Basic Grammar Grammar describes how language works, and understanding it can help you create clear and accurate sentences. This section explains the kinds of words in sentences (Chapter 21) and how lo build basic sentences (22), expand them (23), and classify them (24). Grammar checkers A grammar checker can both offer assistance and cause problems as you compose sentences. Look for the cautions and tips for using a checker in this and the next part of this book. For more information about grammar checkers, see 1 pp. 32-33. All English words fall into eight groups, called parts of speech: nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. Note In different sentences a word may sen'e as different parts oF speech. For example: The government sent aid to the city. [Aid\s a noun.] Governments aid citizens. [Aid is a verb.] The function of a word in a sentence always determines its part of speech in that sentence. Recognizing nouns Nouns name. They may name a person (Helen Miiren, Jesse lack-sou, astronaut), a thing {chair, book, Mt. Rainier), a quality {pain, mystery, simplicity), a place {city, Washingto)i, ocean, Red Sea), or an idea {reality, peace, success). The forms of nouns depend partly on where they fit in certain groups. As the following examples indicate, the same noun may appear in more than one group. A common noun names a general class of things and does not begin with a capital letter: earthquake, citizen, earth, fortitude, army. 190 ■ comp |j| Visit mycompiabxam for more resources and exercises an the parts of speech. Pronouns gram 21b 191 A proper noun names a specific person, place, or thing and begins with a capital letter: Angelina Jolie, Washington Monument, El Paso, US Congress, ■'i A count noun names a thing considered countable in English. Most count nouns add -5 or -es to distinguish between singular (one) and plural (more than one): citizen, citizens; city, cities. Some count nouns form irregular plurals: woman, women; child, children. ii A noncottnt noun names things or qualities that aren't considered countable in English: earth, sugar, chaos, fortitude. Non-count nouns do not form plurals. :j A collective noun is singular in form but names a group: army, family, herd, US Congress. In addition, most nouns form the possessive by adding -'s to show ownership {Nadia's_ books, citizen's rights), source (Auden's poems), and some other relationships. Recognizing pronouns Most pronouns substitute for nouns and function in sentences as nouns do: Susanne Ling enlisted in the Air Force when she graduated. Pronouns fall into groups depending on their form or function: ■s A personal pronoun refers to a specific individual or to individuals: /, you, he, she, it, we, and they. o An indefinite pronoun does not refer to a specific noun: anyone, everything, no one, somebody, and so on. No one came. Noth-ing moves. Everybody speaks. A relative pronoun relates a group of words to a noun or another pronoun: who, whoever, which, that. Eveiyone wlio attended received a prize. The book that won is a novel. a An interrogative pronoun introduces a question: who, whom, whose, which, what. W'hat song is that? Wlw will contribute? n A demonstrative pronoun identifies or points to a noun: this, these, that, those, and so on. Those berries are ripe. This_ is the site. o An intensive pronoun emphasizes a noun or another pronoun: myself, himself, itself, themselves, and so on. / my£el[as^ tnat question. The price itself is in doubt. o A reflexive pronoun indicates that the sentence subject also receives the action of the verb: myself, himself itself, themselves, and so on. He perjured himself. They injured theniseIves. The personal pronouns /, he, she, we, and they and the relative pronouns who and whoever change form depending on their function in the sentence. (See Chapter 30.) 192 gram 21c Parts of speech Recognizing verbs Verbs express an action (bring, change, grow, consider), an occurrence (become, happen, occur), or a state of being (be, seem, remain). J 1 J Forms of verbs Verbs have five distinctive forms. If the form can change as described here, the word is a verb: n The plain form is the dictionary form of the verb. When the subject is a plural noun or the pronoun /, we, you, or thev, the plain form indicates action that occurs in the present, occurs habitually, or is generally tme. A few artists live in town today. They hold classes downtown. .1 The -5 form ends in -s or -es. When the subject is a singular noun, a pronoun such as everyone, or the persona! pronoun he, she, or if, the -.s form indicates action that occurs in the present, occurs habitually, or is generally Lrue. The artist lives in town today. She holds classes downtown. The past-tense form indicates that the action of the verb occurred before now. It usually adds -cl or ~ed to tiie plain form, although most irregular verbs create it in different ways (see pp. 213-16). Many artists lived in town before this year. They held classes downtown. [Irregular verb.] The past participle is usually the same as the past-tense form, except in most irregular verbs. It combines with farms ol'have or be (has climbed, was created), or by itself it modifies nouns and pronouns (the sliced apples). Artists have lived in town for decades. They have held classes downtown. [Irregular verb.] - The present participle adds -tug to the verb's plain form. It combines with forms of be (is buying), modifies nouns and pronouns (the boiling water), or functions as a noun (Running exhausts me). A few artists are living in town today. They are holding classes downtown. The verb be has eight forms rather than the five forms of most other verbs: Plain form be Present participle being Past participle been / Present tense am Past tense was he, she, it is was Verbs we, you, they are were gram 21c 193 {jLl Helping verbs Some verb forms combine with helping verbs to indicate time, possibility, obligation, necessity, and other lands of meaning: can run, was sleeping, had been working. In these verb phrases run, sleeping, and working are main verbs—they carry the principal meaning. Verb phrase Helping Main Artists can train others to draw. The techniques have £hanrjed little. The most common helping verbs are listed in the box below. See pp. 218-23 for more on helping vei'bs. Common helping verbs Forms of be: be, am, is, are, was, were, been, being Forms of have: have, has, had, having Forms of do: do, does, did be able to be supposed to can could had better have to may might must ought to shall should used to will would Exercise 21.1 Identifying nouns, pronouns, and verbs Identify the words that function as nouns (N), pronouns (P), and verbs (V) in the following paragraph. Example: N N V N Ancestors of the gingko tree lived 175 to 200 million years ago. 1 The ginko tree, which is one of the world's oldest trees, is large and picturesque. 2 Gingko trees may grow to over a hundred feet in height. 3 Their leaves look like fans and are about three inches wide. 4 The leaves turn yellow in the fall. 5 Because it tolerates smoke, low temperatures, and low rainfall, the gingko appears in many cities. 6 A shortcoming, however, is the foui odor of its fruit. 7 Inside the fruit is a large white seed, which some people value as food. 8 The fruit often does not appear until the tree is twenty years old. 9 The tree's name means "apricot" in the Japanese language. 10 Originally, the gingko grew only in China, but it has now spread throughout the world. 194 Parts of speech Recognizing adjectives and adverbs Adjectives describe or modify nouns and pronouns. They specify which one, what quality, or how many. old city adjective noun generous one adjective pronoun two pears adjective noun Adverbs describe or modify verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, and whole groups of words. They specify when, where, how, and to what extent. nearly destroyed adverb verb very generous ndverb adjective too quickly adverb adverb Unfortunately, taxes will rise. adverb word group An -ly ending often signals an adverb, but not always: friendly is an adjective; never and not are adverbs. The only way to tell whether a word is an adjective or an adverb is to determine what it modifies. Adjectives and adverbs appear in three forms; positive {green, angrily), comparative {greener, more angrily), and superlative {greenest, most angrily). See Chapter 33 for more on adjectives and adverbs. Exercise 21.2 Identifying adjectives and adverbs Identify the adjectives (AD|) and adverbs (ADV) in the following paragraph. Mark a, an, and the as adjectives. Example: ADV 5tress can hit people when they least expect it. i You can reduce stress by making a few simple changes. 2 Get up fifteen minutes earlier than you ordinarily do. 3 Eat a healthy breakfast, and eat it slowly so that you enjoy it. 4 Do your more unpleasant tasks early in the day. S Carry a book or magazine when you know you'll have to wait in line somewhere. 6 Make promises sparingly and keep them faithfully. 7 Plan ahead to prevent the most stressful situations—for example, carrying spare keys so you won't be locked out of your car or house. 