presentation, and then use sound speaking techniques when you deliver your talk, there is every reason to expect your speech will be a success. «^ 't ^ <£ - ^ 454 Oral Presentations fhs Basics When you study grammar in school you are actually studying what you already "know." Note that the verb know needs those quotation marks because we're not using it in the usual sense. Your grammar knowledge is largely subconscious: You don't consciously know what you "know." When you study grammar you are learning about those grammar rules that you use subconsciously every lime you speak—as well as every time you listen and make sense of what you hear. —Martha KoUn, author of textbooks on writing and grammar There are eight parts of speech in English: nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. The same word can function at different times as more than one part of' speech. To identify a word's part of speech, determine how the word is used in a sentence. The word conch, for instance, may function as a noun in one sentence and as a verb in another. noun verb The coach has a gentle way with players. I coach my daughter's softball team. Nouns name persons, places, things, or ideas. They may be classified as proper, common, abstract, concrete, and collective. Proper nouns name particular persons, places, things, or events. They should be capitalized: Charles Dickens, London, Christmas. Common nouns do not name particular persons, places, things, or events. They are not capitalized: writer, city, holiday. Abstract nouns name intangible qualities, ideas, or characteristics: love, democracy, courage. Concrete nouns name tangible things that can be perceived through the senses: wind, rain, pencil, nose, knife, needle. Collective nouns name groups of individuals: audience, family, army, herd, jury, squad. (See agreement of collective nouns and verbs, 29d; of collective nouns and pronouns, 30c.) note: Compound nouns are composed of more than one word: high school, crosswalk, sister-in-law, Labor Day. (See hyphen, Chapter 52; forming the possessive case, 49a; forming plurals, 54e.) A dictionary will list a compound noun as a single entry. Referring to a dictionary is especially important for determining the capitalization of compound nouns. (See capitals, Chapter 48.) 67 b Pronouns Pronouns take the place of nouns. In the following sentences, the pronoun him substitutes for John Franklin, and the pronoun than substitutes for fans. 456 Parts of Speech 3 John Franklin ran eighty yards for a touchdown. Six fans ran onto the field to greet him before officials chased them back to the stands. The word that a pronoun replaces is called the antecedent of the pronoun. John Franklin is the antecedent of him, and fans is the antecedent of them. Pronouns are classified as personal, possessive, reflexive, relative, interrogative, demonstrative, and indefinite. Personal pronouns refer to a person or a thing. They have plural and singular forms. first person second person third person singular I, me you he, she, him, her, it plural we, us you they, them Possessive pronouns are forms of personal pronouns that show ownership or relation. (See case, Chapter 32.) my, mme your, yours his her, hers its their, theirs our, ours Reflexive pronouns are formed by combining personal pronouns with -self and -selves. myself yourself himself, herself, itself ourselves yourselves themselves A reflexive pronoun indicates that someone or something named in a sentence acts (or reflects) upon itself. Margo looked at herself in the mirror. Reflexive pronouns that are used to emphasize a noun or pronoun are sometimes called intensive pronouns. Margo herself will perform the ceremony. Relative pronouns introduce adjective clauses. (See subordinate clauses, 70b.) who whom whose that which The couple who performed the tango won first prize. Pronouns 457 what Interrogative pronouns are used in questions, who whom whose which Whom did you call? Demonstrative pronouns point to or identify a noun. (See pronoun reference, Chapter 31.) this that these those That is your problem. This is the question: How will we raise the money? Indefinite pronouns function as nouns in a sentence but do not lake the place of a specific person or thing. The following are common indefinite pronouns. any anybody most one neither anyone anything nobody none several each either some somebody something all another everybody everyone many-Somebody will reap the benefits. 67C Verbs A verb may express physical action {dance, walk, jump), mental action {dream, guess, trust), or state of being {is, are, were). A sentence must have a main verb to be complete. (See sentence parts, Chapter 68; sentence fragments, Chapter 27.) The year 2005 ended much like any other year. Action verbs are classified by whether or not they must be followed by an object, drat is, a noun or pronoun that names what is acted upon. A transitive verb takes an object. (See direct object and indirect object, 6Se.) The pitcher tossed the ball. The voters believed the politician. An intransitive verb expresses action that has no object. The pitcher smiled. Tile stream runs through the canyon. Although some verbs are transitive only {destroy, send, forbid) and others are intransitive only {tremble, chuckle, happen), most verbs can function as either transitive or intransitive. 458 Parts of Speech V IN- transitive The guide explained the danger. intransitive The guide never explained. Linking verbs express a state of being or a condition rather than an action. The most common linking verbs are forms of be, such as am, is, are, was, were. Words such as appear, become, feel, grow, look, smell, and taste function as both linking verbs and action verbs. These verbs link the subject of a sentence with a predicate nominative or predicate adjective—a noun, pronoun, or adjective that identifies or modifies the subject. (See subject, 6Sa; predicate adjectives and predicate nominatives, 68f.) The butler is the killer. The predicate nominative killer identifies the subject butler. The silence became frightening. The predicate adjective frightening modifies the subject silence. Many linking verbs also function as transitive as well as intransitive verbs. linking The butler looked gloomy. intransitive The butler looked for an escape. linking Carmen's hair grew gray from shock. transitive Mr. Higgins grew plums. Helping Verbs and Verb Phrases A verb often includes one or more helping verbs, sometimes called auxiliary verbs. common helping verbs am has can (may) have are had could {would, should) be is can could (would, should) have was may will (shall) have been were will (shall) be might have do will (shall) have might have been did has (had) been must have can (may) be must have must have been The verb and its helping verb(s) form a verb phrase. The comet has been approaching earth for two years. Verbs 459 In some sentences the verb and its helping verb are separated. The day has finally arrived. Did they reach Georgia? (See tense, Chapter 33; passive voice, Chapter 35.) &/d Adjectives Adjectives modify nouns and pronouns. To modify a word means to limit it—that is, to make its meaning more definite. Adjectives limit in three ways. 1. By describing. A tall woman stepped from the curious crowd. The white and black car won the race. 2. By pointing out which one. That man is my brother. 3. By telling how many. Twelve children and several parents attended. Adjectives are normally placed directly before the words diey modify, but sometimes a writer places descriptive adjectives after the words they modify. The stallion, long and lean, galloped past us. Predicate adjectives generally follow linking verbs and modify the subject of a sentence. (See predicate adjective, 6Sf.) The runners were tired and thirsty. Adjectives or Pronouns? A word may be used as more than one part of speech. This is especially true of the words listed below, which may serve as adjectives or pronouns depending on the way they function in a sentence, all another any both each 460 Parts of Speech either few many more neither one other several some that these this those what which adjective pronoun This book is overdue. Those books are on reserve. This is the overdue book. Those are the books on reserve. The definite article the and the indefinite articles a (used before words beginning with a consonant sound) and an (used before words beginning with a vowel sound) may also be classified as adjectives. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, and groups of words. Adverbs most commonly modify verbs by telling how, when, where, or to what extent. how when where extent He reads carefully. He reads late. He reads everywhere. He reads widely. Adverbs sometimes modify adjectives and other adverbs. She is truly dedicated. [Modifies the adjective dedicated] She studies terribly hard. [Modifies the adverb hard] Adverbs sometimes modify groups of words. Unfortunately, I cannot attend the wedding. [Modifies the whole sentence] Many adverbs end in but not all words that end in -ly are adverbs. The day was chilly, but the group jogged briskly through the park. [Chilly is an adjective; briskly is an adverb.] A preposition shows the relation of a noun or pronoun to some other word in a sentence. Prepositions usually introduce a word group called a prepositional phrase, which always consists of the preposition and an object of the preposition—a noun or pronoun that relates to another word in the sentence. The effect of pesticides threatens wildlife in marshes. Pesticides is related to effect because it specifies which effect. Marshes is related to wildlife because it indicates where wildlife is threatened. Prepositions 461 The prepositions of and in indicate the relations between these words (See prepositional phrases, 69a.) Prepositions usually show direction or position. The following words are among the most common prepositions. above across after against along among around at before behind below beneath beside between bevond into under by of up down on upon during out with for over within from through without in to Around the corner and beyond the tracks the road turns. Groups of words, such as along with, according to, and in spite of sometimes serve as prepositions. (See idioms, 26c.) According to the latest report, the company is nearly bankrupt. tS/£| Conjunctions Conjunctions join words, phrases, or clauses. They are usually classified into three categories: coordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions, and subordinating conjunctions. There are seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, or, yet, for, nor, and so, (See subject and predicate, 68a, 68b; main clauses, 70a; compound sentences, Chapter 71.) They connect items of equal weight. Oranges, lemons, and limes are citrus fruits. The fish bite in the morning or after sundown. The comet hit, but no one saw it. Correlative conjunctions are always used in pairs: both . .. and; not only,. . but also; either. .. or; and neither. . . nor. Both the California condor and the Maryland darter are struggling to survive. Neither animal nor plant species are safe from human encroachment. Subordinating conjunctions begin subordinate clauses. Common subordinating conjunctions, several of which also function as prepositions, are after, although, because, before, if, since, so that, though, unless, until, when, where, and while. (See subordinate clauses, 70b.) 462 Parts of Speech 1 -' D 3 3 I I I I I a a Humans must uncover their fears before they can uncover their courage. WHich psychology develops a model of human nature, it will not be based solely on neuroses and character disorders. note: Conjunctive adverbs join main, or