CHAPTER
3
Chapter 3 Formats
63
■ References
■ Appendixes
Except for special guidelines from your instructor, follow the directions in this manual exactly.
3.1   GENERAL PAGE FORMAT
Your format makes your paper's first impression. Justly or not, accurately or not, the format of your paper announces the level of your professional competence. A well-executed format implies that your paper is worth reading. More than that, however, a proper format brings information to your readers in a familiar form that has the effect of setting their minds at ease. Your paper's format should impress readers with your academic competence as a sociologist by following accepted professional standards. Like the style and clarity of your writing, format communicates messages that are often more readily and profoundly received than the content of the document itself.
The formats in this chapter are based on those endorsed by the American Sociological Association (ASA) and published in the ASA Style Guide (1997). These formats, structured for use by scholars sending papers to professional journals, conform to standards generally accepted in the discipline of sociology. Chapter 4 offers ASA-approved guidelines and models for citing and referencing sources used in a sociology paper. Unless your course instructor gives you special format instructions, follow the directions in this manual exactly.
This chapter contains format instructions for the following elements:
■ General page format
■ Title page
■ Abstract
■ Executive summary a Outline page
■ Table of contents
■ List of tables and figures a Tables
■ Illustration and figures
■ Text
■ Headings and subheadings
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Sociology assignments should be typed or printed on 8 1/2 x 11 inch premium white bond paper, 20 pound or heavier. Do not use any other color or size except to comply with special instructions from your instructor, and do not use off-white or poor quality (draft) paper. Sociology that is worth the time to write and read is worth good paper.
Always submit to your instructor an original typed or computer-printed manuscript. Do not submit a photocopy! You should make a second copy for your own files in case the original is lost.
Unless your instructor gives special instructions, margins, except for theses and dissertations, should be one inch on all sides of the paper, and all papers should be double-spaced in a word-processing font scaled to 12, or typewriter pica, type. Typewriter elite type may be used if another is not available. Select a font that is plain and easy to read, such as Helvetica, Courier, Garamond, or Times Roman. Do not use script, stylized, or elaborate fonts.
Page numbers should appear in the upper-right-hand corner of each page, starting with the second page of the text and continuing consecutively through the paper. No page number should appear on the title page or on the first page of the text. Page numbers should appear one inch from the right side and one-half inch from the top of the page. You should use lowercase roman numerals (i, iir Hi, iv, v, vi, vii, viii, ix, x, and so on) for the pages, such as the title page, table of contents, and list of figures, that precede the first page of text. These roman numerals should begin with ii for the page that immediately follows the title page, and must be centered one-half inch from the bottom of the page.
Ask your instructor about bindings. In the absence of further directions, do not bind your paper or enclose it within a plastic cover sheet. Place one staple in the upper-left-hand corner, or use a paper clip at the top of the paper. Note that a paper to be submitted to a journal for publication should not be clipped, stapled, or bound in any form.
3.2   TITLE PAGE
This title page format differs slightly from the professional ASA format in order to allow for student information. Student writers should center the following information on the title page:
Title of the paper
Name of student (author)
64 Part I A Handbook of Style for Sociology
■ Course name, number, and section number
■ Instructor
a Name of college or university
■ Date
As the sample title page on page 65 shows, the title should clearly describe the problem addressed in the paper. If the paper discusses juvenile recidivism in Albemarle County jails, for example, the title "Recidivism in the Albemarle County Criminal Justice System" is professional, clear, and helpful to the reader. "Albemarle County," "Juvenile Justice," or "County Jails" are all too vague to be effective. Also, the title should not be "cute." A cute title may attract attention for a play on Broadway, but it will detract from the credibility of a paper in sociological science. "Inadequate Solid Waste Disposal Facilities in Denver" is professional. "Down in the Dumps" is not.
3.3 ABSTRACT_______
An abstract is a brief summary of a paper written primarily to allow potential readers to see if the paper contains information of sufficient interest for them to read. People conducting research want specific kinds of information, and they often read dozens of abstracts looking for papers that contain relevant data. Abstracts have the designation "Abstract" centered near the top of the page. Next is the title, also centered, followed by a summary of the paper's topic, research design, results, and discussion. The abstract should be written in one to three paragraphs totaling approximately 150 to 200 words. Remember, an abstract is not an introduction; instead, it is a brief summary, as demonstrated in the sample on page 66.
3.4   EXECUTIVE SUMMARY_
An executive summary, like an abstract, summarizes the content of a paper but does so in more detail. A sample executive summary follows on pages 67-69. Whereas abstracts are read by people who are doing research, executive summaries are more likely to be read by people who need some or all of the information in the paper in order to make a decision. Many people, however, will read the executive summary to fix clearly in their mind the organization and results of a paper before reading the paper itself.