8 See a doctor and dentist regularly. 9 And every day, do at least one thing you really enjoy. 21 e 1 ^eco9n'z'n9 connecting words: Prepositions and conjunctions Connecting words are mostly small words that link parts of sentences. They never change form. Prepositions and conjunctions gram 21 e 195 [ij Prepositions Prepositions form nouns or pronouns (plus any modifiers) into word groups called prepositional phrases: about love, down the stairs. These phrases usually serve as modifiers in sentences, as in The plants trailed down the stairs. (See p. 204.) Common prepositions about before. except for of throughout above behind excepting off till according to below for on to across beneath from onto toward after beside in on top of under against between in addition to out underneath along beyond inside out of unlike along with by inside of outside until among concerning in spite of over up around despite instead of past upon as down into regarding up to aside from due to like round with at during near since within because of except next to through without culture language The meanings and uses of English prepositions can be difficult to master. See 3 pp. 174-76 for a discussion of prepositions in idioms. See pp. 226-27 for uses of prepositions in two-word verbs such as look after or look up. j~2~] Subordinating conjunctions Subordinating conjunctions form sentences into word groups called subordinate clauses, such as when the meeting ended or that she knew. These clauses serve as parts of sentences: Everyone was relieved when the meeting ended. She said that she knew. (See pp. 208-09.) ~~ ~~~ Common subordinating conjunctions after even if rather than until although even though since when as if . so that whenever as if if only than where as long as in order that that whereas as though now that though wherever because once till whether before provided unless while 196 gram 21 e Parts of speech "culturT^n Subordinating conjunctions convey meaning wilh-^ouage>> Qut he|p j-TQm ot|ier function words, such as the coordinating conjunctions and, but, for, or so: Faulty Even though the parents are illiterate, but their children may read well. [Even though and but have the same meaning, so both are not needed.] Revised Even though the parents are illiterate, their children may read well. I 3 j Coordinating and correlative conjunctions Coordinating and correlative conjunctions connect words or word groups of the same kind, such as nouns or sentences. Coordinating conjunctions consist of a single word: Coordinating conjunctions and but nor or for so yet Biofeedback or simple relaxation can relieve headaches. Relaxation works well, and it is inexpensive. Correlative conjunctions are combinations of coordinating conjunctions and other words: Common correlative conjunctions both . . . and not only . . . but also not. . , but either... or neither. . . nor whether... or as ... as Both biofeedback and relaxation can relieve headaches. The headache sufferer learns not only to recognize the causes of headaches but also to control those causes. Exercise 21.3 Adding connecting words Fill each blank in the following paragraph with the appropriate connecting word: a preposition, a subordinating conjunction, or a coordinating conjunction. Consult the lists on p. 195 and above if you need help. Example: A Trojan priest warned, "Beware _ Greeks bearing gifts." (preposition) A Trojan priest warned, "Beware of Creeks bearing gifts." Subject and predicate gram 22a just about everyone has heard the story the Trojan Horse, (preposition) 2 This incident happened at the city of Troy- was planned by the Greeks, (coordinating conjunction) 3 The Creeks built a huge wooden horse_a hollow space big enough to hold many men. (preposition) 4 At night, they rolled the horse to the gate of Troy_left it there filled with soldiers, (coordinating conjunction) 5_the morning, the Trojans were surprised to see the enormous horse, (preposition) 6 They were amazed - they saw that the Greeks were gone, (subordinating conjunction) 7-they were curious to examine this gift from the Greeks, they dragged the horse into the city and left it outside the temple, (subordinating conjunction) 8 in the middle of the night, the hidden Creeks emerged-the horse and began setting fires all over town, (preposition) 9_the Trojan soldiers awoke and came out of their houses, the Greeks killed them one by one. (subordinating conjunction) 10 By the next morning, the Trojan men were dead_the women were slaves to the Greeks, (coordinating conjunction) -\97 L^itJ ^eco9n*z'n9 interjections Interjections express feeling or command attention. They are rarely used in academic or business writing. Oh, the meeting went fine. They won seven thousand dollars! Wow! The sentence is the basic unit of expression. It is grammatically complete and independent: it does not serve as an adjective, adverb, or other single part of speech. 22a Recognizing subjects and predicates Most sentences make statements. First the subject names something; then the predicate makes an assertion about the subject or describes an action by the subject. Subject Art Predicate thrives. comp ;t, Visit mycomplabxom for more resources and exercises on the sentence. 198 gram 22a The sentence The simple subject consists of one or more nouns or pronouns, whereas the complete subject also includes any modifiers. The simple predicate consists of one or more verbs, whereas the complete predicate adds any words needed to complete the meaning of the verb plus any modifiers. Sometimes, as in the short example Art thrives, the simple and complete subject and predicate are the same. More often, they are different: Subject Predicate i——— complete.............. ; r-—complete ——n simple simple Some contemporary art stirs controversy. -complete r—............complete —-~—t J,--— simple — Congress and the media j,——simple discuss and dispute its value. In the second example, the simple subject and simple predicate are both compound: in each, two words joined by a coordinating conjunction {and) serve the same function. Note If a sentence contains a word group such as that makes it into museums or because viewers agree about its quality, you may be tempted to mark the subject and verb in the word group as the subject and verb of the sentence. But these word groups are subordinate clauses, made into modifiers by the words they begin with: that and because. See pp. 208-09 for more on subordinate clauses. /t^oiLTunT^N The subject of a sentence in standard American English may be a noun (art) or a pronoun that refers to the noun (it), but not both. (See p. 293.) Faulty Some art it stirs controversy. Revised Some art stirs controversy. Tests to find subjects and predicates The tests below use the following example: Art that makes it into museums has often survived controversy. Identify the subject. a Ask who or what is acting or being described in the sentence. Complete subject art that makes it into museums ;:; Isolate the simple subject by deleting modifiers—words or word groups that don't name the actor of the sentence but give information about it. In the example, the word group that makes it into museums does not name the actor but modifies it. Simple subject art Subject and predicate gram 22a identify the predicate. iAsk what the sentence asserts about the subject: what is its action, or what state is it in? In the example, the assertion about art is that it has often survived controversy. Complete predicate has often survived controversy ;■=• Isolate the verb, the simple predicate, by changing the time of the subject's action. The simple predicate is the word or words that change as a result. Example Art. . . has often survived controversy. Present Art. . . often survives controversy. Future Art. . . will often survive controversy. Simple predicate has survived Exercise 22.1 Identifying subjects and predicates Identify the subject and the predicate of each sentence below. Then use each sentence as a model to create a sentence of your own. Example: subject prediaiie An important scientist / spoke at commencement. Sample Imitation: The hungry family ate at the diner. 1 The leaves fell. 2 October ends soon. 3 The orchard owners made apple cider. 4 They examined each apple carefully for quality. 5 Over a hundred people will buy cider at the roadside stand. Exercise 22.2 Identifying subjects and predicates In the following sentences, insert a slash between the complete subject and the complete predicate. Underline each simple subject once and each simple predicate twice. Example: The pony, the light horse, and the draft horse types of domestic horses. are the three main 1 The horse has a long history of service to humanity but today is mainly a show and sport animal. 2 A member of the genus Equus, the domestic horse shares its lineage with the ass and the zebra. 3 The domestic horse and its relatives are all plains-dwelling herd animals. 4 The modern horse evolved in North America. 5 It migrated to other parts of the world and then became extinct in the Americas. 