independent, clauses. Words such as consequently, furthermore, hence, however, indeed, moreover, nevertheless, subsequently, therefore, and thus are conjunctive adverbs. (See main clauses, 70a; semicolon, Chapter 39.) Paralysis was President Franklin Delano Roosevelt's only experience with defeat; consequently, he never revealed the extent of his handicap. Statistics show that advertising generates sales; manufacturers, therefore, will continue to support Madison Avenue cop ywr iters. Interjections express surprise or strong emotion and have no grammatical relation to sentences. Examples of interjections are Oh! Wow! Ah! Ouch! Hey! My goodness! Ouch! 1 bit my tongue. Name the part of speech of each italicized word in the following paragraph, using the abbreviations N for noun, PRO for pronoun, V for verb, ADJ for adjective, ADV for adverb, PREP for preposition, C for conjunction, and I for interjection. Medical school instructors believe that good care begins with a record of a patient's medical history; therefore, the skill of diagnosis rests on the simple act of talking with a patient. The doctor must listen, ask important questions, and not only hear what the patient says but also hear what the patient does not say. This discussion will enable the doctor to create a diagnosis and a frenting!if plan. Although medical interviewing has been part of the diagnostic process since medicine began, authorities are officially recognizing that it is the foundation of any successful treatment. The next time your doctor begins with a discussion of your medical history, do not protest with "Oh no, not again," but instead appreciate the importance of this process. Interjections 463 Effective writing starts with clear, grammatical sentences. A sentence is a group of words that contains a subject and a predicate and is not dependent on another group of words to complete its meaning. (See subordinating conjunctions, 67g; main clauses and subordinate clauses, Chapter 70.) nonsentence sentence sentence Although the celebration ended with a fireworks display. The celebration ended with a fireworks display. How did the celebration end? Subject and Predicate 683 Simple subject and complete subject The simple subject is the word or words that act, are acted upon, or are described. Quail Hill rises at the end of University Drive. Birds have been nesting among the rocks and shrubs. Bundled in coats, students stroll to the peak each evening. Sometimes the subject you is implied. Speak to us! [Meaning You speak to us.] The complete subject includes the simple subject and the group of words that modify the simple subject. The student rally began at noon. The candidate from Benson Hall will speak at two o'clock. 68b Simple predicate and complete predicate The simple predicate, sometimes referred to as the main verb, is the word or words that tell what the subject did or how it was acted upon. Quail Hill rises at the end of University Drive. Birds have been nesting among the rocks and shrubs. Bundled in coats, students stroll to the peak each evening. 464 Parts of Sentences The complete predicate is the group of words that includes the simple predicate and its modifiers. The student rally began at noon. The candidate from Benson Hall will speak at two o'clock. 60C Compound subject A compound subject consists of two or more subjects that are joined by a conjunction and that have the same predicate. Samuel King and William Black took the first aerial photographs. Either he or she will fly the balloon. A compound predicate consists of two or more main verbs that are joined by a conjunction and that have the same subject. The rumble of the train echoes through the valley and rolls over the hills. Space shuttles will fly to the moon and return with payloads of minerals. Complements Some sentences express the writer's thought by means of a subject and a predicate only: He worked. She arrived. Most sentences, however, have within the complete predicate one or more words that add to the meaning of the subject and simple predicate. They appointed a new president. He is an engineer. These elements are called complements, and they function as direct and indirect objects and as predicate adjectives and predicate nominatives. (See verbs, 67c.) ©8C Direct objects and indirect objects A direct object is a word or word group that receives the action of a main transitive verb. A direct object answers the question What? or Whom? Direct and Indirect Objects 465 The Civic League invited Julio to speak. She teaches fifth grade. The indirect object of a verb precedes the direct object and usually indicates to whom or for whom the action is done. The caretaker gave Kim the key. To identify an indirect object, reconstruct the sentence by using the preposition to or for. The caretaker gave the key to Kim. Now Kim no longer functions as the indirect object but as the object of the preposition to. ives an A predicate adjective is an adjective that follows a linking verb and modifies the subject of the verb. The animals seem restless. A predicate nominative is a noun or pronoun that follows a linking verb and renames or identifies the subject of the verb. The man with gray hair is Mr. Sumato. Underline and identify the direct objects (DO), indirect objects (10), predicate adjectives (PA), and predicate nominatives (PN) in the following sentences. 1. Metaphors create vivid images in people's minds and in their hearts. 2. Highly charged images can become trademarks or handicaps for politicians. 3. Lincoln's "a house divided" won him success, but Hoover's "a chicken in every pot" brought him scorn. 4. In the fear of using vivid language, many politicians give us empty phrases. 5. This vague use of language often sounds dull. 466 Parts of Sentences 3 _ Words in sentences function not only individually but also in groups. The most common word group is the phrase, a group of words that may function as a noun, a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. 6@£l Prepositional phrases Prepositional phrases begin with a preposition and end with a noun or pronoun. They function as adjectives or adverbs. (See prepositions, 67f.) The fibula of the left leg is broken. As she turned, her mask fell to the floor. 6?b Appositive phrases An appositive phrase is a noun or pronoun with modifiers that is placed near another noun or pronoun to explain, describe, or identify it. The Wolves' Den, a hangout for college intellectuals, caught fire. My brother David, not James, works nights. Usually an appositive follows the word it refers to, but it may also precede the word. {See non-restrictive appositives, 37c.) A thrilling love story, John and Marsha's romance would make a wonderful film. Exercise 69.1: Prepositional and Appositive Phrases Combine each group of sentences into one sentence by using prepositional phrases and appositives. You may need to revise wording and delete some words to make the new sentences read correctly. For example: The purpose is to enrich a person's life. This is the purpose of a college education. A college education is the best investment anyone can make. The purpose of a college education, the best investment anyone can make, is to enrich a person's life. Appositive Phrases 467 1. History is the foundation of any liberal arts education. It is a basic subject. History is in moat curricula. 2. Sigmund Freud visited the United States. Freud is the father of psychoanalysis. He came to the United States in August and September. The year was 1909. 3. Bodybuilders seem dedicated. They are both male and female. The dedication is self-torture. 4. Personal forgiveness can be granted only by victims, not by observers. Forgiveness is a kind of moral embrace. The embrace is between two people. 5. Upton Sinclair wrote radical novels. Most of his novels are about corruption of the capitalistic system. He was a candidate for governor of California in 1934. Verbals and Verbal Phrases A verbal is a verb that does not function as the simple predicate of a clause. Instead, verbals (which include infinitives, present participles, and past participles) function as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. ($3C Infinitives and infinitive phrases Infinitives and infinitive phrases function as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. An infinitive phrase includes the infinitive—the plain form of a verb preceded by to—as well as its complements or modifiers. (See verb forms, Chapter 33.) Her favorite pastime is to dance. [Noun: names pastime] I have three choices to offer you. [Adjective: modifies choices] He seems eager to gain knowledge. {Adverb: modifies eager) $$Wu Participles and participial phrases Participles and participial phrases are verb forms that function as adjectives. Present participles end in -ing [running, laughing, flying). Past participles usually end in -ed [flopped, jumped, dangled), but a few end in -en [beaten], and some change entirely (begun, swum, brought). (See note on gerunds, 69e; verb forms, Chapter 33.) Tired, the runner slumped to the ground. [Past participle: modifies runner] 468 Phrases 9 it The developing crisis dominated the news. [Present participle: modifies crisis] Participial phrases consist of a participle and its complements or modifiers. The cat howling through the night belongs to Caesar. Glutted with inexpensive imports, the automobile market has declined. Beaten by Lady Luck, the gambler quit the game. Exercise 69.2: Verbals and Verbal Phrases Combine each group of sentences by using infinitive and participial phrases. Follow the directions in brackets after each group. You may need to add words, delete words, and/or change tenses. Example: Time ticks away in relentless beats. It is a major preoccupation of most Americans. [Use a present participial phrase.] Ticking away in relentless beats, time is a major occupation of most Americans. 1. The Navy keeps accurate world time. This is the Navy's tremendous responsibility. [Use an infinitive phrase as the subject.] 2. Atomic clocks outstrip the performance of the solar system. Every two years atomic clocks must be reset. [Use a present participial phrase.] 3. The Naval Observatory operates about fifty atomic clocks. They are stored in climate-controlled vaults. [Use a past participial phrase.] 4. Navigation satellites are accurate. They are accurate enough to locate an oil well. They are even accurate enough to guide a battleship through fog. [Use two infinitive phrases joined by or.] 5. Our lives are conditioned by a steady television diet. Our lives are measured in increments as regular as television commercials. [Use a past participial phrase.] Gerunds and gerund phrases function as nouns. A gerund is the present participle of a verb, formed by adding -ing to the infinitive, and used as a noun. Dreaming leads to creation. Gerunds and Gerund Phrases 469 ■ 91 A gerund phrase consists of a gerund and its complement.1; or modifiers. Like the gerund, the gerund phrase is used as a noun. [ love dancing until dawn. Flying to Rome is costly. note: Since both gerunds and present participles end in -ing, they are sometimes confused. You can avoid confusing them by determining their function in a sentence. Gerunds function as nouns. Present participles, when not serving as part of the predicate, function as adjectives. gerund Running keeps me fit for tennis. participle The water running in the Idtchen is a nuisance. Exercise 69.3: Gerund and Present Participial Phrases Write two sentences for each of the following words, using the word in a gerund phrase and in a present participial phrase. For example, using the word diving: gerund Diving from the ten-meter board is thrilling. participle Diving beneath the surface, he saw a world of splendid color. 