The length of the executive summary is dictated to some extent by the length of the document being summarized. For example, a 150- to 200-page grant report might be summarized in an 8- to 10-page executive summary, while a 25-page research paper might need only a page or two of summary. The lengthier executive summary might also contain headings and subheadings similar to those used in the actual report. By following the outline of the actual paper, the executive summary serves as a sort of summary of each of the sections in the much lengthier report.
Chapter 3 Formats
65
Sample Tulf Page
Aspects of Social Stratification in the Florida Recount of the 2000 Presidential Election
by
Blake C. Brown
for
Social Stratification 4443 Section 5023 Dr. Chelsea Johnson Cornell University October I, 2004
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Part I A Handbook of Style for Sociology
Chapter 3 Formats
67
jf S\MI'I I. AllSllI XL I
Abstract
Female Body Image: A Multivariate Study
The recent upsurge in eating disorders has been linked to females' assessment of their bodies in relation to society's normative level. Evaluating the variables leading to body dissatisfaction provides information that can help women change their perspective. This study was designed to explore how female body image is associated with their age, self-esteem, locus of control, body ideal, perspective of their current weight, and perspective of men's ideal female body.
The results support the conclusion that the heavier a female perceives her current weight to be, the more negative her body image becomes. The current acceptance of an ideal that is not obtainable by the large majority of females compels women of all ages to strive for unrealistic goals. Women that affiliated their ideal with this reference were significantly less positive about their bodies than those with more reasonable models. The frustration associated with having a body type that yields little hope of achieving the "ideal" may provide a key in understanding how external locus of control was associated with negative body image in this study.
Low self-esteem was also associated with dissenting opinions of body. Negative societal reaction, allied with disapproving attitudes toward the endomor-phic body type, often compels women to acquiesce to the master role of overweight female. This status is associated with an array of venomous characteristics, not the least of which is self-contempt.
Sample Executive Summary
Executive Summary
This summary of a Drug Assessment Study is written for practitioners who deal with drug-involved juvenile offenders repeatedly cycling through detention centers. The assessment process was initiated sometime after they were placed in detention. Two psychologists interviewed 198 youths over a six-month period and recorded the information they obtained on a specially designed "assessment" instrument. They also administered an instrument designed to measure the level of alcohol and other drug use, coupled with an unobtrusive measurement of denial and other underlying manifestations of substance abuse. The results of this study are summarized below.
One important finding had to do with interpersonal relationships. Those who used and abused alcohol and/or other drugs were generally friends of users and abusers. Those who did not use and abuse these substances almost always reported much less association with those who use and abuse drugs. Young people on probation and parole for substance-abuse-related offenses probably should be restrained by the court from association with those who have a serious alcohol and/or drug history.
The findings from this study support the hypothesis that when youths are distanced from the family in terms of communication, feelings, and disorganized relationships, their chances of alcohol and/or other drug involvement increase, at times dramatically. Significant progress in helping delinquents change and adjust might be attained by a serious commitment to family therapy and family development, especially with the cooperation and insistence of the court.
There is good reason to believe that significant differences exist between white and minority families with respect to child-rearing philosophy and practice. If this is true, it may well affect alcohol and/or other drug use, attitudes toward families and school, and other areas of juvenile misbehavior. It would follow that
68 Part I A Handbook of Style for Sociology I    ^ ____________^     Sample KxEaj'nv^j^................................................ \
detention treatment plans, court-ordered probation, and aftercare alternatives should be differentiated, where feasible and legal, to respond to minority families at the point of their needs.
Findings from this study imply that for those youths who come in contact with the juvenile justice system, (1) blacks are much less addicted than either whites or other minorities, at least in very early adolescence; (2) black parents are significantly more concerned with their children's use of alcohol and/or other drugs when compared with white parents; (3) blacks report much more emotional support from their family members; and (4) there appears to be, at least on the surface, more dysfunctional family interaction among white families than black. Perhaps the juvenile justice system should develop neighborhood programs to provide positive support within the strong kinship networks already in ------
place in the black culture; early intervention could reach black children before they fully enter the rebellious youth culture.
There is nothing in the data to support a connection between alcohol and/or other drug use on the part of black youth and the violent offenses they tend to commit when compared with white youth. They have fewer nondangerous options for acting out behavior than whites, and their families have fewer societal-economic support systems available to them. Older black youth from lower socioeconomic backgrounds are susceptible to self-enhancement through deviant activities. Court personnel might consider the realistic pressures on blacks, especially when many of these families lack adequate financial resources.