6 The Spaniards reintroduced the domestic horse to the Americas. 7 North American wild horses are actually descended from escaped domestic horses. 8 According to records, North Americans hunted and domesticated horses as early as four to five thousand years ago. 9 The earliest ancestor of the modern horse may have been eohippus, approximately 55 million years ago. 200 gram 22b The sentence 22b Recognizing predicate patterns All English sentences are based on five patterns, each differing in the complete predicate (the verb and any words following it). Word order in English sentences may not correspond to word order in the sentences of your native language or dialect. English, for instance, strongly prefers subject first, then verb, whereas some other languages prefer the verb first. culture m nc u ace.. The five basic sentence patterns Subject Predicate 1. Subject — The earth Verb (intransitive) trembled. 2. Subject —* The earthquake Verb (transitive) destroyed Direct object the city. 3. Subject cfijj-The result 4. Subject — The government 5. Subject —~ The citizens Verb (linking) was Verb (transitive) sent Verb (transitive) Subject complement: noun or adjective chaos. Indirect object the city Direct object Direct object aid. ~~ Object complement: noun or adjective considered the earthquake a disaster. gram 22b Predicate patterns Subject Predicate Intransitive verb The earth trembled. The hospital may close. Pattern 2: The earthquake destroyed the city. In pattern 2 the verb is followed by a direct object, a noun or pronoun that identifies who or what receives the action of the verb. A verb that requires a direct object to complete its meaning is called transitive. 201 Subject The earthquake Education Predicate Transitive verb destroyed opens Direct object the city, doors. /f^^ruiiE~~\ Only transitive verbs may be used in the passive VJ^cw^i' voice: The city was destroyed. Your dictionary will indicate whether a verb is transitive or intransitive. For some verbs {begin, learn, read, write, and others), it will indicate both uses. Pattern 3: The result was chaos. in pattern 3 the verb is followed by a subject complement, a word that renames or describes the subject. A verb in this pattern is called a linking verb because it links its subject to the description following. The linking verbs include be, seem, appear, become, grow, remain, stav, prove, feel, took, smell, sound, and taste. Subject complements are usually nouns or adjectives. Subject Predicate Linking Subject The result The man verb was became complement chaos. an accountant. Pattern 4: The government sent the city aid. In pattern 4 the verb is followed by a direct object and an indirect object, a word identifying to or for whom the action of the verb is performed. The direct object and indirect object refer to different things, people, or places. Pattern 1: The earth trembled. In the simplest pattern the predicate consists only of an intransitive verb, a verb that does not require a following word to complete its meaning. p Key term- passive voice The verb form when the subject names the receiver of the verb's action: Bad weather was predicted. (See p. 236.) •U.«..| 202 gram 22b The sentence Subject The government One company Predicate Transitive verb sent offered Indirect object the city its employees Direct object aid. bonuses. A number of verbs can take indirect objects, including send and offer (preceding examples) and allow, bring, buy, deny, find, get, give, leave, make, pay, read, sell, show, teach, and write. /f*c7iLTunE^x Some verbs are never followed by an indirect {y^wcufyu£y 0bject—admit, announce, demonstrate, explain, introduce, mention, prove, recommend, say, and some others. However, the direct objects of these verbs may be followed by to or for and a noun or pronoun that specifies to or for whom the action was done: The manual explains the new procedure to workers. A video demons!rates the procedure for us. Pattern 5: The citizens considered the earthquake a disaster. In pattern 5 the verb is followed by a direct object and an object complement, a word that renames or describes the direct object. Object complements may be nouns or adjectives. Subject The citizens Success Predicate Transitive verb considered makes Direct object the earthquake some people Object complement a disaster, nervous. Exercise 22.3 Identifying sentence parts In the following sentences identify the subject (S) and verb (V) as well as any direct object (DO), indirect object (10), subject complement (SC), or object complement (OC). Example: S V V DO Crime statistics can cause surprise. 1 The number of serious crimes in the United States decreased. 2 A decline in serious crimes occurred each year. 3 The Crime Index measures serious crime. 4 The FBI invented the index. 5 The four serious violent crimes are murder, robbery, forcible rape, and aggravated assault. 6 The Crime Index calls auto theft, burglary, arson, and larceny-theft the four serious crimes against property. 7 The Crime Index gives the FBI a measure of crime. 8 The index shows trends in crimes and the people who commit them. Phrases gram 23a 203 9 The nation's largest cities showed the largest decline in crime. 10 However, crime actually increased in smaller cities, proving that the decline in crime is unrepresentative of the nation. Exercise 22.4 Identifying sentence patterns In the following sentences, identify each verb as intransitive, transitive, or linking. Then identify each direct object (DO), indirect object (10), subject complement (SC), and object complement (OC). Example: transit ivo verb 10 DO DO Children give their parents both headaches and pleasures. 1 Many people find New York City exciting. 2 Tourists flock to New York each year. 3 Often they visit Times Square first. 4 The square's lights are astounding. 5 The flashing signs sell visitors everything from TVs to underwear. Most sentences contain word gioups dial serve as adjectives, adverbs, or nouns and thus cannot stand alone as sentences. ■ A phrase lacks cither a subject or a predicate or both: fearing an accident; in a panic. r; A subordinate clause contains a subject and a predicate but begins with a subordinating word: when prices rise; whoever laughs. 23a Recognizing phrases [Tj Prepositional phrases A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition plus a noun, a pronoun, or a word group serving as a noun, called the object of the preposition. A list of prepositions appears on p. 195. v. :comp m Visit mycomplab.com for more resources and exercises on phrases and subordinate clauses. 204 23a Phrases and subordinate clauses Preposition of on with upon from Object spaghetti the surface great satisfaction entering the room where you are standing Prepositional phrases usually function as adjectives or adverbs. Life on a raft was an opportunity for adventure. adjective plira'.e adjective phrase Huck Finn rode the raft by choice. adverb phrase With liis companion, Jim, Huck met many types of people. adverb plir.ise ."uljociive phr.iv.- Exercise 23.1 Identifying prepositional phrases Identify the prepositional phrases in the following passage, and underline the word that the phrase modifies. Example: After an hour I finally arrived at the home of my professor. 1 On |uly 3, 1863, at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, General Robert E. Lee gambled unsuccessfully for a Confederate victory in the American Civil War. 2 The battle of Pickett's Charge was one of the most disastrous conflicts of the war. 3 Confederate and Union forces faced each other on parallel ridges separated by almost a mile of open fields. 4 After an artillery bombardment of the Union position, nearly 12,000 Confederate infantry marched toward the Union ridge. 5 The Union guns had been silent but suddenly roared against the approaching Confederates. 6 Within an hour, perhaps half of the Confederate soldiers lay wounded or dead. Exercise 23.2 Sentence combining: Prepositional phrases To practice writing sentences with prepositional phrases, combine each group of sentences below into one sentence that includes one or two prepositional phrases. You will have to add, delete, and rearrange words. Some items have more than one possible answer. Example: I will start working. The new job will pay the minimum wage. I will start working at a_new job for the minimum wage. 1 The slow loris protects itself well. Its habitat is Southeast Asia. It possesses a poisonous chemical. 2 The loris frightens predators when it exudes this chemical. The chemical comes from a gland. The gland is on the loris's upper arm. 3 The loris's chemical is highly toxic. The chemical is not like a skunk's spray. Even small quantities of the chemical are toxic, gram Phrases II 23a 205 4 A tiny dose can affect a human. The dose would get in the mouth. Thp human would be sent into shock. 