1. hoping 2. drifting 3. flinging 4. washing 5. speaking 6f$ff Absolute phrases An absolute phrase consists of a noun and (usually) a participle, plus modifiers, that add to the meaning of a sentence but have no grammatical relation to it. An absolute phrase differs from other phrases because it does not modify a particular word but instead modifies an entire sentence. An absolute phrase may appear almost anywhere in a sentence. The palm tree swayed, its slick leaves shimmering with light. A magnifying glass raised to his eye, Sherlock Holmes examined the weapon. 470 Phrases 3 The two of us worked the entire night—Barbara at the computer and 1 at the tape recorder—transcribing our field notes. Exercise 69.4: Absolute Phrases Combine each group of sentences using absolute phrases. You may need to add or omit words and change tenses. For example: The players were leaning over their cards. They were chatting softly. The poker game continued for hours. The players leaning over their cards and chatting softly, the poker game continued for hours. L Her novel was finished. Renee decided to vacation in Paris. 2. The Mercedes skidded to a stop in the rain. Its brakes were squealing. Its taihights were glowing. 3. The horses rounded the turn. Their nostrils were flaring. Their necks were stretching toward the finish line. 4. The mysteries of the earth have been explored. The 1990s adventurer will turn to the secrets of the mind. 5. The lifeguard sat on the sand. Suntan lotion was glistening on her back, and the wind was gently lifting her hair. A clause is a group of words that has a subject and a predicate. There are two kinds of clauses: main clauses (sometimes called independent clauses) and subordinate clauses (sometimes called dependent clauses). Main clauses form grammatically complete sentences. They may stand alone or be joined by coordinating conjunctions (see 67g), by conjunctive adverbs (see note, 67g), or by semicolons (see 39a, 39b). (Also see comma, 37a.) Main Clauses 471 The cobra is a poisonous snake. Its bite is often fatal. The cobra is a poisonous snake, and its bite is often fatal. The cobra is a poisonous snake; indeed, its bite is often fatal. The cobra is a poisonous snake; its bite is often fatal. /IIP Subordinate clauses Subordinate clauses do not form grammatically complete sentences. They are usually introduced by a subordinating conjunction (see 67g) or a relative pronoun (see 67b). Subordinate clauses function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs within a sentence. The exact relation in a sentence between the thoughts expressed in a dependent clause and the main clause is indicated by the subordinating conjunction or relative pronoun that joins them. An adjective clause modifies a noun or pronoun. It often begins with a relative pronoun (who, whom, whose, that, which) that refers to or is related to a noun or pronoun that precedes it. {See comma, 37c.) The trumpet player who left the stage fell asleep in the lounge. Anything that stands on the seafront will be leveled by the storm. Karla is the spy Smiley seeks. [The relative pronoun that or whom is understood.] An adverb clause modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. It begins with a subordinating conjunction such as when, although, whenever, since, after, while, because, where, if, that, or than. WOicncver he is asked, he plays the banjo. I am happy because it is Saturday. She studies more effectively than I do. A noun clause is a subordinate clause that functions as a noun. It may serve as subject, predicate nominative, direct object, indirect object, or object of a preposition. The noun clause is likely to begin with a relative pronoun. (See complements, 68d, 68f.) subject object That life is difficult for some means little to insensitive bureaucrats. He described what he wanted. 472 Clauses 9 9 Exercise 70.1: Subordinate Clauses Combine each group of sentences by using subordinate clauses as indicated in the instructions in brackets. You may need to change some words to avoid repetition. For example: Few people have heard of hydrocephalus. Hydrocephalus affects at least a million families. [Use although to form an adverb clause.] Although few people have heard of the disease, hydrocephalus affects at least a million families. 1. Hydrocephalus is caused by a buildup of iluid in the brain cavity. Hydrocephalus is often called "water on the brain." [Use which to form an adjective clause.] 2. As many as eight thousand babies are born with the defect every year. This number does not relieve the mark of shame attached to the disease. [Use that to form a noun clause.] 3. Some doctors have attempted to educate the public about the defect. These doctors are prominent in the medical profession. Many people still believe that any child suffering from it will develop a head perhaps twice the normal size. [Use although to form an adverb clause and use who to form an adjective clause.] 4. Enlarged heads can be avoided. Doctors have developed an operation for hydrocephalics. The operation drains the fluid to avoid retardation in the patient. [Use because to form an adverb clause and use that to form an adjective clause.] 5. The surgical procedure has brought new hope to the parents of children suffering from the disease. They still worry about the future of their children. [Use although to form an adverb clause.] Sentences can be classified according to their structure (simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex) and their purpose (declarative, imperative, interrogative, or exclamatory). Sentence Patterns 473 Sentence Structures Simple sentences have only one main clause and no dependent clauses, although they may have several phrases. Years ago the family of a bride would supply the groom with a dowry. (One main clause] The bride and the groom were not consulted about the choice of a mate and sometimes met each other for the first time on the day of their wedding. [One main clause with a compound subject and a compound predicate] Compound sentences have two or more main clauses but no dependent clauses. Chauvinism has fueled many political skirmishes, but jingoism has ignited wars. [Two main clauses joined by a comma and the coordinating conjunction but] Some people are flattered into virtue; other people are bullied out of vice. [Two main clauses joined by a semicolon] Complex sentences have one main clause and at least one subordinate clause. Although he was a cunning investor, Bennett went bankrupt. [One main clause and one dependent clause beginning with the subordinating conjunction although] Compound-complex sentences have at least two main clauses and at least one dependent clause. If they wish to live fully, most people need amusement to relax, and many people need intellectual challenges to develop their minds. [Two main clauses joined by a comma and the coordinating conjunction and and one dependent clause beginning with the subordinating conjunction if] Sentence Purposes A declarative sentence makes a statement. Spelunking requires the skill of a mountain climber and the courage of a coal miner. An imperative sentence gives a command or makes a request. Don't wall; on the grass. 474 Sentence Patterns 5 —a— Please stay off the grass. (See implied subject, 68a.) An interrogative sentence asks a question. Which point of view is most valid? An exclamatory sentence expresses strong feeling. The mountains are glorious! Exercise 71.1: Sentence Structure and Purpose Write sentences according to the following directions. 1. Write a simple, declarative sentence that states a fact about your campus. 2. Using the coordinating conjunction or, write a compound sentence about a friend. 3. Write an interrogative sentence directed to a politician. 4. Write a declarative compound-complex sentence directed to a parent. 5. Write an imperative sentence that gently directs a child. 6. Write a complex sentence that deals with a foreign country. 7. Using a semicolon, write a compound sentence that deals with a sports event. 8. Using who, write a compound-complex sentence describing a friend. 9. Write a series of three simple sentences followed by a complex-sentence that deals with a subject you read about in a newspaper. 10. Using a variety of sentence structures, describe a place that is important to you. Identify each sentence as simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex. Sentence Patterns 475 I am a writer. And by that definition, J am someone who has always loved language. I am fascinated by language in daily life. I spend a great deal of my time thinking about the power of language—the way it can evoke an emotion, a visual image, a complex idea, or a simple truth. Language is the tool of my trade. And I use them all—all the Englishes 1 grew up with. —Amy Tan, novelist 1 Omitted Words Noun Markers mm® wsv. Present and Past Participles 477 Do Not Omit Expletives, Subjects, or Verbs Are three chapters to read this week has a common second language error. The writer left out a word, the expletive there. Corrected, the sentence should read, There are three chapters to read this week. English does not allow you to omit expletives, subjects, or verbs. English does allow you to omit you in commands—that is, when you is understood: Read the directions with care. If your first language allows for these omissions, stay alert! Acceptable omissions in your first language may not be acceptable in English. I u ❖ Worry about my life span because I smoke. is <#• Cultural knowledge^important. Jorge Lopez^studied karate, broke a brick with a hand. An expletive, there or it, may be required in sentences where the subject follows the verb. w J^easy to make mistakes. ikere ❖ Children believe^are scary creatures in the night. Remember, is, are, was, or were cannot begin a clause unless the clause is a question, such as Are you awake?, or an exclamation, such as Was I sick! Read the following paragraph. Find the missing subjects and verbs and add them to the text. Government loans to college students the lowest in ten years. The president very concerned. Appointed a committee to investigate falling income. Will not meet until next September. The president unhappy about the slow start. Is one 478 Omitted Words 3 of the problems the president promised to solve during his campaign. Are thousands of needy students in the United States cannot afford a college education. Are unhappy about this problem. Is little hope. Seems to be an unfair policy. Use Noun Markers English nouns frequently have markers. Noun markers are words indicating a noun is coming {though the noun might not be the next word). The command Read stories is wrong, unless the writer means all stories, which would not make much sense. Corrected, it would read, Read the stories. articles numbers possessive nouns possessive pronouns other pronouns common noun markers a car; the car; an automobile 12 cats; seven dogs Van's stories; China's goal my, our, your, his, her, its, their all, every, any, each, either, neither, few, many, more, most, this, that, these, those, much, several, some, whose Other words may be placed between the marker and the noun. The shiny new motorcycle belongs to her. Twelve white ducks swim in the lake. Jons hopeless whining gets nothing done. Her demanding schedule is exhausting. Of all the noun markers, articles (a, an, the) can be troublesome. Definite Article: the Use the before nouns that are specifically identified. Wear the boots you bought in Santa Fe. Noun Markers 479 war;' i Raul had the most interesting performance. The sun rose at six. A careful reading of the examples above shows that each noun in question is specifically identified by the context. I couldn't find the reason for the computer error no matter how hard I tried. After I read the manual the reason became clear. At first the reason is unidentified, so you could use the indefinite article a. But reason is identified when the writer mentions it the second time; it is the specific reason that the writer found that caused the computer error. Because it is used only with nouns specifically identified, the should not be used with plural or noncount nouns when the meaning conveyed is generally or all 4* The cost of printing the magazines is usually paid for by advertising revenue. 