Although female detainees comprise only about 10 percent of the detention population, they have their own set of needs that must be addressed. They manifest lower self-concept, report more family dysfunction, and receive much less emotional support from family. This leads to significantly higher suicide attempts. Counselors should work hard for family resolution and restoration among the female population, perhaps developing special programs that address their unique circumstances.
Chapter 3 Formats
§ Sample Exrcirnvr, Summary {com.)
Educational and support groups are impacting low self-esteem and self-concept according to our Program Evaluation. Supporting these groups has been an excellent expenditure of grant funds. Certainly the guided group experience has the potential to enable youths to share feelings, give and receive positive feedback, and learn to feel better about themselves.
Finally, advocacy for success in school must be emphasized if delinquency and drug abuse are to be minimized. A positive link between the court and school systems needs to be forged. Otherwise, the juvenile court becomes a dumping ground for youths that encounter difficulty in school, bring drugs on campus, and act-out in a disruptive manner.
The body of literature cited in this report is fairly unified in asserting that common etiological roots cannot be shown between substance abuse and delinquency. Even the relationship between violent crime and substance abuse remains clouded (Inciardi 1981). A relationship between substance use and more serious delinquency appears to be developmental rather than causal (Huizinga et al. 1989). More than ever this suggests that attention should be given to the National Council of Juvenile and Family Court Judges' report, which argues from a systemic and holistic perspective (Criminal Justice Newsletter 1986). Drug use and abuse; child neglect; abandonment; sexual, physical, and emotional abuse; family violence; family dysfunction; and juvenile delinquency are interactive variables that cannot be clearly identified, diagnosed, or treated without addressing them together.
Our study supports a vast body of literature that suggests meaningful intervention in the lives of juveniles at risk should include, whenever possible, a holistic approach. Not only must each youth be requested to take responsibility for his or her behavior and work toward resolution of his or her problems, but also family members should be called to account for their responsibility, and compelled when necessary to participate in treatment.
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Part I A Handbook of Style for Sociology
Chapter 3 Formats
71
3.5   OUTLINE PAGE
An outline page is a specific type of executive summary. Most often found in social policy analysis papers, an outline page provides more information about the organization of the paper than does an executive summary. The outline shows clearly the sections in the paper and the information in each. An outline page is an asset because it allows busy decision makers to understand the entire content of a paper without reading it or to refer quickly to a specific part for more information. Position papers and policy analysis papers are written for people in positions of authority who normally need to make a variety of decisions in a short period. Outline pages reduce the amount of time they need to understand a policy problem, the alternative solutions, and the author's preferred solution. Outline pages sequentially list the complete topic sentences of the major paragraphs of a paper, in outline form. In a position paper, for example, you will be stating a problem, defining possible solutions, and then recommending the best solution. These three steps will be the major headings in your outline. (See Chapter 1 for instructions on writing an outline.) Wait until you have completed the paper before writing the outline page. Take the topic sentences from the leading (most important) paragraph in each section of your paper and place them in the appropriate places in your outline. A sample outline page is presented on page 71.
3.6   TABLE OF CONTENTS
A table of contents does not provide as much information as an outline, but it does include the titles of the major divisions and subdivisions of a paper. Tables of contents are not normally required in student papers or papers presented at professional meetings but may be included. They are normally required, however, in books, theses, and dissertations. The table of contents should consist of the chapter or main section titles, the headings used in the text, with one additional level of titles, along with their page numbers, as the sample on page 72 demonstrates.
3.7   LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
A list of tables and figures contains the titles of the tables, illustrations, or figures in the paper, in the order in which they appear, along with their page numbers. If you have only a few figures, tables, or illustrations, you may list them together under the title "Figures" (and call them all "Figures" in the text). However, if you have more than a half-page of entries, you should have separate lists for tables, illustrations, and figures (and title them accordingly in the text). Each list should appear on a separate page somewhere following the title page and preceding the first page of text. An example of the format for such lists is presented on page 73.
Sample Outlink Pagf.
Outline of Contents
I. The problem is that parking, picnic, and rest room facilities at Oak Ridge Community Park have deteriorated due to normal wear, adverse weather, and vandalism, and are inadequate to meet public demand.
A. Only one major renovation has occurred since 1963, when the park opened.
B. The Park Department estimates that 10,000 square feet of new parking space, 14 items of playground equipment, 17 new picnic tables, and repairs on current facilities would cost about $43,700.
II. Three possible solutions have been given extensive consideration:
A. One option is to do nothing. Area residents will use the area less as deterioration continues, but no immediate outlay of public funds will be necessary.