5 ^da^s probably can sense the toxin. They detect .t at a Cstance. They use their nasal organs. [Tj Verbal phrases Certain forms of verbs, called verbals, can serve as modifiers or nouns. Often these verbals appear with their own modifiers and objects in verbal phrases. Note Verbals cannot serve as verbs in sentences. The sun rises over the dump is a sentence; The sun rising over the dump is a sentence fragment. (See p. 281.) Porticipinl phrases A participle is a verb form ending in -tug {walking) or, often, -d or -ed {walked). ParLiciples and participial phrases serve as adjecihes. Strolling shoppers fill the malls. aUjtclive They make selections determined by personal taste. adjective pliraie Note With irregular verbs, the past participle may have a different ending-tor instance, hidden funds. (See pp. 213-16.) For verbs expressing feeling, the present and^ast ^iá^S^SÍ^ participles have different meanings: It was n boring lecture. The bored students slept. {Sec p. 267.) Gerund phrases A gerund is the -iug ibmi of a verb when it serves as a noun. Gerunds and gerund phrases can do whatever nouns can do. ielKUHA ^'.iibjeU.-, Shopping satisfies personal needs. (KJLlll I r I Malls are good at creating such needs. noun plir.isi? Infinitive phrases An infinitive is the plain form of a verb plus to; to hide. Infinitives and infinitive phrases serve as adjectives, adverbs, or nouns. -,enionee -.uhjcci — .„subject cuinptemenl To design a mall'is to~create an artificial environment. noun phrase »""" P1'"^ Malls are designed'tomake shoppers feel safe. {Kiv'jrb pin(iso ji gram 206 23a Phrases and subordinate clauses Phrases gram 23a 207 ("culture The environment supports the impulse to shop. ill IjLL liVt Infinitives and gerunds may follow some verbs and not others and may differ in meaning after a verb: The cowbov slopped to sing. The cowbov stopped singing. (See pp. 223-25.) ' ' — Exercise 23.3 Identifying verbals and verbal phrases The following sentences contain participles, gerunds, and infinitives as well as participial, gerund, and infinitive phrases. Identify each verbal or verbal phrase. Example: Laughing, the talk-show host prodded her guest to talk. 1 Written in 1850 by Nathaniel Hawthorne, The Scarlet Letter tells the story of Hester Prynne. 2 Shunned by the community because of her adultery, Hester endures loneliness. 3 She is humble enough to withstand her Puritan neighbors' cutting remarks. A Enduring the cruel treatment, the determined young woman refuses to leave her home. 5 By living a life of patience and unselfishness, Hester eventually becomes the community's angel. Exercise 23.4 Sentence combining: Verbals and verbal phrases To practice writing sentences with verbals and verbal phrases, combine each of the following pairs of sentences into one sentence. You will have to add, delete, change, and rearrange words. Each item has more than one possible answer. Example: My father took pleasure in mean pranks. For instance, he hid the neighbor's cat. My father took pleasure in mean pranks such as hiding the neighbor's cat. — — 1 Air pollution is a health problem. It affects millions of Americans. 2 The air has been polluted mainly by industries and automobiles. It contains toxic chemicals. 3 Environmentalists pressure politicians. They think politicians should pass stricter laws. -} Many politicians waver. They are not necessarily against environ-mentalism. 5 The problems are too complex. They cannot be solved easily. [3J Absolute phrases An absolute phrase consists of a noun or pronoun and a participle, plus any modifiers. It modifies the entire rest of the sentence il appears in. Their own place established, many ethnic groups are making way for new arrivals. Unlike a participial phrase (p. 205), an absolute phrase always contains a noun that serves as a subject. p.ir(icipi,i] Learning English, many immigrants discover American culture. _iil)!iolute phrase Immigrants having learned English, their opportunities widen. Exercise 23.5 Sentence combining: Absolute phrases To practice writing sentences with absolute phrases, combine each pair of sentences below into one sentence that contains an absolute phrase. You will have to add, delete, change, and rearrange words. Example: The flower's petals wilted. It looked pathetic. Its petals wilted, the flower looked pathetic. 1 Geraldine Ferraro's face beamed. She enjoyed the crowd's cheers after her nomination for Vice President. 2 A vacancy had occurred. Sandra Day O'Connor was appointed the first female Supreme Court justice. 3 Her appointment was confirmed. Candoleezza Rice became the first female national security adviser. -! The midterm elections were over. Nancy Pelosi was elected the first female minority leader ol the House of Representatives. 5 The election was won. Elizabeth Dole was the first woman to become a US senator from North Carolina. [T] Appositive phrases An appositive is usually a noun that renames another noun. An appositive phrase includes modi tiers as well. >' p-itppObillVl- pIlMiL' Bizen ware, a dark stoneware, is produced in japan. Appositives and appositive phrases sometirneN begin with that is, such as, for example, or in other words. Bizen ware is used in the Japanese tea ceremony, that is, the Zen Buddhist observance that links meditation and art. Exercise 23.6 Sentence combining: Appositive phrases Combine each pair of sentences into one sentence that contains an appositive phrase. You will have to delete and rearrange words. Some items have more than one possible answer. 208 gram 23b Phrases and subordinate clauses Example: The largest land animal is the elephant. The elephant is also one of the most intelligent animals. The largest land animal, the elephant, is also one of the most intelligent animals. 1 Some people perform amazing feats when they are very young. These people are geniuses from birth. 2 John Stuart Mill was a British philosopher. He had written a history of Rome by age seven. 3 Two great artists began their work at age four. They were Paul Klee and Gustav Mahler. 4 Mahler was a Bohemian composer of intensely emotional works. He was also the child of a brutal father. 5 Paul Klee was a Swiss painter. As a child he was frightened by his own drawings of devils. Exercise 23.7 Identifying phrases In the paragraphs below, identify every verbal and appositive and every verbal, appositive, prepositional, and absolute phrase. (All the sentences include at least two such words and phrases.) '! With its many synonyms, or words with similar meanings, English can make choosing the right word a difficult task. 2 Borrowing words from early Germanic languages and from Latin, English acquired an unusual number of synonyms. 3 With so many choices, how does a writer decide between motherly and maternal or among womanly, feminine, and female? 4 Some people prefer longer and more ornate words to avoid the flatness of short words. 5 Indeed, during the Renaissance a heated debate occurred between the Latinists, favoring Latin words, and the Saxonists, preferring Anglo-Saxon words derived from Germanic roots. 6 Today, students in writing classes are often told to choose the shorter word, usually an Anglo-Saxon derivative. 7 Better advice, wrote William Hazlitt, is the principle of choosing "the best word in common use." 8 Keeping this principle in mind, a writer would choose either womanly, the Anglo-Saxon word, or feminine, a French derivative, according to meaning and situation. 9 Of course, synonyms rarely have exactly the same meaning, usage having created subtle but real differences over time. 10 To take another example, the Old English word handbook has a slightly different meaning from the French derivative manual, a close synonym. Recognizing subordinate clauses A clause is any group of words that contains both a subject and a predicate. There are two kinds of clauses, and the distinction between them is important. gram 23b Subordinate clauses n A main clause makes a complete statement and can stand alone as a sentence: The sky darkened. ■vi A subordinate clause is just like a main clause except that it begins with a subordinating word: when the sky darkened; whoever calls. The subordinating word reduces the clause from a complete statement to a single part of speech: an adjective, adverb, or noun. Use subordinate clauses to support the ideas in main clauses, as described in 3 pp. 150-52. Note A subordinate clause punctuated as a sentence is a sentence fragment. (See p. 282.) Adjective clauses An adjective clause modifies a noun or pronoun. It usually begins with the relative pronoun who, whom, whose, which, or that. The relative pronoun is the subject or object of the clause it begins. The clause ordinarily falls immediately after the word it modifies. >_"~_7—- adjective clause — Parents who cannot read may have bad memories of school. -adjective clause......................8 209 One school, which is open year-round, helps parents learn to read. Adverb clauses An adverb clause modifies a verb, an adjective, another adverb, or a whole word group. It always begins with a subordinating conjunction, such as althougli, because, if, or when (see p. 195 tor a list). _gr-~~~~~~ ~~~~rz=*—■-—adverb clause- The school began teaching parents when adult illiteracy gained national attention. od'.'eib cNhisc- -niain clause--- Because it was directed at people who could not read, advertising had to .........