4- Health magazines report studies about drinking the coffee. Generally, do not use the with proper nouns. Proper nouns name people, places, and things: Leslie Woo, Mexico, Anaheim Stadium. There are exceptions. Some plural proper nouns naming places, such as the Pyrenees, the Sierra Ncvadas, the Alps, the Great Lakes, take the definite article. Furthermore, some countries have an official name that may take the and a shorter, more commonly used name that does not take the. formal name the Italian Republic the Commonwealth of Australia the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan the Principality of Liechtenstein common name Italy Australia Jordan Liechtenstein In all these cases the article the is used with the descriptive portion of the name, republic, commonwealth, kingdom, principality, states, but not with the actual name. Indefinite Articles: a, an Use the indefinite article a or an for singular count nouns not specifically identified. 480 Noun Markers Most nouns refer to things that can be counted, such as one horse, three cars, five dollars. Some nouns refer to things that can't be counted, such as news, fog, sand. If a singular count noun is not specifically identified, use a or an. Apple started a revolution in personal computers. Deacon has an interesting insect collection. Which should you use, a or an? That depends on the sound of the word following the article. Use a before consonant sounds and an before vowel sounds. a rabbit an umbrella an awkward rabbit a blue umbrella A word beginning with the letter h may have either an initial consonant sound if it is aspirated (hole) or an initial vowel sound if it is not aspirated {heiress). a hand an hour Don't use a and an with plural nouns. ❖ Mariko borrowed money to cover-aa-expenses. O The exhibit consisted of-a-hastily arranged groupings of native costumes. Generally, don't use a and an with noncount nouns. Teresa wrote on pollution. While you are shopping, please get coffee and soap. Generally, use an article when you show a particular amount of a noncount noun by placing a count noun first and using of. a bag of rice a pile of sand Exercise 73.1: In the following paragraph, determine if an article should be used in a space, and if so, which article—a, an, or the. -----hundred years ago, human beings lived average of forty-five years. Then came_flush toilet. Invented by Thomas Crapper in 1860,_toilet has been "_biggest variable in_extending life span," Noun Markers according to Professor Gary Ruvkun, Harvard University. geneticist at In the remainder of the paragraph, determine where articles should be added or deleted. Human wastes in water can transmit the cholera, diarrhea, and salmonellosis. In developing world, where only 34 percent of population has access to the toilets, life spans can be up to 30 years less than average in the industrialized countries. Use Correct Verb Combinations Van have taken three tests, but only two are difficult, has a common second language error: The writer has not used a correct verb combination. Corrected, the sentence would read, Van has taken three tests, but only two were difficult. Helping Verbs. English sentences often require combinations of helping verbs and main verbs. Helping verbs appear before main verbs. Some main verbs will not be complete without helping verbs. & The mail arrive soon. There are twenty-three helping verbs. Nine are called modals; they work only as helping verbs. The others, which are forms of do, have, and be, can also work as main verbs. helping verbs Three forms of do: do, does, did Three forms of have: have, has, had All forms of be: be, is, was, were, are, am, been, being Modals; can, could, may, might, must, shall, should, will, would After a modal or do, does, did, use a plain verb. may dance do swim might fly does feel should bring did hurt 3 5 3 9 fc IT »■ 0- B: ❖ My Web page may expands1 my clientele. Your answer does not convinced me. ❖ Did you finished*your projects? After have, has, had, use the past participle to form the perfect tense, have driven has contributed had slept £&d&\ 4- Those hungry guys must have eat the leftovers. ❖ Julia has accomplisffnothing this weekend. ❖ Luis had finish^his sculpture just in time. After the helping verbs is, was, were, are, am, use a present participle to form one of the progressive tenses. is going are studying was swimming am thinking were eating 4 Jason was worked-on his car. Be and been must be preceded by other helping verbs and followed by a present participle to form one of the progressive tenses. can or could be may, might, or must be shall or should be will or would be has, have, or had been can or could have been may, might, or must have been shall or should have been will or would have been utit ^ RodAbe leaving soon. * Minh^been studying late. After the helping verbs is, was, were, are, am, use a past participle to form the passive voice. is repeated 482 Verb Combinations was thrown were submitted Verb Combinations 483 are appreciated am assisted a The truth is revealAin strange ways. Be, been, and being must be preceded by other helping verbs and followed by a past participle to form the passive voice. is, was, were, arc, or am being can or could be may, might, or must be shall or should be will or would be can have or could have been may have, might have, or must have been shall have or should have been will have or would have been 4- My dog may have been saveoy its veterinarian. 4- The photos were being mounfln the albums. Intransitive verbs, those expressing action with no direct object, cannot be used in the passive voice. The actor was grinned broadly. Exercise 74.1: Correct Verb Forms Identify the correct verb form for each set of verbs in the following sentences. 1. Scientists (have studied, have study) the effects of exercise on people for years. 2. Information, which (was release, was released) in August, indicates that exercise (is contributing, is contributes) to a longer life expectancy. 3. Further research on exercise suggests that some older people (be coping, may be coping) with mental disorders better because of daily exercise. 4. Unfortunately, many residential communities for the elderly (do not offer, do not offering) enough exercise classes. 3 5. Now the National Institutes of Health (is encourage, is encouraging) more organized exercise programs across the nation. Phrasal Verbs Phrasal verbs combine a verb with a preposition or an adverb. Often phrasal verbs have both idiomatic and literal meaning. For example, look up may literally mean focus on something above you or it may idiomatically mean search for information. Phrasal verbs are either separable or nonseparable depending on whether an object can be inserted between the verb and die particle. Clean up, for example, can be separable phrasal verb, as in This weekend 1 will clean the house up. Generally, phrasal verbs have been common in informal writing, but now they are appearing more frequently in formal writing. Phrasal verbs must be learned in context. Nevertheless, the following list will help you understand phrasal verbs. Nonseparable phrasal verbs are marked [N]. common phrasal verbs ask out (ask for a date) bring up (mention casually; raise a child) call off (cancel) call up (call on a telephone) come across [N] (meet or find unexpectedly) drop in or drop by [N] (visit unannounced) drop off (leave someone or something at a place) fill out (complete a form) get along with [N] (have a comfortable relationship) get over [N] (recover from something) give up (stop trying) go over [N] (review) hand in (submit) help out (assist) keep on (continue) leave out (omit) make up (become friendly again; do past work; invent) pass away [N] (die) point out (call attention to) put away (store; lock up; drink heavily) put off {postpone, avoid) run out of [N] (have no more) take off {leave; remove something) take over (control; take charge) turn down (reject) wrap up (complete) 484 Verb Combinations Verb Combinations 485 When the direct object is a pronoun, a phrasal verb must be separated. ❖ I will help|out|him|with biology. Decide which phrasal verb, similar in meaning to the verb in brackets, should be used in the following paragraph. Artists must [submit] their entries for the exhibit by Friday, but they are always late. Most artists [postpone] creating their work until the last minute. By starting so late, they cannot [complete] a painting or sculpture on time. Too often judges [reject] late entries. Artists often [invent] dramatic excuses for being late. Last year, one artist actually said, "The dog ate it." Verbs Followed by Gerunds and Infinitives Some verbs may be followed by gerunds but not infinitives. Some may be followed by infinitives but not gerunds. Some may be followed by either gerunds or infinitives. A gerund ends in -ing and functions as a noun, such as cooking, studying, painting. An infinitive consists of a verb's plain form usually preceded by to: to attend, to believe, to convince. verb with gerund verb with infinitive Did he me/ition running in Mason Park? This light is guaranteed to work fifteen hours on two batteries. Verbs Followed by Gerunds But Not Infinitives 9 admit discuss mind recall appreciate enjoy miss resent avoid escape postpone resist consider finish practice risk —- delay imagine put off suggest deny mention quit tolerate — Authorities will not tolerate writing on buildings. >rbs Followed by Infinitives B ut Not Gerunds afford demand hope pretend agree deserve learn promise re- appear endeavor manage refuse ask expect mean (intend) seem are fail need threaten claim guarantee offer wait choose happen plan want decide hesitate prepare wish Some verbs followed by an infinitive must have a noun or pronoun between the verb and the infinitive, such as advise, allow, cause, caution, challenge, condemn, convince, dare, direct, encourage, forbid, invite, permit, persuade, require, teach, tell, warn. I urge you to enter the race. William advised Nona to avoid the park after dark. Some verbs may be followed directly by an infinitive or may have a noun or pronoun between them and an infinitive, such as ask, expect, need, want. I want to dance until midnight. 1 wmf you to dance with me until midnight. Verbs Followed by Gerunds or Infinitives bear begin hate intend continue deserve read prefer regret like love neglect stop try remember start can't bear can't stand The institute will start researching the effects of laughter. The institute has started to research the effects of laughter. 486 Verb Combinations Complete the following sentences with a gerund or an infinitive. 1. Counselors want students [understand] course requirements. 2. They want students [study] the course catalog. 3. They also suggest [examine] and [memorize] college department requirements. 4. Moreover, counselors caution students not [ignore] [read] the detailed requirements for graduation. 