B. The first alternative solution is to make all repairs immediately. Area residents will enjoy immediate and increased use of facilities. $43,700 in funds will be needed. Sources include (1) Community Development Block Grant funds; (2) increased property taxes; (3) revenue bonds; and (4) general city revenues.
C. A second alternative is to make repairs according to a priority list over a five-year period, using a combination of general city revenues and a $20,000 first-year bond issue. Residents will enjoy the most-needed improvements immediately. The bond issue will require City Council and voter approval.
III. The recommendation of this report is that alternative "C" be adopted by the City Council. The benefit/cost analysis demonstrates that residents will be satisfied if basic improvements are made immediately. The City Council should, during its May 15 meeting, (1) adopt a resolution of intent to commit $5,000 per year for five years from the general revenue fund, dedicated to this purpose; and (2) approve for submission to public vote in the November 2005 election a $25,000 bond issue.
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Part I A Handbook of Style for Sociology
SWII'M i'Mfll.OI- (OMIMS
Table of Contents
An Introduction to Attribution Theory
Definitions of Attribution and Attribution Theory The Historical Development of Attribution Theory
The Application of Attribution Theory to Social Relations Social Conflict and Attribution Theory Specific Applications of Attribution Theory
Attribution Theory as a Means of Understanding Society The Strengths of Attribution Theory The Weaknesses of Attribution Theory
Future Applications of Attribution Theory in Sociology
References
1 1 5
10
11 17 20 20 23 27 31
Chapter 3 Formats
73
Sample List of Figlrfs
List of Figures
1. Population Growth in Five U.S. Cities, 1990-1999
2. Welfare Recipients by State, 1980 and 1999
3. Economic Indicators, January-June 1999
4. Educational Reforms at the Tennessee Convention
5. International Trade, 1880-1890
6. Gross Domestic Product, Nova Scotia, 1900-1990
7. California Domestic Program Expenditures, 1960-1999
8. Juvenile Recidivism in Illinois
9. Albuquerque Arts and Humanities Expenditures, 1999 10. Railroad Retirement Payments after World War II
1
3 6 11
21
22 35 37
39
40
....... ^
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3.8 TABLES
Part I A Handbook of Style for Sociology
Tables are used in the text to show relationships among data; they should help the reader come to a conclusion or understand a certain point. Tables that show simple results or "raw" data should not be included in the text of the paper. If you are required to include the data you have collected, tabulate and present it in an appendix.
Tables describe or summarize the data to say something new, and they stand on their own; they do not reiterate the content of the text. In other words, the reader should be able to understand the table without reading the text.
Tables should be numbered consecutively throughout the text. Clearly label the columns and rows in the table. Each word in the title (except articles, prepositions, and conjunctions) should be capitalized.
If the table is part of another work, the source from which you obtained the information should be shown immediately below the table, not in a footnote or endnote, with the complete citation included in your reference list at the end of the paper. A sample table is shown below.
Sample Table
Projections of the Total Population of States, 1995 to 2025 (all population figures in thousands)
State	1995	2000	2005	2015	2025
Alabama	4,253	4,451	4,631	4,956	5,224
Alaska	604	653	700	791	885
Arizona	4,218	4,798	5,230	5,808	6,412
Arkansas	2,484	2,631	2,750	2,922	3,055
California	31,589	32,521	34,441	41,373	49,285
Colorado	3,747	4,168	4,468	4,833	5,188
Connecticut	3,275	3,284	3,317	3,506	3,739
Delaware	717	768	800	832	861
District of Columbia	554	523	529	594	655
Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census (2000)
Chapter 3 Formats
75
3.9   ILLUSTRATIONS AND FIGURES
Illustrations are not normally inserted in the text of a sociology paper, nor even in an appendix, unless they are necessary to explain the content. If illustrations are necessary, do not paste or tape photocopies of photographs or similar materials to the text or the appendix. Instead, photocopy each one on a separate sheet of paper and center it, along with its typed title, within the normal margins of the paper. The format of illustration titles should be the same as that for tables and figures.
Figures in the form of charts and graphs may be very helpful in presenting certain types of information, as the example below shows.
Sampijf. Figure
Projection for Five States in 2025 (in millions)
Tennessee
South Dakota
South Carolina
Rhode Island
Pennsylvania
10
12
14
Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census (2000)
........u
76 Part I A Ha ndbook of Style for Sociology 3.10 TEXT _
Ask your instructor for the number of pages required for the paper you are writing. The text should follow the directions explained in Chapters 1 and 2. Part HI of this manual describes several types of papers that are commonly assigned in sociology classes. The text in each varies with the goal of the project. Headings and subheadings also vary with the assignment. Procedures for applying headings and subheadings to your text are described in the following section.