-.-j be inventive. Noun clauses A noun clause replaces a noun in a sentence and serves as a subject, object, or complement. It begins with that, what, whatever, wlio, whom, whoever, whomever, when, where, whether, why, ovhow. f...........-..........-■ sentence subject--■--, Whether the program would succeed depended on door-to-door advertising, noun clause object of verb - Teachers explained in person how the program would work. noun clause 210 gram 23b Phrases and subordinate clauses Exercise 23.8 Identifying clauses Underline the subordinate clauses in the following paragraph and identify each one as adjective (ADj), adverb (ADV), or noun (N) by determining how it functions in its sentence. 1 The Prophet Muhammad, who was the founder of Islam, was born about 570 CE in the city of Mecca. 2 He grew up in the care of his grandfather and an uncle because both of his parents had died when he was very young. 3 His extended family was part of a powerful Arab tribe that lived in western Arabia. 4 When Muhammad was about forty years old, he had a vision while he was in a cave outside Mecca. 5 He believed that God had selected him to be the prophet of a true religion for the Arab people. 6 Viewed as God's messenger, Muhammad attracted many followers before he lost the support of the clans of Mecca. 7 He and his followers moved to Medina, where they established an organized Muslim community that sometimes clashed with the Meccans and with Jewish clans. 8 Throughout his life Muhammad continued as the religious, political, and military leader of Islam as it spread in Asia and Africa. 9 He continued to have revelations, which are recorded in the sacred book of Muslims, the Koran. Exercise 23.9 Sentence combining: Subordinate clauses To practice writing sentences with subordinate clauses, combine each pair of main clauses into one sentence. Use either subordinating conjunctions or relative pronouns as appropriate, referring to the lists on pp. 191 and 195 if necessary. You will have to add, delete, and rearrange words. Each item has more than one possible answer. Example: She did not have her tire irons with her. She could not change her bicyde tire. Because she did not have her tire irons with her, she could not change her bicycle tire. 1 Moviegoers expect something. Movie sequels should be as exciting as the original films. 2 A few sequels are good films. Most sequels are poor imitations of the originals. 3 A sequel to a blockbuster film arrives in the theater. Crowds quickly line up to see it. 4 Viewers pay to see the same villains and heroes. They remember these characters fondly. 5 Afterward, viewers often grumble about filmmakers. The filmmakers rehash tired plots and characters. The four basic sentence structures vary in the number of main and subordinate clauses. Each structure gives different emphasis to the main and supporting information in a sentence. 24a { Recognizing simple sentences A simple sentence consists of a single main clause and no subordinate clause. main clause Last summer was unusually hot. -main dauiL The summer made many farmers leave the area for good or reduced them to bare existence. 24b Recognizing compound sentences A compound sentence consists of two or more main clauses and no subordinate clause. —main d.iuse _, main ctnuse- Last July was hot, but August was even hotter. . main clause main dams:-—- The hot sun scorched the earth, and the lack of rain killed many crops. 24c Recognizing complex sentences A complex sentence consists of one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses. ,-rnrsin clause —!r———-■ subordinate clause----——-, Rain finally came, although many had left the area by then. i____.................~......... main clan:.*: —--------M--subordinate dame ------ Those'who remained'were able to start anew because the government subordinaie clause came to their aid. • ' xcomp || Visit mycomplab.com for more resources and exercises on sentence types. 211 212 gram 24d Sentence types j 24d| Recognizing compound-complex sentences A compound-complex sentence has the characteristics or both the* compound sentence (two or more main clauses) and the complex sentence (at least one subordinate clause). ■ iubordinnli; dnuse - rnntn cltiuiii When government aid finally came, many people had already been reduced ——j .....-........—— main clause ———— to poverty and others had been forced to move. Exercise 24.1 Identifying sentence structures Mark the main clauses and subordinate clauses in the following paragraphs. Then identify each sentence as simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex. Example: main clause suboicfinate clausei The human voice is produced in the larynx, which has two bands called vocal cords. [Complex.] 1 Our world has many sounds, but they all have one thing in common. 2 They are all produced by vibrations. 3 Vibrations make the air move in waves, and these sound waves travel to the ear. -i When the waves enter the ear, the auditory nerves convey them to the brain, and the brain interprets them. 5 Some sounds are pleasant, and others, which we call noise, are not. 6 Pleasant sounds, such as music, are produced by regular vibrations at regular intervals. 7 Most noises are produced by irregular vibrations at irregular intervals; an example is the barking of a dog. 8 Sounds, both pleasant and unpleasant, have frequency and pitch. 9 When an object vibrates rapidly, it produces high-frequency, high-pitched sounds. 10 People can hear sounds over a wide range of frequencies, but dogs, cats, and many other animals can hear high frequencies that humans cannot. Verbs Verbs express actions, conditions, and states of being. The basic uses and forms of verbs are described on pp. 192-93. This section explains and solves the most common problems with verbs' forms (Chapter 25), tenses (26), mood (27), and voice (28) and shows how to make verbs match their subjects (29). 25a nd other irregular verbs. Most verbs are regular: they form their past tense and past participle by adding -d or -ed to the plain form. Plain form live act Past tense lived acted Past participle lived acted About two hundred English verbs are irregular: they form their past tense and past participle in some irregular way. Check a dic-lionary under the verb's plain form if you have any doubt about its other forms. If the verb is iiregular, the dictionary will list the plain form, the past tense, and the past participle in that order (go, went, gone). If the dictionary gives only two forms (as in think, thought), then the past tense and the past participle are the same. Common irregular verbs Plain form Past tense Past participle be was, were been become became become begin began begun bid bid bid bite bit bitten, bit blow blew blown break broke broken bring brought brought burst burst burst buy bought bought catch caught caught choose chose chosen come came come cut cut cut dive dived, dove dived do did done dream dreamed, dreamt dreamed, dreamt (continued) comp Visit mycomplab.com for more resources and exercises on verb forms. 213 Sentence Faults A word group punctuated as a sentence will confuse or annoy readers if it lacks needed parts, has too many parts, or has parts that don't fit together. A sentence fragment is part of a sentence that is set off as if it were a whole sentence by an initial capital letter and a final period or other end punctuation. Although writers occasionally use fragments deliberately and effectively (see p. 283), readers perceive most fragments as serious errors. Grammar checkers A grammar checker can spot many but not all sentence fragments, and it may flag sentences that are actually commands, such as Continue reading. 35a Test your sentences for completeness. A word group that is punctuated as a sentence should pass all three of the following tests. If it does not, it is a fragment and needs revision. Complete sentence versus sentence fragment A complete sentence or main clause 1. contains a subject and a predicate verb (The wind blows) 2. and is not a subordinate clause (beginning with a word such as because or who). A sentence fragment 1. lacks a predicate verb (The wind blowing), 2. or lacks a subject {And blows), 3. or is a subordinate clause not attached to a complete sentence (Because the wind blows). ~~~~ \ comp - • i|j I Visit mycomplab.com for more resources and exercises 280 i on sentence fragments. Tests for fragments frag 35a 281 Test 1: Find the predicate verb. Look for a verb that can sen'e as the predicate of a sentence. Some fragments lack any verb at all: Fragment Uncountable numbers of sites on the Web. Revised Uncountable numbers of sites ir^akejjp the Web. Other fragments may include a verb form but not a finite verb, one that changes form as indicated below. A verbal does not change; it cannot serve as a predicate verb without the aid of a helping verb. Finite verbs in complete sentences Singular The network grows. Plural Networks grow. Present The network grows. Past The network grew. Future The network will grow. Verbals in sentence fragments The network growing. Networks growing. The network growing. ^^^tTj^n. Some languages allow forms of be to be omitted as Viangua<^' ]ie|pjng verbs or linking verbs. But English requires stating forms of he, as shown in the following revised example. Fragments The network growing, it much larger than its developers anticipated. Revised The network is growing. It is much larger than its developers anticipated. Test 2: Find the subject. The subject of the sentence will usually come before the verb. If there is no subject, the word group is probably a fragment: Fragment And has enormous popular appeal. Revised And the Web has enormous popular appeal. Key terms-................