions. Festinger (1957) proposed that we seek harmony in our attitudes, beliefs and behaviours and try to reduce tensionfrom inconsistency among these elements. (Hogg, 2008:190) Collectivism Societeal structure and world-view in which people prioritise group loyalty, commitment, and conformity, and belonging and fitting in to groups, over standing out as an isolated individual. (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:618) Compliance Superficial, public and transitory change in behaviours and expressed attitudes in response to requests, coercion or group pressure (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:208) Culture The social habits of a community (Boas 1930:30) A system of shared meanings (Smith and Bond 1998:69) Although definitions vary, they tend to share the broad view that culture is an enduring product of and influence on human interaction (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:606) Culture-bound Most theories, for example in social psychology, would be culture bound – which means that they have to be understood from the point of view of a certain culture Theory and data conditiones by a specific cultural background (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:639) Culture-blind Do not take culture into consideration Theory and data untested outside the host culture (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:639) Disconfirmation bias The tendency to notice, refute and regard as weak arguments that contradict our prior belifs (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:204) Door-in-the-face tactic Multiple request technique to gain compliance, in which the focal request is preceded by a larger request that is bound to be refused. (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:211) Effort justification A special case of cognitive dissonance inconsistency is experienced when a person makes a considerabl effort to achieve a modest goal (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:217) Eloboration – likelihood model Petty and Cacioppo’s (1986) model of attitude change: when people attend top a message carefully, they use a central route to process it, otherwise they use a peripheral route. This model competes with the heuristic – systematic model. heuristic – systematic model Etic- emic distinction Contrast between psychological constructs that are relatively culture- universal and those that are relatively culture-specific (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:641) Foot- in-the –door tactic Multiple request technique to gain compliance, in which the focal request is preceded by a smaller request that is bound to be accepted. (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:209) Forewarning Advance knowledge that one is to be the target of persuasion. Forewarning often produces resistance to persuasion (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:227) Fundamental attribution error Bias in attributing anothers`s behaviour more to internal than to situational causes (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:641) Heuristic – systematic model Chaiken’s (1987) model of attitude change; when people attend to a message carefully, they use systematic processing; otherwise they process information by using heuristics or mental short cuts. This model comptes with the elaboration – likelihood model (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:642) Independent self A self that is relatively separate, internal and unique (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:613) Individualism Societeal structure and world-view in which people prioritise standing out as an individual over fitting in as a group member (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:618) Individualism – collectivism Whether one’s identity is determined by personal choices or by the collective (e.g. having freedom to adapt your approach to the job or even your own career, marriage or child raising) (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:616) Induced compliance A special case of cognitive dissonance inconsistency is experienced when a person is persuaded to behave in a way that is contrary to an attitude (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:219) Inoculation A way of making people resistant to persuasion. By providing them with diluted counter- argumenet, they can build up effective refutations to a later stronger argument (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:227) Interdependent self A self that is relatively dependent on social relations and has more fuzzy boundaries (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:613) Integration Stategic attempt to get someone to like you in order to obtain compliance with a request (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:28) Low-ball tactic Technique for inducing compliance in which a person who agrees to a request still feel committed after finding that there are hidden costs (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:211) Masculinity- femininity Valuing attributes that are either typically masculine (e.g. achieving gaining material success) or typically feminine (e.g. promoting interpersonal harmony, caring) (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:616) Message Communication from a source directed to an audience. (What message is used and what kind of arguments are involved) (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:195) Mindlessness The act of agreeing to a request without giving it a thought. A small request is likely to be agreed to, even if a spurious reason is provided. (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:212) Moderator variable A variable that qualifies an otherwise simple hypothesis with a view to improving its predicte power ( e.g. A causes B, but only when C ( the moderator) is present. (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:195) (Respected adults such as a good teacher, manager, social worker, doctor, nurses are influential particularly in the development of young children’s attitudes. Multiple requests Tactic for gaining compliance using a two-step procedure, the first request functions as a set-up for the second real request (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:209) Persuasive communication Message intended to change an attitude and related behaviours of audience (Hogg, 2008:191) Power distance (values in culture) The degree to which unequal power in institutions and practices is accepted, or alternatively, egalitarianism is endorsaed ( e.g. can employees freely express disagreement with their manager ?) (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:615) Reactance Brehm’s (1966) theory that people try to protect their freedom to act. When we perceive that this freedom is curtailed, they will act to regain it. (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:227) Reciprocity principle The law of doing unto others as they do to you. It can refer to an attempt to gain compliance by first doing someone a favour, or to mutual aggression or mutual attraction (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:28) Self-perception theory Bem’s (1967) idea that we gain knowledge of ourselves only by making self-attributions, for example, we infer our own attitudes from our own behaviour (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:225) Selective exposure hypothesis People tend to avoid potentially dissonant information (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:215) Social identity theory Theory of group membership and intergroup relations based on self-categorisation, social comaprision and the construction of a shared self-defintion in terms of ingroup-defining properties (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:618) Source The point of origin of a persuasive communication (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:195) Source credibility The credibility of the source will have great importance for the impact of the message/ (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:195) Summation A method of forming positive or negative impressions by summing the valence of all the constituent person attributes (Hogg 2007:47) Third person effect Most people think that they are less influenced than others by stimuli like advertisements. In reality they are just as susceptible. (Hogg, 2008:194) Ultimate attribution error Tendency to attribute bad outgroup behaviour internally, and to attribute good outgroup and bad ingroup behaviour externally (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:648) Uncertanity avoidance Planning for stability in dealing with life’s uncertainities (e.g. believing that company rules, rules in social welfare instituitions/services should never be broken) (Hogg and Vaughan 2008:616) Weighted averaging Method of forming positive or negative impressions by first weighting and then averaging the valence of all constituent person attributes (Hogg 2007:48) Litterature Aronsson Elliot, Wilson Timothy and Akert Robin M. (ed) 2005 or later edition, Social psychology. New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall Barth Fredrik, Process and Form in Social Life Eidheim Harald, When Ethnic Identity is a Social Stigma Geertz Clifford, The Uses of Diversity Hogg Michael A. and Vaugham Graham M. 2005 . Social Psychology. London: Pearsson/Prentice Hall Kopytoff Igor, The Cultural Biography of Things: Commoditization as Process Lévy Strauss Claude., The meeting of Myth and Science Lévy Strauss Claude, “Primitive” Thinking and the “Civilized” Myers David G. 2002 ( or later edition) Social psychology Boston: McGraw Hill Shehadeh, Raja (2007). Palestinian Walks – Forrays into a vanishing landscape. London and New York: Schribner