3.11   HEADINGS AND SUBHEADINGS
Your papers should include no more than three levels of headings. The following description gives the appropriate listing for each level:
1. Primary headings should be printed in all caps and either centered or aligned at the left margin.
2. Secondary headings should be printed in italics and either centered or aligned at the left margin. The first letter in each word (except articles, prepositions, and conjunctions) should be capitalized.
3. Tertiary headings should be printed in italics (with only the first word and proper nouns capitalized and with a period at the end), and should be run-in heads, indented at the beginning of the paragraph.
The illustration at the base of this page shows the proper use of headings:
Chapter 3 Formats 77
this system, your reference section should immediately follow (after a double space) the last line of your discussion section. Other instructors prefer the references to be listed on a separate page. Ask your instructor which system you should follow. See the sample reference listing on page 98.
3.13 APPENDIXES
Appendixes are reference materials provided for the convenience of the reader at the back of the paper, after the reference list. Providing information that supplements the important facts in the text, they may include maps, charts, tables, and selected documents like questionnaires. Do not place materials that are merely interesting or decorative in your appendix. Use only items that will answer questions raised by the text or are necessary to explain the text.
Follow the formatting guidelines for illustrations, tables, and figures when adding material in an appendix. At the top center of the page, label your first appendix "Appendix A," your second appendix "Appendix B," and so on. If you are only appending one item, it should be labeled "Appendix," with no letter indicating sequence. Do not append an entire government report, journal article, or other publication, but only the portions of such documents that are necessary to support your paper. The source of the information should always be evident on the appended pages.
The example on page 78 illustrates how you might append the questionnaire in a survey paper.
3.12 REFERENCES_
The format for listing references in ASA style is discussed in detail in Chapter 4. Some instructors prefer papers to be structured in article format, with everything presented as tightly compressed and succinct as possible. If your instructor favors
I ___ ^..... SWII'I I. Hl.MllViS__| | |^^mmu_____ \
REVIEW OF LITERATURE Number of Children and Marital Satisfaction
Families with more than two children. Although many people believe that large families lead to increased marital satisfaction, the results of...
Part I A Handbook of Style for Sociology
Sample Appendix
Appendix Questionnaire
The following statements are concerned with your feelings about your marriage. To the left of each question, please put the number that indicates the degree to. which your marriage possesses each of the following qualities. The number 1 represents the least degree and 5 represents the greatest degree.
Least Degree   1   2   3   4   5   Greatest Degree
__ 1. Spend time doing things together.
__ 2. Are very committed to each other.
_ 3. Have good communication (talking, sharing feelings).
__ 4. Deal with crises in a positive manner.
_ 5. Express appreciation to each other.
__ 6. Have a very close relationship.
_ 7. Have a very happy relationship.
_ 8. My spouse makes me feel good about myself.
_ 9. I make my spouse feel good about himself or herself.
_ 10. If I could, I would marry my current spouse again.
Please give the following information: AGE: _ SEX: _male
female
Number of years married to current spouse:
Number of children: _
Have you ever had an extramarital affair? _
_yes
no
THANKS FOR YOUR HELP!
Source: Modified from Stinnett and DeFrain (1985)
CHAPTER
4
One of your most important jobs as a research writer is to document your use of source material carefully and clearly. Failure to do so will cause your reader confusion, damage the effectiveness of your paper, and perhaps make you vulnerable to a charge of plagiarism. Proper documentation is more than just good form; it is a powerful indicator of your own commitment to scholarship and the sense of authority that you bring to your writing. Good documentation demonstrates your expertise as a researcher and increases the reader's trust in you and your work; it gives credibility to what you are writing.
Unfortunately, as anybody who has ever written a research paper knows, getting the documentation right can be a frustrating, confusing job, especially for the novice writer. Positioning each element of a single reference citation accurately can require what seems an inordinate amount of time spent thumbing through the style manual. Even before you begin to work on specific citations, there are important questions of style and format to answer.
4.1   PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS
Direct quotes must always be credited, as must certain kinds of paraphrased material. Information that is basic—important dates, and facts or opinions universally acknowledged—need not be cited. Information that is not widely known, whether fact or opinion, should be documented.
What if you are unsure whether or not a certain fact is widely known? You are, after all, very probably a newcomer to the field in which you are conducting your research. H in doubt, supply the documentation. It is better to overdocument than to fail to do justice to a source.
Although the question of which documentation style to use may be decided for you in some classes by your instructor, others may allow you to choose.
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