- predicate The part of a sentence containing a verb that asserts something about the subject: Ducks swim. (See pp. 197-98.) verbal A verb form that can serve as a noun, a modifier, or a part of a sentence verb, but not alone as the only verb of a sentence: drawing, to draw, drawn. (See p. 205.) helping verb A verb such as is, were, have, might, and could that combines with various verb forms to indicate time and other kinds of meaning: for instance, were drawing, might draw. (See p. 193.) subject The part of a sentence that names who or what performs the action or makes the assertion of the predicate: Ducks swim. (See pp. 197-98.) 282 Sentence fragments In one kind of complete sentence, a command, the subject you is understood: [You] Experiment w'uli t)ie Web. /f*"ciii.tutie"%tn Some languages allow the omission of Hie sen-^^J^^i^y tence subject, especially when it is a pronoun. But in English, except in commands, the subject is always stated: Fragment Web commerce has expanded dramatically. Has hurt traditional stores. Web commerce has expanded dramatically. It has hurt traditional stores. Revised Test 3: Make sure the clause is not subordinate. A subordinate clause usually begins with a subordinating word, such as one of the following: Subordinating conjunctions after once until although since when as than where because that whereas if unless while Relative pronouns that who/whom which whoever/whomever whose Subordinale clauses seive as parts of sentences (as nouns or modifiers), not as whole sentences: Fragment When the government devised the Internet. Revised The government devised the Internet. Revised When the government devised the Internet, no_ expansive computer network existed. Fragment The reason that the government devised the Internet. Revised The reason that the government devised the Internet was to link departments and defense contractors. Note Questions beginning with how, what, when, witere, whidi, who, whom, whose, and why are not sentence fragments: Who was responsible? When did it happen? [35b] Revise sentence fragments. Almost all sentence fragments can be corrected in one of the two ways shown in the box on the facing page. The choree depends r Key term---___ subordinate clause A word group that contains a subject and a predicate begins with a subordinating word such as became or who, and is not a question: Ducks can swim whenthey are young. A subordinate clause may serve as a modifier or as a noun. (See pp. 208-09.) Acceptable fragments j^j^Cj 283 on the importance of the information in the fragment and thus how much you want to stress it. Revision of sentence fragments Option 1 Rewrite the fragment as a complete sentence. This revision gives the information in the fragment the same importance as that in other complete sentences. Fragment A major improvement in public health occurred with the widespread use of vaccines. Which protected children Revised A major improvement in public health occurred with the widespread use of vaccines. They protected children against life-threatening diseases. Two main clauses may be separated by a semicolon instead of a period (see 5 p. 318). Option 2 Combine the fragment with a main clause. This revision subordinates the information in the fragment to the information in the main clause. Fragment The polio vaccine eradicated the disease from most of the globe. The first vaccine to be used widely. Revised The polio vaccine, the first to be used widely ,.eradicated the disease from most of the globe. Be aware of the acceptable uses of incomplete sentences. A few word groups lacking the usual subject-predicate combination are incomplete sentences, but they are not fragments because (hey conform to the expectations of most readers. They include commands (Move along. Shut the window.); exclamations {Oh no!}; questions and answers (Wfiere next? To Kansas.); and descriptions in employment resumes [Weekly volunteer in soup kitchen.) Experienced writers sometimes use sentence fragments, when they want to achieve a special effect. Such fragments appear more in informal than in formal writing. Unless you are experienced and thoroughly secure in your own writing, you should avoid all fragments and concentrate on writing clear, well-formed sentences. 284 frag 35c Sentence fragments Exercise 35.1 Identifying and revising sentence fragments Apply the tests for completeness to each of the word groups in the following paragraph. If a word group is a complete sentence, mark the number preceding it. If it is a sentence fragment, revise it in two ways: by making it a complete sentence, and by combining it with a main clause written from the information given in other items. Example: And could help. [The word group has a verb (could. . . help) but no subject.] Revised into a complete sentence: And he could help. Combined with a new main clause: Hejiad money and could help. 1 In an interesting magazine article about vandalism against works of art. 2 The focus was on the vandals themselves. 3 The motives of the vandals varying widely. -1 Those who harm artwork are usually angry. 5 But not necessarily at the artist or the owner. 6 For instance, a man who hammered at Michelangelo's Pieta. 7 And knocked off the Virgin Mary's nose. 8 Because he was angry with the Roman Catholic Church. 9 Which knew nothing of his grievance. 10 Although many damaged works can be repaired. 1 "i Usually even the most skillful repairs are forever visible. Exercise 35.2 Revising: Sentence fragments Correct any sentence fragment in the fallowing items either by combining it with a complete sentence or by making it a complete sentence. If an item contains no sentence fragment, mark the number preceding it. Example: Jujitsu is good for self-protection. Because it enables one to overcome an opponent without the use of weapons. Jujitsu is good for self-protection; because it enables one to overcome an opponent without the use of weapons. Or; Jujitsu is good for self-protection. It enables one to overcome an opponent without the use of weapons. "I Human beings who perfume themselves. They are not much different from other animals. 2 Animals as varied as insects and dogs release pheromones. Chemicals that signal other animals. 3 Human beings have a diminished sense of smell. And do not consciously detect most of their own species' pheromones. 4 The human substitute for pheromones may be perfumes. Most common in ancient times were musk and other fragrances derived from animal oils. 5 Some sources say that people began using perfume to cover up the smell of burning flesh. During sacrifices to the gods. 6 Perfumes became religious offerings in their own right. Being expensive to make, they were highly prized. 7 The earliest historical documents from the Middle East record the use of fragrances. Not only in religious ceremonies but on the body. Comma splices and fused sentences 8 In the nineteenth century, chemists began synthesizing perfume oils. Which previously could be made only from natural sources. 9 The most popular animal oil for perfume today is musk. Although some people dislike its heavy, sweet odor. 10 Synthetic musk oil would help conserve a certain species of deer. Whose gland is the source of musk. Exercise 35.3 Revising: Sentence fragments Revise the following paragraph to eliminate sentence fragments by combining them with main clauses or rewriting them as main clauses. Baby red-eared slider turtles are brightly colored. With bold patterns on their yellowish undershells. Which serve as a warning to predators. The bright colors of skunks and other animals. They signal that the animals will spray nasty chemicals. In contrast, the turtle's colors warn largemouth bass. That the baby turtle will actively defend itself. When a bass gulps down a turtle. The feisty baby claws and bites. Farcing the bass to spit it out. To avoid a similar painful experience. The bass will avoid other baby red-eared slider turtles. The turtle loses its bright colors as it grows too big. For a bass's afternoon snack. 