5. The Advisory Office would appreciate [know] each student's graduation plans. Verb Combinations 487 -4- - ■ Delete Faulty Repetitions Childhood it is the lending cause of stress among children has a common second language error. The writer has unnecessarily referred to childhood with the pronoun it. Corrected, the sentence would read, Childhood is the lending cause of stress among children. Reread your sentences carefully. Delete any words that unnecessarily refer to or repeat other words in a sentence. Driving-this is my favorite method of travel. The slim woman with short hair-she is my doctor. Professor Park, who lectured on Korea, she used humor to make her points. That was the year when we graduated then. The party will be held in the restaurant where we held the graduation dinner -there. Carl's business trip was made miserable by the clients whom he was visiting with -them. 488 Faulty Repetitions tV.1 Draw a line through the unnecessary words in the following resentences. 1. The Statue of Liberty, which is located in New York harbor, it was given to the United States by France. 2. A love letter was on the front seat of Tom's Honda where it would be easily found there. 3. The sun it was so hot the sand sizzled. 3 ,0 S o 0 3 3 4. The game occurred on Saturday when thousands of people were at home then. 5. Six people they were honored, and more than fifty they were mentioned. Use Present and Past Participles Correctly The interesting events interested TV viewers shows how forms of a plain verb can be used as an adjective and main verb. But when you use the present or past participles of a plain verb as an adjective, be sure to do so correctly. Present participles, such as moving, running, dancing, flying, and past participles, such as moved, ran, danced, flew, when used as adjectives may precede the noun they modify, or they may follow a linking verb, such as forms of to he {am, are, is, was, were). Present Participle Used as an Adjective We saw an interesting movie. The movie we saw was interesting. Past Participle Used as an Adjective All interested people should attend the debate. No one interested in buying my car has called. As you can see from the examples above, the present participle describes the ag°nt causing the feeling or reaction {movie was interesting), and the past participle describes the person or thing having the feeling or reaction {interested people). In your writing, use the proper participle form for verbs such as these: amazing, amazed amusing, amused annoying, annoyed boring, bored confusing, confused depressing, depressed disturbing, disturbed embarrassing, embarrassed exciting, excited exhausting, exhausted fascinating, fascinated frightening, frightened interesting, interested shocking, shocked surprising, surprised thrilling, thrilled Present and Past Participles 489 2 Sometimes writers make the mistake of unnecessarily repeating a verb form. They mistakenly use the present participle as an adjective and a past participle of the same verb as the main verb. ❖ The exeiting movie excited us. Exercise 76.1: Using Participles Correctly Identify the correct participle for each sentence. 1. People across the country were (shocking, shocked) by the news of the explosion in Oklahoma City. 2. The news on television showed how (frightening, frightened) and (confusing, confused) everyone was. 3. The death and destruction left the residents of the Oklahoma City area very (depressing, depressed). 4. However, the rescue of victims who had been trapped for hours was (amazing, amazed), and people were (thrilling, thrilled) to learn that some people survived. 5. Even though the emotional response of people around the nation was strong, nothing could relieve the families of victims, who were (grieving, grieved) over their losses. a' a IB ii it iat a H Glossary of Usage Glossary of Grammatical Terms 490 Present and Past Participles The entries in this glossary are words and phrases that frequently cause problems for inexperienced writers. Based on recent editions of dictionaries and usage guides, the suggestions for standard written English included in this glossary represent current practice among experienced writers. You should avoid using words and phrases labeled nonstandard, and use entries labeled colloquial sparingly and with care. They are used primarily in informal speech and writing and, therefore, are usually inappropriate in college and business writing. a, an Use a before a consonant sound, an before a vowel sound. a history a university a one o'clock meeting a C an hour an undertow an orphan an F aggravate Aggravate means "make worse." In writing it should not be used in its colloquial meaning of "irritate" or "annoy." agree to, agree with Agree to means "consent to" a plan or proposal. Agree with means "be in accord with" a person or group. ain't Nonstandard for am not or arert't. all right All right is always two words. Alright is a misspelling. al! together, altogether All together means "in a group," "gathered in one place," or "in unison." Altogether means "wholly" or "completely." They made the jungle trek all together rather than in small groups. I did not altogether approve of the plan. allusion, illusion An allusion is a reference to something. An illusion is a deceptive appearance. Dr. Conn fills his lectures with classical allusions. Despite the hard facts, she clings to her illusion of true love. a lot A lot is always written as two words. Abt is a common misspelling. among, between Among is used to refer to three or more people or things. Between is used with two people or things. Half the treasure was divided between the captain and the ship's owner, the other half among the crew. Sometimes between is used with more than two if the relationship concerns individual members of the group with each other. The treaty between the five countries guarantees access to deep water ports. amount, number Amount refers to a quantity of something that cannot be counted: Buying a house like that requires a large amount of money. Number refers to things that can be counted: The number of students living in dormitories increased by 15% Inst year. an See a, an. and etc. Et cetera (etc.) means "and so forth"; and etc., therefore, is redundant. 492 Glossary of Usage Si. and/or A legalism that many people consider awkward in college and business writing. anxious, eager Anxious means "nervous" or "worried." Eager means "enthusiastically anticipating something." 1 am eager to start the trip across the desert but anxious about the weather. anyone, any one Anyone means "any person at all." Any one refers to a particular person or thing in a group. Similar definitions apply to everyone, every one, someone, someone. Anyone with the price of membership am join. Any one of the seniors might have started the brawl. anyplace Colloquial for anywhere. anyways, anywheres Nonstandard for anyway and anywhere. as Avoid using as for because, since, while, whether, and who. Because [not as] the firm is almost bankrupt, buying a computer is out of the question. We doubt whether [not as] they can continue. as, like See like, as, as if, as though. awful An overused word for bad, shocking, ugly. Colloquially, awful substitutes for intensiliers meaning "very" or "extremely." awhile, a while Awhile is an adverb. A while is an article and a noun. Awhile, therefore, can modify a verb hut cannot serve as an object of a preposition. After six hours on the road, they rested awhile. After six hours on the road, they rested for a while. bad, badly Bad is an adjective and should be used in formal writing to modify nouns and as a predicate adjective after linking verbs. Badly should be used only as an adverb. The doctor felt bad. The tenor sang badly. being as, being that Colloquial for because. Because [ not Being that] the sun has risen each morning of your life, you may expect it to rise tomorrow. beside, besides Beside means "next to." Besides means "except" and "in addition." The ohh:r sister stood beside iter father. Besides one stranger, only relatives were on the bus. between See among, between. bring, take Use bring to carry something from a farther place to a nearer one. Use take to carry something from a nearer place to a farther one. Take these pages to the printer and bring me yesterday's batch. bunch Bunch should not be used to refer to a crowd or group of people or things. Reserve it to refer to things that grow fastened together, such as grapes and bananas. burst, bursted, bust, busted The verb burst means "fly apart," and its principal parts are hurst, burst, burst. The past tense bursted is nonstandard. Bust and busted are considered slang, so they are inappropriate in college or business writing. Glossary of Usage 493 can, mav Can indicates ability, and may indicates permission. Colloquially, can is used in both senses. /// may use the car, I believe I can reach the stare before it closes. center around Center on is more accurate than center around, climactic, climatic Climactic refers to a climax. Climatic refers to climate. compare to, compare with Compare to means "regard as similar." Compare with means "examine for similarities or differences." The boy compared his father's bald head to tin egg. The investigator compared the facts of the Rincman case with the facts of the Billings incident. continual, continuous Continual means "often repeated." Continuous means "unceasing" or "without a break." My afternoons are continually intcr-rupted by telephone calls. The waves lap continuously at the share. convince, persuade Careful writers use convince when someone changes his or her opinion. They use persuade when someone is moved to take action. The attorney convinced several students that capital punishment is Unmoral. The attorney persuaded several students to demonstrate against capital punishment. could of Nonstandard for could have. credible, creditable, credulous Credible means "believable." Creditable means "praiseworthy." Credulous means "inclined to believe just about anything." Hitchcock's fantastic stories are hardly credible; nevertheless, as a director he got creditable performances from his actors regardless of whether or not the audience was credulous. criteria, data, phenomena Criteria is the plural form of criterion. Careful writers use criteria only in the plural sense. The criteria were so ill phrased that they were hard to apply. Data and phenomena are plurals of datum and phenomenon, respectively. They should be treated as plural forms. New data suggest the drug is harmful Todays uuexplaiuable phenomena are tomorrow's scientific explanations. data See criteria, data, phenomena. deal Colloquial and overused for bargain, transaction, or business transaction. differ from, differ with Differ from means "be unlike." Differ with means "disagree." different from, different than Different from is idiomatic and widely accepted. Different than is acceptable when it precedes a clause. An elephant is different from a mastodon. Paris was different than I had expected. disinterested, uninterested Disinterested means "impartial." Uninterested means "bored" or "indifferent." don't Don't is a contraction of do not and should not be used for docs not, whose contraction is doesn't. Although the performance doesn't begin for an hour, I still don't think Bernice will be ready. 494 Glossary of Usage SO 0 3 3 due to Many people object to the use of due to as a preposition that means "because of or "owing to." The class was canceled because ol [not due to\ taw enrollment. Due to is acceptable when used as a subject complement. In this position it usual]}' follows a form of be. His unpredictable behavior is due to alcohol eager See anxious, eager. enthused Colloquial for "showing enthusiasm." The preferred adjective is enthusiastic. etc. See. and etc. everyday, every day Everyday is an adjective meaning "used daily" or "common" and is always written as a single word. These are my everyday shoes. Even' day is composed of the noun day and the adjective even- and is always written as two words. / leave campus ever}' day at 3 p.m. everyone, every one See anyone, any one. everywheres Nonstandard for ei'erywhere. everywhich way Colloquial for in every direction or in disorder. expect Colloquial when used to mean "suppose" or "believe." 1 suppose [not expect] the Reynolds clan is still squabbling about the settlement of the will. explicit, implicit Explicit means "expressed directly or precisely." Implicit means "expressed indirectly or suggested." The threat was explicit—"I'll break your nose!" Although his voice was gentle, his body carried an implicit threat. farther, further Farther refers to actual distance. Further refers to additional time, amount, or other abstract matters. / cannot walk any farther. Further encouragement is useless. fewer, less Fewer refers to items that can be counted. Less refers to a collective quantity that cannot be counted. The marsh has fewer ducks living in it, but it also has less water to support them. finalize Avoid using finalize for the verb complete. former, latter Former refers to the first named of two things or people. Latter refers to the second of two' named. First and last are used to refer to items in a series of three or more. Gina and Jase are very successful; the former is a dentist, the latter a poet. Jogging, biking, and swimming require tremendous endurance; the last_ requires the most. further See farther, further. get A common verb used in many colloquial and slang expressions. Get wise, her prattling gets me, and the like. Using get in such ways is inappropriate in college and business writing. Glossary of Usage 495 goes Nonstandard when used instead of says or said to introduce a quotation. It should not be used to indicate speech. He said [not goes], "Leave me alone." good, well Good is an adjective; well is an adverb. Dr. Hunato is a good golfer. She strokes the ball well. Well should be used to refer to health. You look well [not good]. Are you feeling well [not good]? had ought, hadn't ought Nonstandard for ought and ought not. half Half a or a halfis appropriate, but a half a is redundant. We drank half a [not a halfa\ gallon of soda. herself, himself See myself, herself, himself, itself, yourself hisself Nonstandard for himself hopefully Hopefully means "with hope." They prayed hopefully for the blizzard to slop. Hopefully is used colloquially to mean "it is hoped" in place of 7 hope; however, 1 hope is preferred in college and business writing. 1 hope [rather than Hopeftdly] the blizzard will stop. illusion See allusion, illusion. implicit See explicit, implicit. imply, infer Imply means "suggest." Infer means "conclude." living implied that he had studied for the quiz, bur I inferred that he was unprepared. in, into In indicates a location or position. Into indicates movement or change. Bcata is in_ the study with a clair\>oyanu who is in a trance. I must go into Murkwood, but I don't want to fall into danger. Into has also come colloquially to mean "interested in" or "involved in" something, which is an inappropriate use in college and business writing. My brother is interested in [not into] restoring Victorian houses. individual, party, person Individual should be used to refer to a single human being when expressing that person's unique qualities. Each individual has a right to pursue his or her interests within the law. When not emphasizing unique qualities, use person. A romantic person will love the Austrian country-side. Except in legal documents, use party to refer to a group. VV7io is the missing person [not: party]! infer See imply, infer. in regards to Nonstandard for in regard to or regarding. into See in, into. irregardless Nonstandard for regardless. is because See reason is because. is when, is where A common predication error in sentences that define. "Bandwagon" is a propaganda device by which [not is when or is where] advertisers urge consumers to become one of the millions buying their products. 496 Glossary of Usage fcu/» ' * w -- fe.- ■ % * & kind, sort, type These are singular words and take singular modifiers and verbs. This kind of butterfly is rare in North America. When referring to more than one thing, kind, sort, and type must be made plural and then take plural modifiers and verbs. These kinds of butterflies are rare in North America. kind of, sort of Colloquial when used to mean somewhat or rather. The picnic was rather [not sort of] dull. lay See lie, lay. learn, teach Learn means "acquire knowledge." Teach means "dispense knowledge." I must teach [not learn] the children better manners. leave, let Leave means "go away." Let means "allow" or "permit." Let_ [not leave] me finish the job. The firm should have lei [not Ml\ her resign. less See fewer, less. let See leave, let. liable See likely, liable. lie, lay These verbs are often confused. Lie means "recline," and lay means "place," In part, they seem to be confusing because the past tense of lie is the same as the present tense of lay. lie ("recline") lie lay lain lying lay ("place"] lay laid laid laying Lay (meaning "place") is also a transitive verb and as such takes an object. Don't forget to lay the book on my desk. Today I laid the tile, and tomorrow I'll be laying the carpet. Lie (meaning "recline") is intransitive and as such never takes an object. The book lay on my desk for weeks. I can't waste time lying in bed; I've lain there long enough. like, as, as if, as though Like is a preposition and introduces a prepositional phrase. As, as if, and as though usually function as subordinating conjunctions and introduce dependent clauses. In college and business writing, do not use like as a subordinating conjunction. The sky looks as if [not like] the end of the world is near. like, such as When introducing a representative series, use such as. To make a direct comparison with an example, use like. The 1980s produced some powerful hitters in tennis, such as Borg, Connors, and McEnroe, but I want to play a game of strategy like Vilas. likely, liable Likely is used to express probability. Liable is used to express responsibility or obligation. She is likely to finish the project before the weekend. Mr. Wert is liable for his son's destructive behavior. lots, lots of Colloquial tax a great deal, much, or plenty. Glossary of Usage 497 may See can, may. may be, maybe May be is a verb phrase, and maybe is an adverb meaning "perhaps." may of Nonstandard for may have. media, medium Media is the plural form of medium. Use plural modifiers and plural verbs with media. These kinds of mass media—television, radio, newspaper—influence our emotional attitudes. might of Nonstandard for might have. most Colloquial when used for almost. must of Nonstandard for must have. myself, herself, himself, itself, yourself These and other -self pronouns are reflexive or intensive—that is, they refer to or intensify a noun or another pronoun in a sentence. The family members disagree among themselves, but 1 myself know how the inheritance should be divided. Colloquially these pronouns are often used in place of personal pronouns in prepositional phrases. This use is inappropriate in college and business writing, None of the team except you {not yourself] has learned to rappel. no way Nonstandard for no. nowhere near Colloquial for not nearly. Brytan's game is not nearly J not nowhere near] as good as Schrup's. nowheres Nonstandard for nowhere. number See amount, number. OK, O.K., oka)' All are acceptable spellings, but avoid using them in college and business writing. party See individual, party, person. people, persons People refers to a collective mass and emphasizes faceless anonymity. Persons refers to individuals who make up the group and emphasizes separate identity. People surged into the convention hall. Several persons angrily denounced the membership's reluctance to act. percent, percentage Both percent and percentage reter to numbers and should be used only in references to actual statistics. Avoid using them to replace the word pari. The major pari ] not percent] of my trouble is caused by mismanagement. Percent is always preceded by a number (60 percent; 45 percent), and percentage follows an adjective (a major percentage). In format writing percent should always be written out (not %). person See individual, part)', person. persons See people, persons. persuade See convince, persuade. Glossary of Usage 3 phenomena, phenomenon See criteria, data, phenomena. plus Nonstandard for moreover. Nguyen Enterprises has a fine economic future; moreover [not phis], it ojfers young executives many tax-Jree perquisites. raise, rise Two commonly confused verbs. Raise (raising, raised, raised), meaning "force something to move upward," is a transitive verb and takes a direct object. Rise f rising, rose, risen), meaning "go up," is an intransitive verb. When the subject oi a verb is being forced to move upward, use a form of raise. Increasing the interest rate will raise monthly mortgage payments. When the subject of a verb is itself moving upward, use a form of roe. Unsteadily the ailing man rose from the chair. real, really Real is an adjective; really is an adverb. The linebacker was really [not real] tough to block. reason is because Use that instead of because in the phrase reason is because, or rewrite the sentence. The reason the MC stalled is that j not is because] the oil had leaked from the craukcase. respectfully, respectively Respectfully means "with respect" or "showing respect." Respectively means "each in the order given." He respectfully expressed his opposition to the plan. The Collector, The Optimist's Daughter, and The Human Comedy were written by John Fowles, Eudora Welty, and William Saroyan, respectively. rise See raise, rise. says, said See goes. sensual, sensuous Sensual refers to pleasures of the body, especially sexual pleasures. Sensuous refers to pleasures perceived by the senses. The poet's sensual desires led him to create the sensuous images readers find in his work. set, sit Two commonly confused verbs. Set (setting, set, set), meaning "put or place," is a transitive verb and takes a direct object. Sit (sitting, sat, sat), meaning "be scared," is an intransitive verb. When you mean "put something down," use a form of set. Ralph set the paint beyond the child's reach. When you refer to being seated, use a form of sit. Don't sit in the wet paint. shall, will Shall, which was once used to form the simple future tense in the first person, has been replaced by will, I will deal with him later. In first-person questions that request an opinion, shall is the correct form to use. Shall 1 march? Shall we strike? should, would Use should when expressing a condition or obligation. Use would when expressing a wish or customary action. If they should appear, you must be prepared lo battle. He would nap each afternoon when he was on vacation. should of Nonstandard for should have, sit See set, sir. Glossary of Usage 499 someone See anyone, any one. sort Sec kind, sort, type. sort of See kind of, sort of. such lis See like, such as. sure Colloquial when used as an adverb for surely or certainly. Bantett surely [not sure] was correct in his cast estimate. sure and, sure to, try and, try to Sure to and try to are the preferred forms. Tiy to (not fry and\ attend. than, then Than functions as a conjunctive used in comparisons, then as an adverb indicating time. / would rather be in class than [not then] at work. that, which That always introduces a restrictive clause. IV7iic/j may introduce a restrictive clause or a nonrestrictive clause. Many writers prefer to use which to introduce only nonrestrictive clauses. This is the class that requires six outside reports. This class, which requires six outside reports, meets once a week. theirseJves Nonstandard for themselves. then See ffmii, then. try and, try to See sure and, sure to, ityand, try to. uninterested See disinterested, uninterested. use to, suppose to Sometimes carelessly written for used to and supposed to. wait for, wait on Wait for means "await." Wait on means "serve." ways Use way when referring to distance. The trout stream is only a little way [not ways] from here. well See good, well. which See that, which. which, who Never use which to refer to people. Use who or that to refer to people and which or dun to refer to things. who, whom Use the relative pronoun who to refer to subjects and subject complements; use the relative pronoun whom to refer to the object of the verb or preposition. The award was given to the person who deserwd it. The award was given to whom? will Sue shall, will would See should, would. yourself See myself herself, himself, itself, yourself. 500 Glossary of Usage Glossary of Grammatical Terms absolute phrase A phrase that modifies a whole clause or sentence rather than a single word and is not joined to the rest of the sentence by a connector. It consists of a noun and a participle: Hands trembling, she opened the envelope. Our original plan looks best, all things considered. See phrases; also 69f, 37h. abstract noun See noun, active voice See voice. adjective A word used to modify a noun or pronoun. It tells what kind, how many, or which one: Careless drivers must attend seven hours of that class. A predicate adjective follows a linking verb and describes the subject of the sentence: The speaker was nervous. See also 68f. adjective clause A dependent clause that modifies a noun or a pronoun. See clause adjective phrase Any phrase that modifies a noun or pronoun. See phrase. adverb A word used to modify a verb, an adjective, another adverb, or a whole phrase, clause, or sentence. Adverbs tell how, when, where, or to what extent. He speaks hurriedly. [Hurriedly modifies speaks by telling how.] She was never ambitious. [Never modifies ambitious by telling when.] Our dog wanders everywhere. [Everywhere modifies wanders by telling where.] He is quite easily confused. [Quite modifies easily by telling to what extent. | See also 67e. adverb clause A dependent clause that modifies a verb, an adjective, another adverb, or a whole clause. See clause. adverbial conjunction See conjunctive adverb. adverb phrase Any phrase used as an adverb. See phrase. agreement The correspondence in person, number, and gender between two words. A verb must agree with its subject in person and number. A pronoun must agree with its antecedent in person, number, and gender. A demonstrative adjective (this, that, these, those) must agree with its noun in number. See also gender, person, number; also Chapters 29, 30. antecedent The word or group of words that a pronoun refers to. When Stacy graduated, she immediately took a job in New York. [Stacy is the antecedent of the pronoun she.] See also Chapter 30. appositive A noun or group of words used as a noun, placed next to a noun or pronoun to explain, describe, or identify it: The lawyer, a Howard graduate, easily won her first case. Most appositives are nonrestrictive and are set off with commas. See also 69b, 38c. article The is a definite article. A and an are indefinite articles. Articles are classed as adjectives. See also 67d. Glossary of Grammatical Terms 501 auxiliary verb See helping verb. case The form of nouns and pronouns classified according to bow they function in a sentence. English lias three cases: the subjective to indicate the subicct of a verb or a subject complement; the objective to indicate the objeci of a verb, verbal, or preposition; and the possessive to indicate ownership. Nouns and most pronouns change form only in the possessive case {cathedral's, evenvne's). All other uses require only the plain form {cathedral, everyone). The personal pronouns /, we, he, site, and they and the relative or interrogative pronoun who have three case forms. The personal pronouns you and /f have a separate possessive form. See also 49b. clause A group of words that has a subject and a predicate. A main (independent} clause forms a grammatically complete sentence: He ran all (he way to the station. Main clauses can be joined to other main clauses with coordinating conjunctions, conjunctive adverbs, or semicolons. (See 67g, Chapter 39.) Subordinate (dependent) clauses are not sentences and must he joined to a main clause to form a grammatically complete sentence: Although he was rued, he ran all the way to the station. Dependent clauses function as adjectives, adverbs, and nouns. See also Chapter 70. collective noun See noun. comma splice An error occurring when main clauses arc joined only by a comma: Last summer we went camping, everyone laughed at my inability to pilch a tent. See also Chapter 28, 70a. common noun See noun. comparative degree See comparison. comparison Adjectives and adverbs have three forms: the positive degree, which only describes \large]; the comparative degree, which compares two things [larger]; and the superlative degree, which compares three or more things [largest]. See also 23a. complement A word or group of words that completes the meaning of a subject, an object, or a verb. Complements function as direct objects, indirect objects, predicate adjectives, and predicate nominatives: The manager opened the door [direct object]. Please send me a letter [indirect object]. The sea was calm (predicate adjective]. Her father is an account ant [predicate nominative]. Sec also Chapter 6S. complete predicate See predicate. complete sentence See semence. complete subject See subject. compound Words or groups of words of two or more parts functioning as a unit. Compound words: brother-in-law, lifeguard. Compound constructions: Betty ami Joe (compound subject] flew to Chicago. The children giggled and blushed [compound predicate]. See also 68c, 68d. 502 Glossary of Grammatical Terms compound-complex sentence See sentence. compound predicate See compound. compound sentence See sentence. compound subject See compound. concrete noun See »011». conjunction A word that connects and shows the relation between words, phrases, and clauses. Coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, nor, yet, for, and so) connect items of equal grammatical rank: The beauty of the scenery and the friendliness of the people make Britisli Columbia an attractive tourist area. Correlative conjunctions (either.. . or, not only... but also, and so on) are used in pairs: You may choose cither the vase or the picture. Subordinating conjunctions (when, while, if, although, because, and so on) introduce dependent clauses and connect them to main clauses: The carnival activity began when the sun went down. See also 67g. conjunctive adverb An adverb used to connect two main clauses: Susan practiced faithfully; therefore, she improved rapidly. See also 67g. coordinating conjunction See conjunction. correlative conjunction See conjunction. count/noiicount noun Count nouns are nouns that may be used in singular or plural form (e.g., textbook, textbooks; assignment, assignments). Noncoum nouns may be used in singular form only (e.g., advice, homework). See Chapter 73. dangling modifier A modifying phrase or clause that does not sensibly connect to any word in a sentence. See also 2lf. degree See comparison. demonstrative pronoun See pronoun. dependent clause See clause. direct address A noun or pronoun used parenthetically to indicate the person or group spoken to: I believe, friends, that wc will win this election. direct discourse The presentation of the exact words, spoken or written, of another: Steven asked, "U^iere have you been?" Indirect discourse reports the words of another in paraphrase or summary form: Steven wanted to know where we had been. See also 22e. direct object Sec object. double negative Two negative words used in the same construction: / didn't have no reason it? slay home. Double negatives are nonstandard English. The sentence must be revised: 1 didn't have miy_ reason to stay home or I had no reason to stay home. Glossary of Grammatical Terms 503 elliptical construction A construction in which one or more words arc omitted but understood. Bob types faster than Margaret [types]. See also 32c. expletive The word there, here, or it followed by a form of the verb be and used to begin a construction in which the subject follows the verb: It is easy to spend money foolishly. [To spend money foolishly is the subject of isTfSee also 29e. finite verb A verb that makes an assertion about a subject. A finite verb can function as the main (or only) verb in a sentence: On weekends I work in the garden. Gerunds, infinitives, and participles arc nonfinite verbs and cannot function as main verbs in a sentence. See verbals and verbal phrases, 69c and 69d. fragment See sentence fragment. fused sentence An error occurring when main clauses are joined without a coordinating conjunction or semicolon: We traveled to Georgia it was a good trip. Sec also Chapter 28. future perfect tense See tense. future tense See tense. gender The classification of nouns and pronouns as masculine {man, he), feminine (woman, she), or neuter (house, it). See also agreement; Chapter 29. genitive case Same as possessive case. See case. gerund A verbal ending in -ing that functions as a noun. The form of the gerund is the same as that of the present participle. Gerunds may have objects, complements, or modifiers. Cigarette smoking is dangerous to your health. [The gerund smoking is the subject of the sentence. Cigarette modifies the gerund. Dangerous is a predicate adjective complementing the gerund.] See also verbals and verbal phrases, 69c and 69d. gerund phrase See phrase. helping verb A verb used with a main verb to form a verb phrase: Sarah was living in San Francisco at thai time. See also Chapter 33 and 67c. imperative See mood. indefinite pronoun See pronoun. independent clause Same as main clause. See clause. indicative Sec mood. indirect discourse See direct discourse. indirect object See object. infinitive The plain form of a verb, as listed in the dictionary; it usually appears in combination with to to form a verbal that functions as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. Infinitives may have objects, complements, or modifiers. He promised to mow the lawn. [The infinitive phrase to mow the lawn 504 Glossary of Grammatical Terms 4 ■-É. , 3 w « w % in*.. % A— % a fSS).- % w % flu £2t- * if functions as a noun, the direct object of the verb promised. Lawn is the direct object of the infinitive to mow.} See also verbal; 69c. infinitive phrase See phrase. intensive pronoun See pronoun. interjection A word expressing surprise or strong emotion: Oh, here he comes! See also 67h. interrogative pronoun See pronoun. intransitive verb See vert. irregular verb A verb that does not form its past and past participle by adding -d or -erf to the infinitive form: fly, ßew, flown; sink, sank, sunk. See also Chapter 33. linking verb See verb. main clause See clause. misplaced modifier A modifier positioned incorrectly in a sentence. See also Chapter 21. modifier An adjective, an adverb, or a word, phrase, or clause used as an adjective or adverb to limit or qualify another word or group of words. mood The form of a verb indicating a writer's (or speaker's) intent in a sentence. The indicative mood is used for questions and statements of fact or opinion: John is a good student. The imperative mood indicates a command or direction: Be a good student. The subjunctive mood expresses doubt, a condition contrary to fact, or a wish: / wish I were a good student. See also Chapter 34. nominative case Same as subjective case. See case. nonrestrictive element A modifier that is not essential to the meaning of a main clause. Nonrestrictive elements are set off by commas: Mr. Perkins, who retired from the grocer? business last summer, is a noted rose grower. See also 37c. noun A word that names a person, place, thing, or idea. Proper nouns name particular people, places, or things: James Joyce, Chicago, Fenway Park. Common nouns name general classes: athlete, singer, hotel. Abstract nouns name intangible qualities: loyalty, grace, devotion. Concrete nouns name tangible things: desk, snow, glasses. Collective nouns name groups: team, squad, committee. See also 67a. noun clause A dependent clause that functions as a subject, an object, or a complement. See clause. number The indication of singular or plural in the forms of nouns (toy, toys), pronouns (I, we], demonstrative adjectives (this, these), and verbs (cats, eat). See also agreement; Chapters 29, 30. Glossary of Grammatical Terms 505 object A word, phrase, or clause that receives the action of or is affected by a transitive verb, a verbal, or a preposition. A direct object receives the action of a transitive verb or verbal and answers the question What? or Whom?: Stan made money tutoring neighborhood children. {Money is the direct object of the transitive verb make, answering the question What? Children is the direct object of the verbal tutoring, answering the question Whom?) An indirect object indicates to whom or for whom an action is done: J gave David five dollars. \David is the indirect object of the verb gave. Dollars is the direct object.] An object of a preposition is the noun that a preposition relates to the rest of a sentence: Joan sat by the door of the church. [Door is the object of the preposition by; church is the object of the preposition of.] See also 67f, 6Se. objective case See case. parenthetical expression A word, phrase, or clause that interrupts the thought of a sentence. See also 37f, 42a, 44a. participial phrase See phrase. participle A verba! that functions as an adjective, an adverb, or a part of a verb phrase. Present participles end in -ing. Past participles of regular verbs end in -d or ~ed: The light from the floating candles created grotesque shapes on rite dark walls. [The present participle floating is used as an adjective modifv-ing candles.] He ran screaming down the street. |The present participle screaming is used as an adverb modifying ran.) The thief had taken her favortte bracelet. [The past participle taken is used as part of the verb phrase had taken.] See also verbal; 69d. particle Another name for the preposition or adverb portion of a phrasal verb. See phrasal verb. parts of speech The classification of words on the basis of their use in a sentence. The parts of speech are nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. Each part of speech is defined in a separate entry in the glossary. See also Chapter 67. t, passive voice See voice. past participle See participle. * past perfect tense See lost'. ^ past tense See tease. perfect tenses See reuse. "C person The form of pronouns and verbs used to indicate the speaker (first person—lam), the one spoken to (second person—you are), or the one spo-ken about (third person—she is). See also agreement; Chapters 29, 30. personal pronoun See pronoun. phrasal verb Two-word or three-word verb consisting of a verb form plus a preposition or adverb (e.g., look over, put up with). 506 Glo^'7 of Grammatical Terms 1 .3 3 phrase A group of words lacking a subject or a predicate or both and used as a single part of speech. A verb phrase consists of more than one verb: had been talking, was swimming. It functions as a predicate for clauses and sentences: The professor has been lecturing for more than an hour. A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition, its object, and any modifiers: under the house, after the party. It functions as an adjective, adverb, or noun: She wandered w die elm grove beyond the fence. [To the elm grove is used as an adverb modifying wandered; beyond the fence is used as an adjective modifying grove.] An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive, its object, and any modifiers: to hear the peaceful music, to learn I had been selected. It functions as a noun, adjective, or adverb: To see her again was a pleasure. [To see her again is used as a noun, the subject of the sentence.] A participial phrase consists of a participle, its object, and any modifiers: studying all night, glancing through the album. It functions as an adjective or adverb: The man jogging around the track is my brother. [Jogging around the track is used as an adjective modifying man.] A gerund phrase consists of a gerund, its object, and any modifiers. Like participial phrases, gerund phrases use the -ing ending of the verb: watching the birds, hoping for rain. Therefore, they can be distinguished from participial phrases only in the context of a sentence. Gerund phrases function as nouns, fogging around the track is good exercise. IJogg'mg around the track is used as a noun, the subject of the sentence.] An absolute phrase consists of a noun and usually a participle. It modifies a whole clause or sentence. The election being over, the loser pledged support to the winner. See also Chapter 69. positive degree See comparison. possessive case See case. predicate The part of a sentence that tells what the subject did or how it was acted on. A predicate must have a finite verb. The simple predicate is the verb and its helping verbis). The complete predicate is the simple predicate plus any modifiers, objects, and complements. 77ns play should set an attendance record in New York. [Should set is the simple predicate.] See finite verb; also 68b. predicate adjective See adjective; complement. predicate nominative See complement. preposition a word that shows the relation of a noun or a pronoun (the object of the preposition) to some other word in the sentence. See also object; phrase; 67f. prepositional phrase See phrase, 67f. present participle Sec participle. present perfect tense See tense. present tense See tense. principal parts The present, present participle, past, and past participle of a verb: look, looking, looked, looked. See also Chapter 33. Glossary of Grammatical Terms 507 progressive tense See tense. pronoun A word thai takes the place of"a noun. Words that function as pronouns are classified as follows. Personal pronouns: /, you, he, she, it, we, they and their possessive forms, my, mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, its, our, ours, their, tlicirs. Reflexive pronouns: myself, yourself, himself, herself itself, our-selves, yourselves, themselves, which are also sometimes used as intensive pronouns, as in I myself sow it. Relative pronouns: who, whom, that, winch, whose. Interrogative pronouns: who, which, whom, whose, what. Demonstrative pronouns: this, that, these, those. Indefinite pronouns: all, both, few, several, nobody, and so on. See also 67b. proper adjective An adjective derived from a proper noun: French perfume, Orwellian nightmare. See also 48f. proper noun See noun. quotation See direct discourse. reflexive pronoun Sec pronoun. regular verb A verb that forms its past and past participle by adding -d or -cd to the infinitive form: wander, wandered, wandered; scheme, schemed, schemed. See also Chapter 33. relative pronoun See pronoun. restrictive element A modifier that defines or identifies the noun it modifies and is therefore essential to the meaning of the main clause. Restrictive elements are not set off by commas. All students who have successfully completed sixty units may apply for upper-division standing. See also 37c and 38f. run-on sentence See fused sentence. sentence A group of words that contains a subject and a predicate and is not introduced by a subordinating conjunction. Sentences are classified according to their structure. A simple sentence has one main clause: Marin fell asleep. A compound sentence has two or more main clauses: Maria tried to stay awake, but she fell asleep. A complex sentence has one main clause and at least one dependent clause: When Maria lay down to rest, she fell asleep. A compound-complex sentence has two or more main clauses and at least one dependent clause: Maria tried to stay awake because she wanted to study, but she fell asleep. Sentences may also be classified according to their purpose. A declarative sentence makes a statement: I am going home. An imperative sentence gives a command or makes a request: Go home now. An interrogative sentence asks a question: Arc you going home? An explanatory sentence expresses strong feeling: We're going home! See also Chapter 71. sentence fragment A portion of a sentence punctuated as though it were a sentence: Suddenly appearing on the horizon. See also Chapter 27. simple predicate See predicate. simple sentence Sec sentence. 508 Glossary of Grammatical Terms 8 4 simple subject See subject. simple tenses See tense. squinting modifier A modifier placed so it may refer to either a word preceding it or a word following it. See also 21b. subject The part of a sentence that acts, is acted upon, or is described. The simple subject is the essential word or group of words of the complete subject. The complete subject is the simple subject plus its modifiers. A tall, stately gentleman appeared at the door. [Gentleman is the simple subject. A tall, stately gentleman is the complete subject.] Sec also 6Sa. subject complement Sec complement. subjective case See case. subjunctive See mood. subordinate clause Same as dependent clause. See clause. subordinating conjunction See conjunction. superlative degree See comparison. tense The form of a verb and its helping verbs that expresses the verb's relation to time. The simple tenses are present {I laugh, you choose), past (I laughed, you chose), and future (I will laugh, you will choose). The perfect tenses indicate completed action: present perfect (1 have laughed, you have chosen), past perfect (1 had laughed, you had chosen), and future perfect {I will have laughed, you will have chosen). The progressive tense indicates continuing action (7 am laughing, you are choosing). See also Chapter 33. transitive verb Sec verb. verb A word or group of words expressing action or a state of being. A transitive verb expresses action that has an object: She painted a picture. An intransitive verb expresses action that does not have an object: The artist failed. A linking verb expresses a state of being or a condition. It links the subject of a sentence with a complement that identifies or describes the subject: Their laughter was maddening. A verb may be transitive in one sentence and intransitive in another: She paints pictures [transitive]; She paints well [intransitive]. See also 67c; tense, Chapter 33; mood, Chapter 34; voice, Chapter 35. verbal Also called nonfiuitc verb. A form of a verb used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. Gerunds, infinitives, and participles are verbals. Verbals may take objects, complements, and modifiers. A verbal cannot function as the main verb of a sentence. See also gerund; infinitive; participle; phrase, 69c, 69d, 69e. verb phrase Sec phrase. voice The form of a transitive verb that indicates whether the subject acts (active voice) or is acted upon (passive voice). Active voice: Donita wrote a fine research paper. Passive voice: A fine research paper was written by Donita. See also Chapter 35. Glossary of Grammatical Terms 509