285 When two main clauses fall in a raw, readers need a signal that one main clause is ending and another is beginning. The Tour ways to provide this signal appear in the box on the next page. Two problems in punctuating main clauses fail to signal the break between main clauses. One is the comma splice, in which the clauses are joined {or spliced) only with a comma: Comma splice The ship was huge, its mast stood eighty feet high. The other is the fused sentence (or run-on sentence), in which no punctuation or conjunction appears between the clauses. Fused sentence The ship was huge its mast stood eighty feet high. Key term ——-~~" " main clause A word group that can stand alone as a sentence because it contains a subject and a predicate and does not begin with a subordinating word: A dictionary is essential. comp !, Visit mycomplab.com for more resources and exercises on comma splices and fused sentences. H 286 cs/fs 36 Comma splices and fused sentences Punctuation of two or more main clauses Separate main clauses with periods. Main crause Main clause Hybrid cars are popular with consumersAutomaker; are releasinq new models. Main clauses without and, but, etc. | 36a ff*"cutTuni-^x In standard American English, a sentence may not V^ujctiACEj/ ;nc]llcie more than one main clause unless the clauses are separated by a comma and a coordinating conjunction or by a semicolon. If your native language does not have such a rule or has accustomed you to writing long sentences, you may need to edit your English writing especially Cor comma splices and fused sentences. 287 Link main clauses with a coordinating conjunction and a comma. for and or Main clause so but nor main clause . yet Hybrid cars are popular with consumers ,,and automakers are releasing new models. Link main clauses with a semicolon. Main clause main clause Hybrid cars are popular with consumers;- automakers are releasing new models. Relate main clauses with a semicolon and a conjunctive adverb or transitional expression. however. Main clause ) for example, , main clause etc, Hybrid cars are popular with consumers; as a result, automakers are releasing new models. Grammar checkers A grammar checker can detect many comma splices, but it will miss most fused sentences. For example, a checker flagged Money is tight, we need to spend carefully but not Mouev is tight we need to spend carefully. A checker may also question sentences that are actually correct, such as Money being tighter now than before, we need to spend carefully. |- Key terms--___ coordinating conjunction And, but, or, nor, for, so, yet. (See p. 196.) conjunctive adverb A modifier that describes the relation of the ideas in two clauses, such as consequently, however, indeed, and therefore. (See p. 289.) F36a1 ^ePa,ate ma'n causes not joined by and, bat, L_™J or another coordinating conjunction. If your readers point out comma splices or fused sentences in your writing, you're not creating enough separation between main clauses in your sentences. Punctuate consecutive main clauses in the following ways. Separate sentences Make the clauses into separate sentences when the ideas expressed are only loosely related; Comma splice Chemistry has contributed much to our understanding of foods, many foods such as wheat and beans can be produced in the laboratory. Revised Chemistry has contributed much to our understanding of foods. Many foods such as wheat and beans can be produced in the laboratory. Coordinating conjunction Insert a coordinating conjunction in a comma splice when the ideas in the main clauses ate closely related and equally important: Comma splice Some laboratory-grown foods taste good, they are nutritious. Revised Some (aboratory-grown foods laste good, and they are nutritious. In a fused sentence insert a comma and a coordinating conjunction: Fused sentence Chemists have made much progress they still have a way to go. Revised Chemists have mode much progress, but they still have a way to go. Semicolon Insert a semicolon between clauses if the relation between the ideas is very close and obvious without a cunjunelion: 288 cs/fs 36b Comma splices and fused sentences Comma splice Good taste is rare in laboratory-grown vegetables, they are usually bland. Revised Good taste is rare in laboratory-grown vegetables;; they are usually bland. Subordination When one idea is less important (han the other, express the less important idea in a subordinate clause: Comma splice The vitamins are adequate, the flavor is deficient. Revised Even though the vitamins are adequate, the flavor is de- ficient. r^gjgl Separate main clauses related by however, L™J for example, and so on. Two groups of words describe how one main clause relates to another: conjunctive adverbs and other transitional expressions. (See 1 pp. 44-45 Ibra longer lis! of transitional expressions.) Common conjunctive adverbs and transitional expressions accordingly for instance instead on the contrary anyway further in the meantime otherwise as a result furthermore in the past similarly at last hence likewise still besides however meanwhile that is certainly incidentally moreover then consequently in contrast namely thereafter even so indeed nevertheless therefore finally in fact nonetheless thus for all that in other words now undoubtedly for example in short of course until now When two main clauses are related by a conjunctive adverb or another transitional expression, they must be separated by a period or by a semicolon. The adverb or expression is also generally set off bv a comma or commas. r Key term--— subordinate clause A word group that contains a subject and a predicate, begins with a subordinating word such as because or who, and is not a question; Ducks can swim when they are young. A subordinate clause may serve as a modifier or as a noun. (See ppV20S-09.) Main clauses with however, for example, etc. cs/ts 36b 289 Comma splice Healthcare costs are higher in the United States than in many other countries, consequently health insurance is also more costly. Revised Healthcare costs are higher in the United States than in many other countries* Consequently, health insurance is also more costly. Revised Healthcare costs are higher in the United States than in many other countries; consequently, health insurance is also more costly. Conjunctive adverbs and transitional expressions are different from coordinating conjunctions (and, but, and so on) and subordinating conjunctions (although, because, and so on): v Unlike conjunctions, conjunctive adverbs and transitional expressions do not join two clauses into a grammatical unit. They merely describe the way two clauses relate in meaning. Unlike conjunctions, conjunctive adverbs and transitional expressions can be moved within a clause. No matter where in the clause an adverb or expression falls, though, the clause must be separated from another main clause by a period or semicolon: Most Americans refuse to give up unhealthfuS habits;,our medical costs, consequently, are higher than those of many other countries. Exercise 36.1 Identifying and revising comma splices Correct each comma splice below in two of the ways described on pp. 287-88. If a sentence contains no comma splice, mark the number preceding it. 1 Money has a long history, it goes back at least as far as the earliest records. 2 Many of the earliest records concern financial transactions, indeed, early history must often be inferred from commercial activity. 3 Every known society has had a system of money, though the objects serving as money have varied widely. ■! Sometimes the objects had actual value for the society, examples include cattle and fermented beverages. 5 Today, in contrast, money may be made of worthless paper, or it may even consist of a bit of data in a computer's memory. 6 We think of money as valuable, only our common faith in it makes it valuable. 7 That faith is sometimes Fragile, consequently, currencies themselves are fragile. & Economic crises often shake the belief in money, indeed, such weakened faith helped cause the Great Depression of the 1930s. Exercise 36.2 Identifying and revising fused sentences Revise each of the fused sentences in the following paragraph in two of the four ways shown on pp. 287-88. tf a sentence is correct as given, mark the number preceding it. 290 36 Comma splices and fused sentences 1 Throughout history money and religion were closely linked there was little distinction between government and religion. 2 The head of state and the religious leader were often the same person so that all power rested in one ruler. 3 These powerful leaders decided what objects would serve as money their backing encouraged public faith in the money. 4 Coins were minted of precious metals the religious overtones of money were then strengthened. 5 People already believed the precious metals to be divine their use in money intensified its allure. Exercise 36.3 Sentence combining to avoid comma splices and fused sentences Using the method suggested in parentheses, combine each pair of sentences below into one sentence without creating a comma splice or fused sentence. Example: The sun sank lower in the sky. The colors gradually faded. (Subordinate one clause to the other.) As the sun sank lower in the sky,, the colors gradually faded. ! The exact origin of paper money is unknown. It has not survived as coins, shells, and other durable objects have. {Subordinate one clause to the other.) 2 Scholars disagree over where paper money originated. Many believe it was first used in Europe. (Subordinate one clause to the other.) 3 Perhaps goldsmiths were also gold bankers. They held the gold of their wealthy customers. (Supply a semicolon and a conjunctive adverb or transitional expression.) 4 The goldsmiths probably gave customers receipts for their gold. These receipts were then used in trade. (Supply o comma and coordinating conjunction.) 5 The goldsmiths were something like modern-day bankers. Their receipts were something like modern-day money. (Supply a semicolon.) Exercise 36.4 Revising: Comma splices and fused sentences Revise each comma splice and fused sentence in the following paragraphs using the technique that seems most appropriate for the meaning. What many call the first genocide of modern times occurred during World War I, the Armenians were deported from their homes in Anatolia, Turkey. The Turkish government assumed that the Armenians were sympathetic to Russia, with whom the Turks were at war. Many Armenians died because of the hardships of the journey many were massacred. The death toll was estimated at between 600,000 and 1 million. Many of the deported Armenians migrated to Russia, in 1918 they established the Republic of Armenia, they continued to be attacked by Turkey, in 1920 they became the Soviet Republic of Armenia rather than surrender to the Turks. Like other Soviet republics, Armenia became independent in 1991, about 3.4 million Armenians live there now. A mixed sentence cnninins parts thai dn nut lit moodier. The misfit may be in meaning or in grammar. Grammar checkers A grammar checker may recognize a simple mixed construction such as reason is because, but it will fail to flag most mixed sentences. j*37a^ Match subjects and predicates in meaning. In a sentence with mixed meaning, the subject is said to do or be something illogical. Such a mixture is sometimes called faulty predication because the predicate conflicts with the subject. |jHj Illogical equation with he When a form at he connects a subject and a word that describes the subject (a complement), the subject and complement must be logically related: Mixed A compromise between the city and the country would be the ideal place to live. Revised A comniunity that offered the best qualities of both city and CQuntry~WHd^the^deal place to live. [lTj Is when, is where Definitions require nouns on both sides of be. Clauses that define and begin with when or where are common in speech but should be avoided in writing: Mixed An examination is when you are tested on what you know. Revised An examination is a test of what you know. r Key terms — T7~™7whn or what performs the ac- subiect The part of a %■ <** W- 197-98'> .....• about the subject: Geesej^S*^^--- I Visit mycomptab.com for more resources on I sentences. mixed 291 292 mixed 37b Mixed sentences 3 Reason is because The commonly heard construction reason is because is redundant since because means "for the reason that": Mixed The reason the temple requests donations is because the school needs expansion. """""""' Revised The reason the temple requests donations isjhat the school needs expansion. Revised The temple requests donations because the school needs expansion. mother mixed meaninqs Faulty predications are not confined to sentences with be; Mixed The use of emission contrö^s^Q^ated to reduce air pollution. Revised Emission controls were created to reduce air pollution. [37bj[ Untangle sentences that are mixed in grammar. Many mixed sentences start with one grammatical plan or construction but end with a different one: -modifier(prepositional phrase)- verb Mixed By paying more attention to impressions than facts leads us to misjudge others. ■ modifier {preposilionn! phniie)- Revised By paying more attention to impressions than facts we verb ' ™ misjudge others. Constructions that use Just because clauses as subjects are common in speech but should be avoided in writing: ,-modifier (subofdinale duuse)—-_verb —, Mixed fust because no one is watching doesn't mean we have license to break the law. ,— modifier (subordinate clause)—, subject : verb Revised Even when no one is watching, wedon't have license to break the law. — A mixed sentence is especially likely when you are working on a computer and connect parts of two sentences or rewrite half a sentence but not the other half. A mixed sentence may also occur when you don't make the subject and predicate verb carry the principal meaning. (See 3 p. 143.) Repeated subjects and other parts 37C 293 Exercise 37.1 Revising: Mixed sentences Revise the following paragraph so that sentence parts fit together both in grammar and in meaning. Each item has more than one possible answer. If a sentence is correct as given, mark the number preceding it. i A hurricane is when the winds in a tropical depression rotate counterclockwise at more than seventy-four miles per hour. 2 People fear hurricanes because they can destroy lives and property. 3 Through storm surge, high winds, floods, and tornadoes is how hurricanes have killed thousands of people. 4 Storm surge is where the hurricane's winds whip up a tide that spills over seawalls and deluges coastal islands. 5 The winds themselves are also destructive, uprooting trees and smashing buildings. 6 By packing winds of 150 to 200 miles per hour is how a hurricane inflicts terrible damage even on inland towns. 7 However, the worst damage to inland areas occurs when tornadoes and floods strike. 8 Many scientists observe that hurricanes in recent years they have become more ferocious and destructive. 9 However, in the last half-century, with improved communication systems and weather satellites have made hurricanes less deadly. 10 The reason is because people have more time to escape. 11 The emphasis on evacuation is in fact the best way for people to avoid a hurricane's force. 12 5imply boarding up a house's windows will not protect a family from wind, water surges, and flying debris. State parts of sentences, such as ^aJTrmu^ subjects, only once. ^cum*>> In some languages other than English, certain parts of sentences may be repeated. These include the subject in any kind of clause or an object or adverb in an adjective clause. In English, however, these parts ai'e staled only once in a clause. [l J Repetition of subject You may be tempted to restate a subject as a pronoun before the verb. But the subject needs stating only once in its clause: Faulty The liquid it reached a temperature of 180°F. Revised Tile liquid reached a temperature of 180°F. Faulty Gases in the liquid they escaped. Revised Gases in the liquid escaped. [2j Repetition in an adjective clause Adjective clauses begin with who, whom, whose, which, that, where, and when (see also p. 209). The beginning word replaces another word: the subject (fJe is the person who called), an object of a mixed 294 f 37c Mixed sentences verb or preposition (He is the person whom I mentioned), or a preposition and pronoun (He knows the office where [in which] the confer-ence will occur). Do not state the word being replaced in an adjective clause: Faulty The technician whom the test depended on her was burned. [Whom should replace her.] Revised The technician wjiom the test depended on was burned. Adjective clauses beginning with where or when do not need an adverb such as there or then; Faulty Gases escaped at a moment when the technician was unprepared then. Revised Gases escaped at a moment when the technician was unprepared. Note Whom, which, and similar words are sometimes omitted but are still understood by the reader. Thus the word being replaced should not be stated. Faulty Accidents rarely happen to technicians the lab has trained them. [Whom is understood:. . . technicians whom the lab has trained.] Revised Accidents rarely happen to technicians the lab has trained. Exercise 37.2 Revising: Repeated subjects and other parts Revise the sentences in the following paragraph to eliminate any un-needed words, if a sentence is correct as given, mark the number preceding it. I Archaeologists and other scientists they can often determine the age of their discoveries by means of radiocarbon dating. 2 This technique is based on the fact that all living organisms contain carbon. 3 The most common isotope is carbon 12, which it contains six protons and six neutrons. 4 A few carbon atoms are classified as the isotope carbon 14, where the nucleus consists of six protons and eight neutrons there. 5 Because of the extra neutrons, the carbon 14 atom it is unstable. 6 What is significant about the carbon 14 atom is its half-life of 5700 years. 7 Scientists they measure the proportion of carbon 14 to carbon 12 and estimate the age of the specimen. 8 Radiocarbon dating it can be used on any material that was once living, but it is most accurate with specimens between 500 and 50,000 years old. 38 End Punctuation 297 39 The Comma 300 The Semicolon 317 The Colon 322 The Apostrophe 325 43 Quotation Marks 332 Other Marks 337 mi ■ I: