1
The Carp – traditions and ecology
DRAFT COPY DATED 7.12.2011
Hans-Jørgen Wallin Weihe and Gabriela Konecna
(Editors)
EDITORS:
Hans-Jørgen Wallin Weihe
H-J.Wallin.Weihe@hil.no
Lillehammer University College
Box 952
2604 Lilllehammer
NORWAY
Telephone 0047 900 17 623
Gabriela Konecna
for.ever.young@seznam.cz
Masaryk University
Department of Environmental Studies
Faculty of Social Studies
Joštova 218/10
602 00 Brno
Czech Republic
CONTRIBUTORS:
Carsten Syvertsen
Carsten.m.syvertsen@hiof.no
Department of economy, language and social studies
Østfold University College
Remmen
1757 Halden
Tlf 0047 99 29 4252
(ECONOMIC HISTORY)
Jan Gunnar Vasaasen
Jan.ove.vasaasen@maihaugen.no
Maihaugen Museum
Maihaugveien 1
2609 Lillehammer
Lillehammer
Tlf 0047 48 03 87 15
(SPORT FISHING)
Olav Myrholt
Tlf 0047 91 66 3 5 42
Environmental advisor IOC
Environmental advisor The Norwegian Development Fund
(NEPAL AQUACULTURE)
deurali@online.no
2
Monika Sokol-Rudowska
Ethnographer
Oppland Archives Maihaugen
Monika.sokol.rudowska@maihaugen.no
Kjersti Sissener
Art Historian
Huk Aveny 15
0287 Oslo
Tlf. 0047 92043100
Bluebrdkm@aol.com,
Svein A. Fosså
Limnologist/biology – Fishpond specialist
mail@svein.nop
http://www.svein.no
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DOCUMENT: carp.doc
Date: 17.10.2010 -7.12.2011
Pages: 83 - 87
Words 17.884 – 19.740
Signs 112.638 – 124.087
NEW ADDITIONS OR CHANGES FROM LAST MONTHS DOCUMENT IN RED
LETTERS.
NEW COMMENTS AND CHANGES IN RED LETTERS.
General comments:
Wikipedia sources will be either supplemented with scientific and quality controlled
sources or used as secondary sources.
4
CONTENT
Preface
Introduction
PART I GENERAL INFORMATION
Ecological factors to introductions
Introductions and politics
Carp and religion
Food and traditions of the table
Folk medicine
Folk traditions
Pond farming
Ornamental aspects
Art
Sport
Accidental introductions
PART II CASE EXAMPLES
Case examples Norway
Bogstad Park and estate
Kinnshaugen
The Maihaugen museum ponds
The Saug pond
Case examples Czech Republic
Case examples Nepal
Polish immigrants to Norway fishing and food traditions (Suggested title, might be
changed)
PART III SPECIES OF CARP FISH (INCLUDING SOME RELATED SPECIES)
Bighead carp (Other names used in English: Chinese Carp, Carp )(Hypothalmichthys
nobilis)
Black carp (Other names used in English: Chinese carp, Carp (Mylopharyngodon piceus)
Carp (Other names used in English: Common Carp, German Carp, European Carp,
Mirror carp, Leather Carp. Old World Minnow) (Cyprinus carpio)
Crucian Carp (Other names used in English: Prussian Carp, European Crucian Carp)
(Carassius carassius)
Goldfish (Other name used in English: Golden Carp(Cyprinus auratus auratus
Grass carp (Other names used in English: Chinese Carp, Carp, White Amur)
(Ctenopharyngodon idella)
Koi carp (Other name used in English: Carp )(Cyprinus carpio haematopterus)
Kuria labeo (Other names used in English: Indian Carp) (Labeo gonius)
Largesscale Silver Carp (Other names used in English: Silver Carp, Carp, Chinese
carp, Flying Carp) (Hypothalmichthys harmandi)
Minnow (Phoxinus phoxinus)
Prussian Carp, (Carssius gibelio)
5
Silver Carp (Other names used in English: Chinese Carp, Carp, Flying Carp)
(Hypothalmichthys molitrix)
Tench (Tinca tinca)
Tor khudree (Other names used in English: Indian Carp, Carp) (Tor khudree)
PART IV THE ETHICS OF CARP
Our relationship to other living beings
The Carps relationship to humans
The manipulated environment and the global market
The Ethical considerations
The Spirituality of being part of
PART V GLOSSARY OF TERM, LITERATURE AND INDEX
Glossary of terms
Literature
Index
6
Preface
The focus of this book is carp fish used in aquaculture and the traditions connected to use of
such carp fish. A great number of species of carp fish have been used for aquaculture. In
Europe the Carp (Cyprinus carpio) and in some northern areas the Crucian Carp (Carassius
carassius) have been traditionally used for aquaculture and food. In Asia a number of other
species have been used and some of them have later been introduced to other continents.
Countries like the Czech Republic, Norway, China and India have far different historical
traditions for the use of carp and aquaculture with carp. In the Czech Republic and in Asia
there are long and strong traditions for use of carp, while there are few such traditions in
Norway. However, historically Carp, the close relative Crucian carp and Tench have been
introduced and in the country and used in ponds and to some extent in aquaculture. In Norway
a number of wild populations of Crucian Carp and Tench exist and a few populations of Carp
in the South-eastern part of the country. The latter populations seem to be in continuous need
of re-stocking, which is done by interested sport fishermen specializing in angling for carp. In
the warmer climate of the Czech Republic Carp have no problem spawning in the wild and
aquaculture of carp has long traditions.
Asian traditions for aquaculture are even older and several more species of carp has been used
for aquaculture. Recently new immigrant groups from Europe and Asia has brought their
traditions to Norway. Thus, old traditions like those from the Czech Republic and Asia are
increasingly introduced to the country. In the Czech Republic modern aquaculture has after
the Second World War increasingly supplemented traditional aquaculture with new species of
carp from Asia. Increasing communication and cultural exchange means that people
increasingly use knowledge from other countries and have to relate to the cultural traditions of
other areas. Still cultural exchange is as old as humanity – people have always benefitted to
the knowledge and traditions of others, and they have always introduced new species of
plants, animals and traditions as part of their contact.
Recently it has been focus upon the environmental aspects of introductions of new species of
carp and the environmental problems with aquaculture and even the use of fish in garden
ponds and for ornamental purposes. Such criticism has been the matter of considerable
controversies.
This book is a co-operation between Gabriela Konecna from the Environmental Studies at the
Masaryk University in Brno in the Czech Republic and Hans-Jørgen Wallin Weihe from
Lillehammer University College and the Maihaugen Museum. A number of other authors
have been involved in the project. Carsten Syvertsen from Østfold University College has
looked into the economical aspects and the connection to the natural ice production in the
Southern part of Norway, Jan Gunnar Vasaasen from Maihaugen Museum at sport fishing
traditions, the art historian Kjersti Sissener have contributed with knowledge of Norwegian
estates and art, the limnologist and freshwater biologist Svein A. Fosså on fish biology and
park and garden ponds and the environmental advisor Olav Myrholt into ecological aspects as
well as giving examples of aquaculture from Nepal.
Co-operating and coming from far different traditions has been an interesting process. We
have to relate to far different attitudes and in that process what is presented as “facts”
suddenly turning out to be subjective data illuminating cultural and ecological differences.
7
Still, this is an edited work with individual or co-operating authors to the different chapters.
The different chapters are the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily reflect the
views of other contributing authors.
A great number of other people have assisted us in the process of writing. We wish to thank
them for their sharing.
Brno and Lillehammer December 2011
Gabriela Konecna and Hans-Jørgen Wallin Weihe
8
Introduction
The Carp (Cyprinus carpio) has been related to human civilizations both in Asia, North Africa
and Europe. As European immigrants and colonization have arrived in other continents the
carp has been introduced both to North America, the rest of Africa and Australia. The carp
has been introduced both as a farm fish, as a source of food in the wild and as an ornamental
fish. It has even been used as a political fish, being given as present of political good-will to
potential voters and supporters. There are several carp fish used in aquaculture. In this book
we will focus on the carp fishes traditionally used in European aquaculture, the most
important being the Carp (Cyprinus carpio). Other traditional species of less importance used
in aquaculture, such as the Crucian Carp(Carassius carassius) and the Tench (Tinca tinca), are
also described. Information of a number of species of Asian carp fish recently introduced in
European aquaculture will also be given, as well as a few other carp fish traditionally used.
The strangest to most will most likely be the inclusion of the Minnow (Phoxinus phoxinus),
which is reported to be used in aquaculture in Siberia.
A few other species of fish sometimes used in aquaculture in combination with carp, such as
Eel (Anguilla Anguilla), Perch (Perca fluvilatis), European Catfish (Silurus glanis) and Pike
(Esox lucius), will be briefly mentioned. However, such species will not be covered with
biological or cultural data.
Carp has since historical times been used as a farm pond-fish both in Asia and Europe.
Several authors have written about the contrasting philosophies of the east and west
concerning human interaction with nature. The modern western culture has been accused of
being in conflict with nature with attempts to dominate through science and technology, while
the east humans have integrated and a benign part of nature (Borgese, 1980 and Edwards,
2007.28). In such an understanding aquaculture has a philosophical base in the east and
scientific base in the west.
Other authors will dispute such an understanding and point out that aquaculture in Central and
Eastern Europe has an almost 1000 year old history and that the consumption of carp is
closely related to old religious and cultural traditions ( Edwards, 2007:28) Some of them most
likely dating back far before Christianity and quite possibly representing traditions just as old
as traditions of cultivating land and doing farming. However, one of the obvious differences is
between aquaculture pursued as monoculture and aquaculture pursued as polyculture.
Monocultures tend to be large commercial activities and polycultures less extensive and
balanced in a more ecological friendly way (Aurmo, 2008). Both types of cultures exist both
in Asia and Europe with several different species of fish. In Norway monocultures of salmon
in saltwater is of major commercial importance, while monoculture of carp exist in the Czech
Republic.
A number of other carp fish have been used and introduced in the same way as the Cyprinus
carpio. Partly the introductions have been done as an alternative to Cyprinus carpio and partly
as a combination. In addition different strains of Cyprinus carpio has been mixed to make
different breeds. Among the challenges in breeding has been both genetic differences and
different tolerance to sickness and parasites (Penham, Gupta and Dey, 2005).
The European Crucian carp (Cyprinus carassius), tolerates colder waters and thrives in
smaller ponds and under more difficult situations than the carp. The goldfish (Cyprinus
auratus) has mostly been introduced as an ornamental fish. Other species such as the Grass
9
carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) and the Bighead carp (Hypothalmichthys nobilis) are more
recent introductions partly because they eat water plants and algae and thus can open up
overgrown waters and partly as a food of source and for sport. Then of course introductions
also have to do with human curiosity. The result of introductions has in many cases been a
multiplying carp population often out-competing local fish populations, destroying water
vegetation and causing damage to the local environment.
Other Carp fish, such as the small minnows in the subfamily Leuciscinae, have to some extent
been of a commercial value and used as kind of pond fish in eastern Europe, however such
use seem to have been mostly local and north of were other carp thrives. In central Europe
aquaculture has been dominated by the carp (Cyprinus carpio) and to the extent other fish
have been used it has to a large extent been in combination with carp. An exception has been
the more recent aquaculture of trout and salmon.
In Norway carp aquaculture has been virtually non-existing, however the Crucian carp
(Carassius carassius) has been frequently used in ponds and was for many years a popular
continental fish. Cookbooks used up to the 1930s have recipes of dishes with the fish.
However, after that time the fish has been out of fashion until recently when new immigrant
groups have started to use the fish for their traditional meals. Among immigrants both Asian
and continental European traditions have been present. The Asian traditions are mostly among
Chinese, Vietnamese and Thai immigrants and the Continental European traditions are mostly
among Polish, Czech, Hungarian and to some extent Ukrainian immigrants. Likeways Tench
(Tinca tinca) was introduced to Norway in several different time periods. The latest around
1900, when the fish was highly recommended in aquaculture (SOURCE SVENSKE
LANDBRUKSTIDSSKRIFT). In the Czech Republic aquaculture and in continental Europe
aquaculture with all the above three species have long traditions. Fish from aquaculture has
been used in many traditional dishes and there are traditions connected both to Jewish and
Christian religious practice.
The classification of fish is sometimes confusing. The Crucian Carp (Carassius carassius), the
Prussian Carp (Carassius gibelio) and the wild from of goldfish (Carassius auratus auratus)
are sometimes classified as one species and sometimes as separate species. Another example
is the difference between Koi Carp and Carp (Cyprinus carpio), even if both carp and koi are
mostly given the same Latin name. The different strains of fish can have different tolerance to
sickness and have differences in ability to adapt to the environment. In many cases such
differences will be of great importance to protect and preserve. In pond culture Koi carp have
negatively influenced the European Carp used in pond culture by spreading herpes, on the
other hand positive aspect of mixing the strains have also been achieved.
Ecological factors have lately been a great concern all over the world. Both fish in the wild
and fish in aquaculture will be affected by pollution and the spread of sickness through the
introduction of new species and new waterways. The introduction of Koi resulted in Koiherpes
in European Carp populations and is one example of the first. The new Danube-Odra
Elbe Channel is one example of the latter. We do not know the entire consequences of that
canal project, but we do know from North America that such canals might result in the spread
of unwanted fish and organisms into new water systems. In the USA both the spread of
lamprey into the Great lakes is one example and lately the great risk of the Chicago Sanitary
and Ship Canal representing a possibility of the spread of introduced Chinese Silver Carp
(Hypothalmichthys molitrix) into the same lakes.
10
11
PART I GENERAL INFORMATION
12
Ecological factors to introductions
The protection of water and the environment has been part of early legislation. In India King
Asoka’s Pillar Edict V (246 B.C) gave legislation for fishing. Fish were protected during the
heights of spawning season and there were periods of the month when no fishing was allowed
(Borgese, 1980:17). At the same time introduction of fish into new waters and use of fish in
aquaculture have long traditions. The use of fish for ornamental purposes and as an animal
used as a pet, and for fighting undesirable insects seem also to have old traditions. In the same
way as humans domesticated dogs and cats, fish were domesticated partly to fight insects and
partly because they made nice company. The cat caught rodents; the fish caught mosquito
larvae’s.
In North America were carp has been introduced the fish is thought of as detrimental to native
fish populations as they increase the turbidity of the water and uproot and destroy submerged
aquatic vegetation that is important to survival of native species. The vegetation is of crucial
importance because it provides cover, food and spawning sites (Scott and Crossman,
1998:410). Both Goldfish and Carp are omnivorous feeders and will obviously compete with
other species for food. Both species will eat fish eggs and might also at times eat small just
spawned fish (Scott and Crossman, 1998:390 and 410). Since the carp is a prolific breeder the
fish the number of fish will under good living conditions rapidly increase in number and by
sheer number often dominate waters were it is introduced (McClane, 1974:197). Considerable
efforts are made by environmental authorities in many countries to eradicate or at least spread
the distribution of carp and koi (http://www.doc.govt.nz/conservation/threats-andimpacts/animal-pests/animal-pests
the 24.04.2010).
Another aspect of introduced fish has been parasites and sicknesses that might affect native
fish populations. Carp has been known to carry a small parasite fauna of trematodes,
cestnodes, nematodes and acanthocephalans, however in small quantities. Some authors list
substantially longer lists of parasites and further studies might give information of how such
parasites can affect local fish populations (Scott and Crossman, 1998:410). Goldfish in
overcrowded ponds have been prone to parasites, but the problem does not seem to affect wild
populations (Scott and Crossman, 1998:390). One example of sickness introduced with fish is
the Thelohanellus infection. The parasite was introduced to Europe from the Far East as a
result of introduction of fish and will be a problems for fingerlings of carp. The infection is a
problem for the traditional European fish farming (Molnar, 2002). The Koi herpes virus can
be improved with selective breeding (Lilleholt, 2008), however such breeding might alter
existing strains of carp. Thus the result of the introduction of a sickness like the herpes virus,
which already has affected European carp farming negatively, might be to alter both wild and
domesticated stock. We obviously do not know how such virus might influence wild
populations of different species of fish.
In carp pond farming eutrophication has been a problem and in countries with such farming,
like the Czech Republic, both the use of mineral fertilization and organic manure has been the
subject of regulation (Adamek, Berka and Huda, 2008.53). However such restrictions are
recent and not traditional pond farming, which often was combined with raising ducks and
even rotation with agricultural crops. The traditional ponds had a much lower yield than
modern and often functioned as an extension of other wetlands and probably benefitted the
local fauna.
13
The old pond farmers were careful in their use of nutrients. From an ecological point of view
it might be said that they used nutrients in a balanced way, while the modern sometimes
nearly industrial large scale fish farms of the years after the Second World War developed
fish farming into a kind of industry with grave consequences to the environment.
In the 1970s silver carp (Hypophtalmichthys molitrix) was imported to North America in
order to control algae growth in aquaculture and municipal wastewater treatment facilities.
They escaped from captivity and several populations are now established in nature. Together
with the also accidentally introduced bighead carp (Hypophtalmichthys nobilis) they compete
with native planktivorous fish and young fish of all species (Wikipedia,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver_carp, 20.04.2010). Another introduced species the black
carp (Mylopharyngodon piceus) feed on snails. Snails can be hosts of trematode pests that can
cause substantial losses to aquaculture crops. However, there are concern of black carp being
a serious threat to mollusks native to the USA and no state allows black carp to be released.
Black carp used in aquaculture has to be sterile, however for breeders it is necessary to have
some breeding stock of fertile black carp. In the USA there are reports of black carp caught in
the Missisippi and some of the fish has been found to fertile
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_carp 21.04.2010). Several species of Asian carp, such as
grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella), silver carp(Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) and bighead
carp (Hypothalmichthys nobilis) are used in European aquaculture and also to control growth
of plankton and undesired populations of snails(Adamek, Berka and Huda, 2008:68).Like in
the USA there are concerns of possible negative effects if wild populations are established.
However, most north and central European waters will most likely be too cold for spawning
and fish is both used as a way of ecological control (cleaning water from plankton) and as a
supplement fish in aquaculture.
In the management of undesired aquatic plants (weeds) grass carps have been found to be of
considerable help and a far better alternative than the use of chemical and/or physical removal
of such plants (Cafferey, 1999). However, introductions might pose other environmental
challenges such as spread of sickness, microorganisms and introduction of new breeding
populations of undesired fish. The destruction of aquatic plants can in some cases be a desired
effect, but in other cases an undesired causing problems to natural vegetations of benefit to
other fish and birds, and often creating unclear water with more sediments (Crivelli, 1983).
Even the use to control algae can sometimes cause problems. Some algae, like the toxic
Microcystis, have been shown to produce more toxins in the presence of silver carp. The
Microcystis can pass through the gut of silver carp unharmed. Still, the system of the silver
carp can contain enough toxins from the algae to make it hazardous to eat for humans
(Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver_carp, 20.04.2010). It is not known if such
toxins can harm predator fish and animals eating silver carp.
Carp fish of different species are frequently added to bodies of stagnant water to reduce
mosquito populations. One example is the use if gold fish to prevent the spread of the
dangerous West Nile Virus. However, introductions have often had negative consequences for
local ecosystems, even if they have reduced the amount of disease spreading mosquito
(http://wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldfish 21.04.2010).
The habitat use and movement of introduced carp has been the focus of studies (Økland,
2001). Obviously introduced species might out-compete local endemic species as the same
time as serving as an additional alternative food source both for humans and animals. In some
14
cases fish are introduced to lakes which have no prior population of fish. Introducing fish to
lakes or ponds lacking fish might lead to dramatic changes for invertebrates and amphibians
such as frogs, toads and salamanders (Gederaas, Salvesen and Viken 2007:35). Both gold fish
and Crucian carp have been introduced to such lakes with the predictable result of severely
diminishing local populations of such species. The goldfish is a common aquarium fish and
has often been released by the owner or the parents of the owner after tiring of the work of
their hobby (Gederaas, Salvesen and Viken 2007:44).
15
Introductions and politics
In 1876 the United States Fish Commission received 345 adult carp from Europe and placed
them in breeding ponds by Druid Hill Park in Baltimore in Maryland. Some of those fish and
their offspring were sent to Washington DC. The politicians in Washington rapidly got the
idea that giving carp to constituents in their home districts would increase support and votes.
The Fish Commission saw the political popularity of the fish as a great opportunity to gain
support to their organization and developed special refrigerated railroad cars in order to
ensure safe and efficient transportation. The result was that many politicians in Washington
ordered more carp and live carp both for ornamental ponds, stocking in waters and fishbreeding
became a standard political gift and expectation from political constituents. Hundred
thousands of carp were given away as gifts each year and the adaptable carp were soon found
all over the United States and soon spread into Mexico and Canada (McClane, 1974:197).
In the southern part of Africa carp was repeatedly introduced from the 1700 hundreds. The
introductions were successful and today there are a number of carp populations established in
reservoirs, rivers and lakes (Skelton, 1993). The fish introduced provided a much needed
source of protein. Thus the fish was part of the politics of providing a whole new
infrastructure needed to develop agriculture, industries, trade and urbanization (Skelton, 1993
and Økland, 1993).
16
Carp and religion
Both in Christianity and Judaism there are long traditions for use of carp and fish during fast
and certain festivities. Most likely those traditions are far older than both Christianity and
possibly also Judaism. The Greek philosopher Aristotles mentions carp in his writings dated
as early as 350 B.C (McClane, 1974:197).
Fish in general and carp specially is an important symbol in Buddhist religion and are thought
of as signs of the Footprint of Buddah. The fish on the Buddah footprints signified freedom
from all restraints. Buddah taught that everything in the world is connected by series ties that
makes the meshes in a net used to catch fish. Each mesh has its place and responsibilities in
relationship to other meshes (Borgese, 1980:89-90). Part of the Buddhist philosophy is that
man is part of the environment and that continuity exists between man and nature. Every
article entrusted to us is not “ours” but entrusted to us temporarily and must be used with
good care in some useful way. The eastern aquatic poly culture has an inbuilt relationship to
such values, thus making the practice of fish farming an integrated part of agriculture, human
life and spiritual practice (Borgese, 1980).
17
Food and traditions of the table
In many countries the use of carp is seasonal and connected to Christmas. In the Czech
Republic around 65 % of all carp production is sold for the Christmas Eve dinner. Usually the
carp is consumed in the forms of thick carp soup and deeply fried breaded carp steaks. Prior
to the meal the carp is often kept alive for a few days in the home. Quite often two carps are
bought one to be released and one to be eaten for the Christmas meal. Carp scales are thought
of as a symbol of happiness and wealth and the Christmas meal is connected to religious
practices. Still, in secular a secular society like the Czech Republic, the tradition is maintained
even by people who do not identify with the Christian religion (Adamek, Berka and Huda,
2008:52-53).
18
Folk medicine
The Chinese Black carp (Mylopharyngodon piceus) has been widely cultivated for use in
Chinese traditional medicine (Chu, 1989).
Fish can be prone to a number of sicknesses and ways of treating fish with traditional
medicine has been developed in many parts of the world. One example is from Cambodia
were fungus infestations was traditionally prevented by dumping cow dung and the bark of
certain trees, or a mixture of salt, mud and leaves into cages of fish during transportation the
markets (Borgese, 1980: 198). The treatment of the fish gives insights into old practices of
folk medicine and contains an inbuilt knowledge of the use of plants, bark and possibly
different types of mud.
19
Folk traditions
In the 1620s goldfish was highly regarded in the south of Europe because of their golden
scales that were thought to bring luck and fortune. It was a tradition that a man should give his
wife a goldfish for the first year anniversary as a symbol for the prosperous years to come.
The tradition disappeared as gold fish became more easily available
(http://wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldfish 21.04.2010).
In Chinese the word for abundance and fish (yu) are pronounced in the same way. The fish in
Chinese symbolizes wealth. At the Chinese new year festivities “luck money” is sometimes
given in envelopes decorated with carp or symbols of long life such as peach and pine trees.
In addition fish symbolizes harmony, martial happiness and reproduction. Fish multiply
rapidly and many large fish such as carp often swims in pairs. According to Chinese legends
people placed messages in the belly of fish. In that way the fish is often used as a symbol of
affection and wish to communicate with a distant loved one or a close friend.
The carp is in Chinese tradition carp is a powerful symbol of strength and perseverance. The
scales and whiskers of the carp resembeles the dragon, a great symbol of power and even the
emperor. .
20
Pond farming
Borgese (1980:15) dates the beginnings of agriculture and aquaculture back to 10.000 B.C. In
many parts of the world, like in China, the two systems have always been inseparably linked.
Some of the oldest known aquacultures in the world seem to have been in China. Practically
every Chinese traditional farm with aquaculture has brood pond, a spawning pond, a hatching
pond and a nursery pond. The polyculture pond system fills different ecological niches with
different kind of carp. The grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) feeds on large surface
vegetation, the silver carp (Hypothalmichthys molitrix) feeds on phytoplankton, the bighead
carp eats zooplankton and at the bottom the common carp (Cyprinus carpio) and the mud carp
(Cirrhus molitorella) feed on detritus and the black carp (Mylopharyngodon piceus) at snails.
In some ponds the bream will be used in combination or instead as a bottom feeder. The
Chinese name for carp is “family fish or “home fish” reflecting the domesticated state and
often very personal relationship to the fish. One example is the fast growing crossbreed
between Mirror Carp and Common Carp, which will come when called (Borgese, 1980:203).
Even if both the types of carp will be of Cyprinus carpio they represent different strains, and
those crossing seem to produce good results both in the development of personality and from
the point of growth.
Asiatic aquaculture uses a number of different species of fish. Some of them are used in
combination with carp species and some of them in other kinds of polyculture. Catfish,
Tilapia and Gourami are frequently used in Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam, while carp
dominate further north in China and Japan. Water conservancy and water management is part
of both the system of agriculture and aquaculture requiring co-operation often at the state
level. An imperial Chinese edict of 111 B.C states; “Agriculture is the basis of the whole
world. Springs and rivers, irrigation ditches and reservoirs make possible the cultivation of the
five grains. In the empire there are innumerable mountains and rivers, but the small people do
not understand their proper use. Hence the Government must cut canals and ditches and build
dikes and reservoirs to prevent draughts” (Borges, 1980:200-201).
Historically land farm animals, like pigs, have provided the organic manures for both
cropland and ponds. The Chinese have a saying that 15 pigs is required to fertilize one hectare
of water. Land between the ponds has produced grass to feed grass carp and the wastes from
grass carp other fish. On the average one grass carp has provided the feed for three other
fishes. Wastes not used by other fish accumulate on the bottom of the ponds and is collected
three or four times a year as fertile humus to fertilize cropland.
In rice fields fish, like carp and tilapia will eat insects that harm the rice plants, they stir up the
mud and in that way increase the nutrient intake of the rice plants and they fertilize the water
with their manure (Borges, 1980:202). It is estimated that one acre of paddy field will produce
up to 350 kg of fish (Borges, 1980:73). The fish is harvested through draining the fields.
After having done that and harvested the rice ducks are grazing the fields and eating whatever
they find, which will include some stranded fish. The ducks will also manure the fields with
their droppings (Borges, 1980:75).
A Sanskrit poem made by King Somesvara III (1126 – 1138) gives detailed instruction on
how to feed various kinds of fish and the Javanese law Kutara Menawa prescribes punishment
for those who steal fish from fishponds (Borgese, 1980:18).
21
In the Czech Republic pond aquaculture represents a long historical tradition dating back at
least to the 11th
century. In the late middle ages carp farming became an economic force and it
is estimated that about 75.000 ha of carp ponds existed in the 14th
century increasing to
around 180.000 ha by the end of the 16th
century. The production is thought to have been
annually around 30 kg/ha in the 14th
century and 40 kg/ha by the end of the 16th
century). In
the beginning of the 17th
century central Europe was affected by the Thirty-Year War (1616 –
1648), the economy disrupted, carp culture ceased (Adamek, Berka and Huda, 2008:52). Pond
farming might be divided in the commercial farming like pond activity and local ponds,
largely left to nature, delivering fish to own consumption or on the local community level.
Such ponds are not always registered and are most likely not represented in official statistics.
Thus the fish is not bred according to careful selection and breeding principles pursuing
certain strands, but du to natural selection without any other human interference than the
harvesting of carp.
.
The historical carp culture process was usually divided in a process with specialized ponds;
A. First year: Spawning and fry rearing.
B. Second, third and fourth year : For stocking fish
C. Fifth and sixth year: Market size fish
(Adamek, Berka and Huda, 2008:52).
However, the division of ponds might vary even if the three stage system remains. Edwards
based upon both Czech and Hungarian information (2007:28-29) divides differently in ponds
usually drained annually.
A. Nursing ponds with size of up to 1 ha and 0.5 depth. The same ponds would often be
used later in the season with deeper water. Production of fish up to one year old.
B. Summering ponds up to 10 ha in area and used to produce 2 year old fish
C. Marketing ponds of at least 50 – 100 ha stocked with 2 year old fish and raised until
they are 3 – 4 years old and at a marketable size of 1,5 – 3 kg.
However, at the end of the 19th
century carp pond aquaculture was revived and rapidly
became an important part of the economic sector. Even if there were other carp fish, such as
tench, pike and European catfish, carp remained the most important and favoured fish for
pond farming. The high fecundity, good growth rate, high resistance to pollution and
unfavourable climatic conditions in addition to ability to utilize low-protein feeds, high
disease resistance, high value and capability to withstand handling and transportation made
carp the favourite fish (Adamek, Berka and Huda, 2008:52).
After the Second World War, during the communist time, mineral fertilization of ponds were
used. In the same time large areas of arable land were created and the application of organic
manure decreased. The result was in many cases massive out-flushing of clay particles and
heavy sedimentation of ponds. When the socialistic political/economic system ended in 1989
the situation gradually changed, however many of the changes were long lasting and created
structural changes in pond-farming (Adamek, Berka and Huda, 2008:53-54). The major
changes with the capitalist system came in the marketing and the distribution of fish. Today
carp from the Czech Republic is exported to several other EU countries.
22
In Hungary during the communist time ponds were often drained only every third year and
rotated with crops such as lucerne, maize (corn) or soyabean. However, this practice has been
discontinued after the farms were privatized (Edwards, 2007:29)
Today around 42.000 ha is used for carp pond farming in the Czech Republic, however
production is high and around 450 kg/ha (Adamek, Berka and Huda, 2008:53). Edwards
experienced with Asian carp production (2007:29) reports of much higher yield and reports
600 – 1.500 kg/ha, which he characterizes as low yield. His data from the Czech Republic is
50.000 ha in the Czech Republic and around 25.000 ha in Hungary. The reason for his larger
numbers might bee that he includes ponds used for private local consumption and thus not
being part of the commercial market.
Even if a number of other fish species are used for pond farming carp remain the most
important fish and account of 88- 90 % of the production total. Modern pond farming is solely
done with artificially spawned and well bred carp from the 20 carp strains in the Czech gene
bank. In many cases specialized breeding aquaculture mass produce eggs and fry for other
operators (Horváth, Coche and Tamás, 1985).
Only 25 – 30 % of carp production is based upon supplemental feeding and most of the
production is based upon natural food such as zoo plankton and zoobenthos (Adamek, Berka
and Huda, 2008:53). The supplemental food is energy-rich grain (barley, maize (corn) and
wheat). Fertilizing, if used, is usually cattle manure, but might also be from poultry and pigs
(Edwards, 2007:29).
However, there have been a number of challenges for carp pond production. Water
management is increasingly a concern and many ponds have large deposits of sediments and
in the need of having excessive mud removed. Removing sediments is very costly and not
likely to occur without considerable public subsidy. However, ponds are important in order to
regulate water in cases of heavy rain. In 2002 a considerable part of the Czech Republic was
affected by heavy floods and damage to downstream regions limited because some ponds
retained enormous volumes of water. For the fish farmers another problem has been loss due
to predators such as Great cormorants (70 %), European otters (23 %), Grey herons (5 %) and
the American mink (2 %). Czech law give recompensation losses caused by protected
animals (Adamek, Berka and Huda, 2008:68).
Pond production of the market-size fish in the Czech Republic in tons (Adamek, Berka
and Huda: 2008:53)
Fish species 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Carp (Cyprinus
carpio)
17.106 17.421 16.596 16.935 16.996 17.814
Tench
(Tinca tinca)
300 212 228 243 213 288
Chinese Carps
Grass Carp
(Ctenopharyngodon
idella)
Silver Carp
(Hypophthalmichthys
709 1.151 1.041 1.026 850 1.023
23
molitrix)
Bighead Carp
(Hypothalmichthys
nobilis)
Predatory fishes
Pike (Esox lucius)
Pikeperch
(Stizostedion
lucioperca)
Perch
European Catfish
(Siluris glanis)
Eel
180 170 218 232 194 211
Other fish species
Rainbowtroat
365 348 384 523 437 392
Total 18.660 19.302 18.467 18.959 18.690 19.728
Aquaculture is of considerable commercial interest. Establishing carp breeding programs and
aquacultures in new areas might be done both from political, economical and ecological
reasons (Djordjevic, 2004).
24
Ornamental aspects
The golden, red and yellow variations of Gold fish and Koi carp is frequently used for
ornamental purposes both in garden ponds and parks. Since the brightly coloured gold fish
are easily to get hold of, relatively low-priced and hardy they are frequently used. Gold fish
and Koi carp might interbreed, but produce a sterile offspring
(http://wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldfish 21.04.2010). Some variations of goldfish will have
strange body shapes and will not be able to survive in ponds unless cared for and protected by
humans. The same is true with Koi carp and it is recommended that both species of fish
should be actively protected against animals of prey. Deep areas were the fish is protected
against herons, shaded areas against birds of prey like osprey and areas outside of the reach of
land based animals like foxes, cats and badgers is one of the requirement. Then fish that eat
other fish should be avoided like pike and the European catfish (Silurus glanis). Mink and
otters might hunt for even very large species of Koi and might cause major problem in ponds.
Then fishing ducks like merganser ( and loons might diminish populations rapidly if they
come to a pond.
In ornamental ponds the fish should be visible for visitors. Often ornamental plants are
combined with ornamental fish, which might be difficult due to the bottom feeding activity of
Koi and Gold fish. Plants should then be selected wit great care and often planted in such a
way that they survive the activity of the fish.
25
Art
In Chinese and Japanese art carp fish is often used as a motive reflecting the importance of
the fish in Japanese and Chinese folk traditions (http://www.chinesepaintings.com/chinesefish-paintings.html
the 24.04.2010). Even in tribal and subcultures Koi is frequently used as
symbolism for example in tattoos
(http://www.tattoofinder.com/Koi_tattoos_designs_ideas_gallery.asp 24.04.2010).
26
Sport
Carp fishing is mentioned from ancient times. Aristotles mentions carp in his writings dated to
350 B.C (McClane, 1974:197). However there are differences between sport fishing and
fishing solely as a way of obtaining food just as it is between farming and gardening.
Europeans brought their tradition of sport fishing to other continents. One example is Thomas,
H. S. (1876) The Rod in India describing the urge of British colonials of pursuing their very
English pastime activities in India. One of the main targets was the Indian carp Tor khudree
reaching up to 45 kg and possibly even more.
In the internet there are thousands of websites giving information on carpfishing, fishing
equipment and bait for carp. Proud fishermen, nearly always men, display the fish they have
caught and most often affectionately release the fish after taking photos, measuring weight
and length. In Youtube a number of films of such sessions can be seen among them the
present sport fishing record common carp (34,65 kg) displayed by the fisherman Christian
Finkelde (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ys3Y5ZMtp34 dated 27.04.2010). Carp sizes
can vary greatly and in the Nordic country the record fish is a carp of 19,48 kg
(http://www.prologicfishing.com/viewnews.asp?newsId=239 dated 27.04.2010.)
Carpfishing often require substantial waiting time. The author of one website reports that he
has spent 17 days, and I assume nights, under an umbrella in France waiting for carp. He
emphasize the need not to get drunk, waiting for such a length of time will often include some
drinking, and the warning is probably from experience. Some carp fishermen obviously
shorten the time drinking beer (http://www.carp.dk/index/php/stories/uk/26-carp-lakes-inDenmark
dated 27.04.2010). Obviously drunken fishermen catching fish are both prone to
accidents, such as drowning, and mishandling of both fish and equipment. Thus, sometimes
such behaviour giving the carp fishermen a bad reputation in the same way as drunken
football hooligans.
Carpfishing with hook and release has given us lessons of how carp react to pain and negative
experiences. A carp hooked and released is likely to remain difficult to catch for at least a
year (Beukema, 1970). It is reasonable to conclude that being caught with a hook is a painful
experience (Tinarwo, 2006:458 -459). Fishing or not fishing is largely an ethical issue to be
addressed later in the book.
Carps feeding by filtering plankton from the water (such as Bighead carp and Silver carp) are
difficult to capture by normal angling methods. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_carps
21.04.2010). Such carp can be captured by the “suspension method” or by snagging them by
jerking a weighted treble hook through the water. In USA the jerking method is not allowed in
many states as it might injure fish and is completely indiscriminate. Silver carp, which tend to
jump from water when startled, might be shot in the air by bow and arrow. All carp feeding
near the surface can be shot in the water by bow and arrow. Hunting carp with bow and arrow
is very popular and in the USA encouraged as a method to control undesired populations of
filter feeding bighead carp and silver carp (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bighead_carp 20.04-
2010). The record size of bighead carp caught in Missisipi by bow and arrow is 42 kg.
The carp(Cyprinus carpio) is an extremely popular fish for angling both in Europe, north
America and other places the fish is established. Frequently such fishing is catch and release
and many fishermen gets very affectionate and has a nearly personal relationship to the fish
they catch. In some cases even to the extent of giving the carp an individual name.
27
The grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) used for weed control in Europe and America can
be fished with bait consisting of vegetables and fruit. They are strong fighters, but can be
difficult to catch. Chumming with corn or other feed gives increased chance of success. In
places used for weed control they should be released. In USA there are places were
bowfishing is allowed and grass carp is a popular, but difficult target for bowfishers
(http:Wikipedia.org/wiki/Grass_carp 21.04.2010). Being speared by an arrow is obviously a
painful way of being caught and fish might easily become wounded in such a way that the die
slowly.
In Europe carp fishing is a popular activity in many countries. There are a number of Carp
Societies or sport fishing clubs. Most of them concentrate on fishing the Carp (Cyprinus
carpio), however specialized fishing for the Crucian Carp (Carassius carassius) is also done in
areas were carp is non existing or rare. The Norwegian Carp Society is one example of a
society in a country were carp only exist in a few lakes and ponds in the South eastern part of
the country. All the fishing of the members is done according to the principle of catch and
release. The members have a near personal affectionate relationship to their carp and many of
the fish caught has been through a number of catches and photographic sessions. The fishing
is nearly a contemplative activity often requiring long periods of waiting. In the web site of
the society it is a picture of one of the record carp (16.93 kg) that required waiting time of
“120 hours, but worth each second” (http://www.carp.cc/karpefiske.html date 26.04.2010).
28
Accidental introductions
Baitfish
Ballastwater
Cooling waters and the age of steam
New waterways
29
PART II CASE EXAMPLES
30
Case examples Norway
Bogstad Park and estate
Bogstad estate and park is one of Norway’s oldest landscape parks and was established
around 1780 and includes a number of carp ponds (Von Essen and Espeland, 2009). However,
the fishponds were established even before that. In the estate evaluation of 1765 two old
overgrown ponds are mentioned. The mentioned ponds might have been established by Nils
Leuch (1700 – 1760) and were part of the vegetable and spice garden. The first private owner
of the estate was Morten Lauritzen in 1649, but the farm was in use during the Catholic times
as part of the monastery at Hovedøya – an island just outside the centre of Oslo. As with
many Norwegian farms the farm was not in use for a number of years after the Black Plague
(1349 – 1350). At the time of the reformation in 1536 the farm became part of the estates of
the King or state.
We do not know if there was any fish farming or fish ponds during the Catholic times.
However, it is quite possible that carp ponds were established by the monks and Helgøya
Even if labelled as carp ponds it is possible that the ponds included both the Crucian Carp
(Carassius carassius), the Carp (Cyprinus carpio) and a number of other introduced farm
species. While ponds during the Catholic ponds mainly were used for raising fish for food, the
ponds during the estate period were ornamental and the fish was partly there for ornamental
purposes. The garden and park became modelled as landscape parks in Europe and England
with a wide variety of exotic trees, shrubs and perennials and greenhouse plants in summer.
Kinnshaugen
Kinnshaugen is a small lake on a spruce covered hillside about 10 km west of the town of
Lillehammer close to the valley of Saksumdal. Some time in the 1700s members of the
German/Danish officer family Reichswein established a hunting lodge by the lake. Reichwein
were officers in the regiment at Fåberg just north of Lillehammer and together with fellow
officers and members of the upper classes they hunted and partied (Weihe, 2007-II).
Most likely the lake at the time had a population of perch (Perca fluviatilis) and possibly some
trout (Salmo trutta). In addition the Reichweins stocked the lake with Crusian carp. They
wanted to have a continental fish and from their German Danish background carp was sort of
the fish of the upper class.
The Reichwein family had imported a stock of Crusian Carp (Cyprinus carassius) and
possibly Carp (Cyprinus carpio) to ponds at the Aker farm close to Hamar. The carp did not
do well due to the cold winters and often cold summers, but the Crusian carps survived the
winters very well and a number of small ponds and lakes were stocked with the fish. The fish
multiplied in the small lake, which still has a small population of the Crusian carp co-existing
with perch and some trout.
Since the lake is at a high altitude (600 meters) and often is covered with ice from November
until late in May conditions are marginal for the Crusian carp. Some summer water
temperature is too cold for spawning. However the Crusian carps survive the cold winters and
the summer temperature is high they will spawn. Still, growing up in a lake with a huge
population of perch might be a problem. Only a few fry will survive the predators.
31
The local population never acquired a taste for the Crucian carps and always preferred the
local trout, perch or pike. Still, for the high officers, the educated and those who read
cookbooks and were familiar with continental traditions, Crusian carp was a popular fish well
after 1900. As nationalism grew and the connection to the continent faded the national fishes,
like trout and salmon, became the fish of choice and eastern and continental “invaders” lost
their popularity. Today no one is fishing for the carp and the stocked trout, the lake has no
proper place to spawn for trout, is the sought after fish of the lake. Then fishing has also
changed to being a leisure activity of the common man , the Kinshaugen lake is the summer
bathing place of Saksumdal and the memory of the continental upper-classes and their hunting
lodge is nearly lost.
32
The Maihaugen museum ponds
In 2004 the Maihaugen museum in Lillehammer celebrated the 100 years anniversary (Engen,
2004). The museum consists of a large collection of traditional houses from Gudbrandsdal
and Lillehammer as well as a number of new houses. The houses are placed in a beautiful
hilly landscape with four artificially constructed ponds. The ponds have a population of trout,
minnows Phoxinus phoxinus, perch and crucian carp(Cyprinus carassius).
33
The Saug pond
The Saug farm is one of the large farms on the fertile farmland just south of Moelven close to
lake Mjøsa in Norway. Surrounded by fields in a small forested area the Saug pond is rich in
vegetation birdlife and have a large population of Crucian carp(Cyprinus carassius) and some
perch (Perca fluviatilis) (Syvertsen and Weihe, 2009 and Weihe, 2007-I)
From the 1870s and up to the 1950s the pond was used to produce ice for cooling diary
products for a couple of large farms. In addition perch and Crucian carp was fished and used
partly for human food and partly for feeding cats, pigs and hens. The perch was a problem in
the ice production as the fish sometimes froze into the ice. Perch had a tendency to stay just
underneath clear ice on sunny days and sometimes the fins froze stuck in the ice and in the
span of time the whole fish froze into the ice. Such ice could not be used and had no value.
The Crucian carp on the other hand was popular as they helped to clear the water of
vegetation. Crucian carps were introduced to many ice producing ponds and lakes in order to
clear the lakes of vegetation. Particularly that was so along the coastline were ice was a big
export product to England and the continent in the period from 1850/1860 until about the First
World War. A number of other fish, like tench (Tinca tinca), the Ide or Orfe (Leuciscus idus),
Bream (Abramis brama) and Carp (Cyprinus carpio) were used in the same way.
It is possible that the Crucian Carp was introduced as part of the ice production, but it is much
more likely that the introduction happened either in the 1700s by officers or priests being part
of the Danish-Norwegian elite who used carp and crusian carp as fashionable food or even
before during the Catholic time by monks or priests. The latter introduction might have been
as early as in the 1200s or the 1300s. Many of the monks and priests had continental
background and used carp and cruician carp for food. They had a traditions brought from the
continent of raising such fish in ponds. The large neighbour town of Hamar had a cathedral
and was an important centre for the Church.
Today the crucian carp is actively fished by Polish farm workers, who seasonally pick
strawberries on the farms. Some of them has settled locally and a large polish immigrant com
munity has been established locally both in the county of Hedmark and Oppland.
Case examples Czech Republic
Other case examples
34
PART III SPECIES OF CARP
35
General comments on the selection of species
We wish to emphasize that the selection of species is done solely from the point of carp fish
used in aquaculture and not from the point of strict scientific classification and description of
different species of carp. In the case of the minnow (Phoxinus phoxinus) it is not used in
traditional western and central European aquaculture, but has been reported to be used in
aquaculture in the northern part of Russia (Siberia) and the areas around the White Sea.
The Tench (Tinca tinca) is included as it is in the carp family and a traditional fish in
aquaculture.
The Cyprinidae in latin is called the Carp family in Norway (Jonsson and Semb-Johannsson,
1992:151) and the Czech Republic (Terofal,2006:8; Čihař and Knotkovi,2003.30), the
Minnow family in USA (McClane, 1978:50)
Bighead carp (Other names used in English: Chinese Carp, Family Fish, Home
Fish,Carp) (English)
Nomenclature:
Hypothalmichthys nobilis (Richardson 1845)
Large quatities reported to be imported alive into Ontario and one specimen removed from a
fountain in Toronto. The fish is released into nature, but status is not known (Scott and
Crossman, 1998:VIII)
Common names in other languages:
Etymology
History
Description
Biology
Asian carp can be very large and grow to more than 40 kg and one meter. They grow very
rapid and need to eat 40 % of their body weight each day. Most Asian carp eat plankton and
thus can out-compete fish fry from many other species. However, in many waters and in lakes
fertilized by run-off from agriculture plankton growth can be large and plankton eating carp
can help to clean the water.
Bighead carps are filter feeders. Like all Hypothalmichthys species they have no stomachs
and depend upon constantly feeding mostly on phytoplankton, but also on zooplankton and
36
detritus. Female Asian carp can reproduce at rapid rates and can produce from 200.000 to on
million eggs in their lifetime (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_carps 21.04.2010 and
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bighead_carp 20.04.2010)
Size
Record sizes of 45 kg, but rarely more than 18 kg
Spawning
Age
Food
37
Black carp (Other names used in English: Chinese Carp, Family Fish, Home Fish Carp)
(English)
Nomenclature:
Mylopharyngodon piceus (Richardson, 1846)
Common names in other languages:
Etymology
History
The black carp is indigenous to China were it is cultivated for food and Chinese folk
medicine. It is the most exclusive of the four domestic fishes (Black carp, bighead carp, silver
carp and grass carps) traditionally used for polyculture in China. The history of such
polyculture goes back at least thousand years. The diet of the black carp is rather exclusive
and the it is the most expensive of all carp fish sold.
In aquaculture in the USA black carp is sometimes used to control snails. Snails can be hosts
of trematode pests that can cause substantial losses to aquaculture crops. However, there are
concern of black carp being a serious threat to mollusks native to the USA and no state allows
black carp to be released. Black carp used in aquaculture has to be sterile, however for
breeders it is necessary to have some breeding stock of fertile black carp. In the USA there are
reports of black carp caught in the Missisippi and some of the fish has been found to fertile.
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_carp 21.04.2010)
Description
Biology
Size
The Black carp grows to about one meter (three feet) and can be up to 32 kg (70 pounds).
Spawning
Age
Food
The fish is feeding on snails and mussels.
38
Carp (Other names used in English: Common Carp, German Carp, European Carp,
Mirror carp, Leather Carp. Old World Minnow, Family Fish, Home Fish) (English)
Nomenclature:
Cyprinus Carpio (Linnaeus 1758)
Cyprinus carpio (Scott and Crossman 1969)
Cyprinus carpio carpio (Western Eurasian strain of carp)
Cyprinus carpio haematopterus (East Asian strain of carp – the dominating in traditional
variations of koi carp
Common names in other languages:
Carpe (French)
Karpe (Norwegian)
Etymology
Cyprinus is the ancient name of the carp, most likely derived from Cyprus, abode of Venus.
The name is possible in allusion to its fecundity. Carpio is a Latinized form of carp.
History
The Carp was indigenous to temperate parts of Asia, but also occurred from early times in
continental Europe. Aristotles mentions carp in his writings dated to 350 B.C (McClane,
1974:197).In England it was introduced during the rule of Henry VIII and rapidly became
popular as a pond fish and as source of food (Smallwood and Smallwood, 1929). In one the
standard fishing Encyclopedia of McClane the introduction to England is dated to around the
end of the medieval period in 1450, however there are legends of earlier carp populations in
monastery ponds. The earliest reference to carp as a stockfish is from 1462 and the first
angling reference is from Dame Julia Berners in 1496 (McClane, 1974:197).
It is known that carp was brought to a private pond in New York in 1831 and 1832 and that
some were released into the Hudson River. In 1876-1877 the US Fish Commission
successfully introduced carp and stocked waters several places in the USA and Canada
(Smallwood and Smallwood 1929). Today Carp is widespread both in USA and the southern
part of Canada (Scott and Grossman 1998: 408 and McClane 1974:197). The carp is known to
hybridize with goldfish.
Carp is popular as a game fish in USA and Canada, however thought of as a negative
introduction as the fish uproots aquatic vegetation that is essential to the survival of native
populations of fish and to waterfowl.
The habit of carp of rising to the surface in inshore waters and exposing their long dorsal fins
have given some Americans the impression of shark fins. The latter reflects the negative
attitude of many Americans to introduced species of fish (Scott and Grossman 1998: 410)
Description
Triangular head, robust body, upper jaw slightly protruding and toothless, two pairs of barbels
around the mouth and gill rakers 21- 27. All the fins are slightly opaque, the caudal is forked.
The scales are cycloid, large and thick with about 35 -39 in the lateral line. On the mirror carp
the scales are scattered and few or absent on the leather carp.
39
Colour can vary, but usually olive-green on the back, and yellowish on the underside. The
lower half of the caudal fin and the anal fin can be reddish. Large adults have stronger
colouration than young species.
In captivity selective breeding has resulted in many variations. Partially scaled or mirror
carps, which might be a line mirror with its scales distributed along the lateral line (often
called Israeli carp) and the scattered mirror with scales spread haphazardly over the bod.
Another type has no scales and is called leather carp (McClane, 1974:199)
Biology
Size
Carp in the USA and Canada has been reported up to the size of 58 pounds (Scott and
Grossman 1998: 410). The world record of carp caught by a sport fisherman is at present
34,650 kg in a gravel pit made into a pond in Germany. The proud fisherman, Christian
Finkelde, displays the fish in youtube (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ys3Y5ZMtp34
dated 27.04.2010).
World record carp 83 pounds 8 ounces from Pretoria in South Africa (McClane, 1974:198)
Spawning
Carp is a very prolific species and egg numbers have been ranging from 36.000 eggs to
2.208.000 for a large fish of 851 mm. The eggs, each about 1 mm in diameter, are adhesive,
deposited randomly and will be attached to submerged plants or roots. The eggs will normally
hatch after 3- 6 days after fertilization depending on the temperature of the water. Spawning
will normally occur after the temperature of the water reach to a minimum of 17 degrees
Celsius in early spring or summer. Some places spawning is reported to happen at late as in
august. The Russians have through selective breeding produced a cold-resistant “king” strain
for stocking Arctic waters and being capable of breeding at lower temperatures
(McClane:199). Since selective breeding might occur in nature as a natural selection process
some carp populations might adapt to colder environment and possible spread into colder
waters far outside of what would be consider normal conditions and breeding range.
Age
Carp can be very old and wild species exceeding twenty years of age are not uncommon.
However, reported ages of 150 years are grossly exaggerated (Regan, 1911). In nature 20 – 25
years is supposed to be the maximum living age, but in captivity carp up to 47 years old has
been recorded (McClane, 1974:198).
Food
Carp are omnivorous feeders eating small larvae, aquatic insects, plants, molluscs (snails and
clams). Since some carp can be big in size they can eat fairly large insects, small fish and
consume large quantities of aquatic plants. Carp is known to feed on floating animals
organisms and plants.
40
Crucian Carp (Other names used in English: Prussian Carp, European Crucian Carp)
(English)
Nomenclature:
Carassius carassius
Cyprinus gibelio
Cyprinus carassius (Lin)
Common names in other languages:
Karas obecný (Czech)
Karuds, Karusse (Danish)
Ruutana (Finnish)
Kaurausche (German)
Karuss (Norwegian)
Ruda (Swedish)
Etymology
Carrassius is latinization of the vernacular names Karass or Karusche that are applied to the
European crucian carp. Opinions vary as if the Prussian carp is a distinct subspecies Cyprinus
gibelio (rare and very old). The Prussian carp is also described in another chapter under the
name Prussian carp.
History
Crucian carp is considered to be the European version of a fish with both a European and
Asian fish with a ancestral home most likely around the Caspian Sea. The first British
reference of “carrushens” is from 1744 when the fish was reported to be lately introduced.
The fish was most likely introduced from Hamburg in Germany. The first known wild
populations were in London in the river Thames and the fish is thought to have spread
through the interlocking canal transportation system built as part of the industrial revolution
(McClane, 1974:242).
The crucian carp is a popular fish to study for biological studies and many scientific studies
have been made of various aspect of both the biology, parasites and behaviour of the fish ( see
for example Hamdani, 2000; Midtgaard, 1995; Lastein, 2008 and Ellefsen, 2008). The fish is
easy to study in laboratory conditions and small ponds.
Description
Biology
The crucian carp heart has an innate ability to tolerate anoxia supported by etanol production.
Other carp such as the Koi and European Carp (Cyprinus carpio) lacks the ability and will be
negatively influenced and often die under the same cold conditions (Larsen, 2009, Ellefsen
2008)
Size
Maximum size perhaps 6 pounds (McClane, 1974:242)
Spawning
41
Age
Life expectancy about 25 years or more (McClane, 1974:242)
Food
42
Goldfish (Other name used in English: Golden Carp ) (English)
Nomenclature:
Cyprinus auratus auratus(Linnaeus 1758)
Carssius auratus (Günther 1868)
Common names in other languages:
Poisson doré (French)
Gullfisk (Norwegian)
Etymology
Carrassius is latinization of the vernacular names Karass or Karusche that are applied to the
European crucian carp. Cyprinus carassius auratus the last part auratus means gilded.
History
The goldfish is native to eastern Asia and in the golden colour it originated in China. During
the Tang Dynasty (618 -907) it was popular to raise carp in ornamental ponds and
watergardens(http://wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldfish 21.04.2010). It is known that goldfish were
commonly used as ornamental fish in the early days of the Sung Dynasty about the year of
960(Scott and Grossman 1998: 389-391). However, the tendency to produce red, orange or
yellow colour mutations was first recorded in the Jin Dynasty (265 – 420)
(http://wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldfish 21.04.2010)
From the 11th
century they were commonly used for ornamental purposes in China. The first
record of other colours than red and gold was in 1276. The golden variety (yellow) was in
1176 construction of a special pond to collect the red and gold variety. People outside of the
imperial family were forbidden to keep gold fish of the golden variety as yellow was the
imperial colour (http://wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldfish 21.04.2010)
The time of the introduction to Japan is rather uncertain most likely from around 1500(Scott
and Grossman 1998: 389-391. In Wikipedia the introduction to Japan is dated to 1502
(http://wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldfish 21.04.2010)
The first introduction of goldfish was to Portugal in 1611 (http://wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldfish
21.04.2010). In England they were first introduced in the early 17th
century or the early 18th
century and can be regarded as a common fish in England from the middle of the 18th
century(Scott and Grossman 1998: 389-391).
The time of the introduction to America is not known, however it is known that a goldfish
farm was established in Maryland in 1889(Scott and Grossman 1998: 389-391). Wikipedia
dates the first introductions to about 1850(http://wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldfish 21.04.2010). .
Wild populations are widespread throughout til USA and the southern part of Canada (Scott
and Grossman 1998: 389-391). Goldfish have also been used as laboratory fish and as a
baitfish.
Goldfish is the result of selected breeding for colour. In the wild state gold fish will have a
dark olive-green to greyish black colouration. In Canada and USA almost any pet store will
have a stock of goldfish and many are released in the wild. The goldfish is also a popular
43
baitfish and bred for use as bait in the southern USA (Dobie and several more 1956). In
Canada it is prohibited to use goldfish as a baitfish.
Goldfish hybridize with carp and offspring might be difficult to identify. However, the
absence of barbells, teeth in a single row and not molarlike and the number of gill rakers will
be different. In addition the size is substantially smaller than a carp and the colouration of
gold fish different. Still, in the wild state gold fish readily reverts to the dark olive-green
colour.
Description
Stout body, thickset, average size up to 254 mm, but in overpopulated waters (like small
ponds) quite small. Colouration varies from olive-green to gold often with black patches.
Some young fish can be nearly black or olive-green.
The head is broadly triangular, gill rakers 37- 43, heavy translucent fins with same colur as
the body. One stout spine with serrated trailing edge, and 15 – 18 ( on the average 17) soft
rays. The caudal is broadly forked. Scales cycloid, large and firmly attached to the body.
From 27 – 30 scales in the lateral line.
Compared to the Crucian carp the gold fish never has more than 31 scales along the lateral
line, while the Crucian have 33 scales or more. Further the Crucian carp has a well rounded
snout, while the gold fish a more pointed one. Still, the gold fish is regarded to be
domesticated version of the Crucian carp (Carassius carassius)
(http://wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldfish 21.04.2010)
Varieties of domesticated goldfish (adapted from(http://wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldfish
21.04.2010)
Name Colouration Other information
Black Moor
(Popeye, telescope, kuro
demekin in Japan and
dragon-eye in China)
Telescope eyed variety
Bubble Eye A small fish with upward
pointing eyes accompanied
with two large fluid-filled
sacks.
Ce
(Chinese might also be called
grass)
Goldfish without fancy
anatomical features. Includes
the common goldfish, comet
goldfish and Shubukin.
Celestial Eye
(Choten gan)
Double tail and a breed
defining eyes upturned,
telescope eyes with pupils
gazing skyward.
Chinshurin
(Pearlscale)
Spherical-bodied with
finnage similar to the fantail.
Choten gan
(Celestial Eye)
Double tail and a breed
defining eyes upturned,
telescope eyes with pupils
44
gazing skyward.
Comet
(Comet tailed goldfish)
The most common fancy
variety in the USA. Similar
to the common goldfish,
except slightly smaller and
slimmer and the deeply
forked tail.
Comet tailed goldfish
(Comet)
The most common fancy
variety in the USA. Similar
to the common goldfish,
except slightly smaller and
slimmer and the deeply
forked tail.
Common goldfish Comes in a variety of colours
including red, orange7gold,
white, black and yellow or
lemon.
The shape will be the same
as the Crucian or Prussian
carp.
Dragon-eye
(Globe eye, Black Moor,
Popeye, telescope, kuro
demekin in Japan and
dragon-eye in China)
Telescope eyed variety
Egg Goldfish with no dorsal fin
and “eggshaped body” for
example the Lionhead.
Bubble Eye with no dorsal
fin belongs to this group.
Fantail
(Fantail goldfish)
Egged shaped body, a high
dorsal fin, a long quadruple
fin and no shoulder hump.
A western form of the
Ryukin.
Fantail goldfish
(Fantail)
Egged shaped body, a high
dorsal fin, a long quadruple
fin and no shoulder hump. A
western form of the Ryukin.
Globe eye
(Globe eye, Black Moor,
Popeye, telescope, kuro
demekin in Japan and
dragon-eye in China)
Telescope eyed variety
Grass
(Chinese might also be called
Ce)
Goldfish without fancy
anatomical features
Includes the common
goldfish, comet goldfish and
Shubukin.
Hana fusa
(pompomor pompon)
Bundles of fleshy outgrowth
between nostrils on both
sides of the head.
King of goldfish Hooded goldfish
45
(Japanese)
(Ranchu)
Kuro demekin
(Globe eye, Black Moor,
Popeye, telescope, kuro
demekin in Japan and
dragon-eye in China)
Telescope eyed variety
Lionhead The lionhead has a hood.
This fish is a precursor of the
ranchu variety
Oranda A prominent raspberry like
hood also known as wen or
headgrowth. The hood
encases the whole head
except for the eyes and
mouth.
Panda Moor Black and white colour
patterns
Protruding eyes
Pearlscale
(Chinshurin in Japanese)
Spherical-bodied with
finnage similar to the fantail.
Popmpom
(Pompon or hana fusa)
Bundles of fleshy outgrowth
between nostrils on both
sides of the head.
Pompon
(Pompom or hana fusa)
Bundles of fleshy outgrowth
between nostrils on both
sides of the head.
Popeye
(Globe eye, Black Moor,
Popeye, telescope, kuro
demekin in Japan and
dragon-eye in China)
Telescope eyed variety
Ranchu
(In Japan called king of
goldfish)
Hooded goldfish
Ryukin Short deep body, with a
characteristic shoulder hump.
Red brocade
(Shubukin)
Fancy and hardy Japanese
strain. Translated called Red
brocade)
Single tail with nacreous
scales and a pattern known as
calico.
Shubunkin
(Red brocade)
Fancy and hardy Japanese
strain. Translated called Red
brocade)
Single tail with nacreous
scales and a pattern known as
calico.
Telescope Telescope eyed variety
46
(Globe eye, Black Moor,
Popeye, telescope, kuro
demekin in Japan and
dragon-eye in China)
Veiltail Extra long flowing double
tail.
Wen
(Chinese terminology)
Gold fish with a fancy tail
(Fantails and Ventails). Wen
is also the name of the
charteristic headgrowth on
such strains as Oranda and
Lionhead.
Biology
Size
The size can vary considerably and as goldfish thrives in stagnant small ponds populations
often become overpopulated and the size fairly small. Maxium length of 58 cm and 4 kg has
been recorded (http://wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldfish 21.04.2010)
Spawning
Spring spawning in warm, weedy stagnant waters in May to June, though some populations
are reported to spawn as late as august. Adhesive eggs 1,2 – 1.5 mm in diameter and hatch in
about 3 – 5 days. The eggs will attach themselves to aquatic plants or roots like willow roots.
Age
Gold fish ca live to more than 40 years, however most goldfish live 6 – 8 years
(http://wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldfish 21.04.2010)
Food
Goldfish are omnivorous feeders eating small larvae, aquatic insects, plants, molluscs (small
snails and clams)
47
Grass carp (Other names used in English: Chinese Carp, Carp, White Amur, Family
Fish, Home Fish) (English)
Nomenclature:
Ctenopharyngodon idella (Valenciennes in Cuvier & Valienciennes, 1844)
Common names in other languages:
Etymology
Genus Ctenopharyngodon described by Staindacher (1866).
History
Grass carp is cultivated in China for food. The fish has been introduced both to Europe and
America for weed control. In the USA it was introduced in 1963 and to the Netherlands in
1973. The population in the Netherlands is maintained artificially and used for weed control.
In weed control sterile, triploid fish are used.
Accidently introduced to New Zealand with a stock of goldfish.
The grass carp is native to Eastern Asia from North Vietnam to the river of Amur on the
Siberian/Chinese border (http:Wikipedia.org/wiki/Grass_carp 21.04.2010)
Description
Body colour dark olive green shading to brownish-yellow on the sides, a white belly and large
slightly outlined scales.Elongate, chubby, torpedo shaped body with mouth slightly oblique
with non-fleshy and firm lips. The teeth are broad and ridged. The fish has no barbels, a
lateral line with 40 – 42 scales, the dorsal fin 8 – 10 soft rays and the anal fin is set closer to
the tail than most cyprinids (http:Wikipedia.org/wiki/Grass_carp 21.04.2010)
Biology
Grass carp occurs in ponds, pools and backwater of large rivers, preferring large – slow
flowing or standing water bodies with vegetation. In the wild grass carp spawn in fast flowing
rivers were the eggs can drift downstream. Eggs will die if they sink to the bottom, which
means that spawning in stagnant pools or bodies of water will not be successful.
Size
Adults can often attain 1,2 meters length and a weight of 18kg. Average living age about 5 – 9
years, but some grass carp live up to 11 years (http:Wikipedia.org/wiki/Grass_carp
21.04.2010)
Spawning
48
Grass carp usually spawn at tempratures of 20 – 30 degrees Celsius, but there are records of
spawning at temperatures as low as 15 degrees Celsius (http:Wikipedia.org/wiki/Grass_carp
21.04.2010)
Age
Food
49
Koi Carp (Other name used in English: Carp) (English)
Nomenclature:
Cyprinus carpio haematopterus
(The East Asian strain of carp)
Common names in other languages:
Etymology
The word “koi” comes from Japanese and means carp. The Japanese “koi” includes both the
dull grey fish and the brightly coloured fish normally called “koi” in Europe. In Japanese
“koi” is a homophone for another word that means affection and love. Koi is a symbol of love
and friendship in Japan. Similar traditions have existed in Europe with goldfish. In Japan
“koi” is called “nishikigoi” or literally “brocaded carp”.
History
Koi carp are an ornamental strain of the carp (Cyprinus carpio) with highly variable in colour
with irregular blotching of black, red, gold or pearly white. They are in captivity selectively
bred according to colouration and used for ornamental purposes in garden ponds and parks.
Wild populations will revert to the same colours as other carps. Regardless if deliberately or
accidently introduced they are considered to be harmful to water quality, waterplants and
habitat for fish and birds. Most attempts to eradicate koi have been unsuccessful and often
very costly. However, such attempts have often served to at least diminish populations and
some times to control the spread of koi into other waters.
The Koi carp was developed from carp in Japan in the 1820s and the Japanese terminology
and traditions of breeding still dominate Koi breeding. Koi has been introduced to every
continent except Antarctica. Koi carp are, in many varities, sold in Europe, America, Asia and
Africa.
Koi in ponds and parks will be at disadvantage against predators if not protected by deep
areas, overhanging trees, good hiding places. Fish like pike and large trout, herons, cats,
badgers, foxes, osprey, mink, otters and in the USA racoons will be ably to prey on the fish
and in small ponds emptying the ponds completely.
Description
Koi variations differ in coloration, patterning of colour, scales, eyes and the shape of fins. The
possible colour variations are nearly limitless, but some main categories exist with colours in
olive, orange, white, black, blue, red, yellow, cream and lately with mixed in strain bronze
with large scales. The most popular category is the Gosanke, which includes the Kohaku,
Taisho Sanshoku and Showa Sanshoku varieties.
Varieties of Koi (Developed from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koi_carp the 24.04.2010)
Name Colouration Other information
Ai Goromo
(A variation of Koromo)
See Koromo A.
50
Armor Koi
(A variation of Doitsu-goi)
See Doitsu-goi D.
Asagi A koi that is light blue above
and usually red, but
occasionally pale yellow or
cream below the lateral line
and on the cheeks
The Japanese name means
“pale greenish blue”.
Sometimes incorrectly
written as “light yellow”.
The incorrect writing might
have to do with the European
tradition of drinking black
tea as in opposite to the asian
of drinking green tea.
Bekko A white, red or yellow
skinned koi with black
markings (sumi)
The Japanese name means
“tortoise shell”. The white
variation is called “Shiro
Bekko, the red variation
“Aka Bekko” and the yellow
variation is called “Ki
Bekko”.
Butterfly koi A hybrid of koi and Asian
carp with long flowing fins.
Colouration might vary
according to the koi-stock
used in breeding
Some breeders consider
butterfly koi not be
Nishikigoi.
Chagoi Tea coloured koi ranging in
colour from pale olive-drab
green to copper or bronze
and darker subdued orange
shades.
Famous for docile, friendly
personality and large size.
The fish is considered a sign
of good luck among koi
breeders.
Doitsu-go A.The most common type
have a row of scales
beginning at the front of the
dorsal fin and ending at the
end of dorsal fin. Thus the
fish has scales on each side
of the dorsal fin. Four
variations
B. A row of scales beginning
were the head meets the
shoulder and running the
entire length at both sides of
the fish.
C. As the B., but with line
with large scales running
along the lateral line and also
called a Mirror Koi.
D. Armor Koi the rarest type
covered with large scales that
resembles plates of armor.
Orginated by cross breeding
numerous different
established varieties with
scale less European
(German) carp (fish with
only a single line of scales
along each side of the dorsal
fin.
Ghost koi A hybrid of Ogon and wild
carp with metallic scales
Some breeders consider
ghost koi not be Nishikigoi.
51
Ginrin (abbreviation for
Kinginrin)
A koi with metallic
(glittering metal-flake)
appearing scales. The name
can be translated to “gold
and silver scales”
There are very popular
“Ginrin” versions of almost
all variations of koi. Gin-rin
refers to sparkling, glittering
scales as opposed to the
smooth, even metallic skin
and scales seen in Ogon
varieties.
Goshiki A dark koi with red (Kohaku
style) hi pattern. Appears
similar to an Asagai with
little or no hi below the
lateral line and a fishnet
pattern (reticulated) over the
scales. The base colour range
from nearly black to very
pale sky blue.
Very similar to Asagai ( see
note on colouration)
Hikari-moyomono A koi with coloured
markings over a metallic
base, a koi in two colours
Kawarigoi
(Kawarimono)
A term for all types of koi This is a competition
category for many new
varieties of koi.
Kawarimono
(Kawarigoi)
A term for all types of koi. This is a competition
category for many new
varieties of koi.
Kinginrin
(Often abbreviated Ginrin)
A koi with metallic
(glittering metal-flake)
appearing scales. The name
can be translated to “gold
and silver scales”
There are very popular
“Ginrin” versions of almost
all variations of koi. Gin-rin
refers to sparkling, glittering
scales as opposed to the
smooth, even metallic skin
and scales seen in Ogon
varieties.
Kin-Kikokuryu A metallic skinned version of
the Kumonryu with a
Kohaku-style hi pattern.
Developed by Mr. Seiki
Igarashi of Ojiya city. There
are at least six different subvarieties
of this general
variety.
Kikokuryu A metallic skinned version of
Kumonryu
Kōhaku White skinned koi, with large
red markings on top
The first ornamental strain to
be developed in Japan (late
19th
century)
Koromo A white fish with Kohaku
style pattern with blue or
black edged scales only over
the hi pattern. Three different
versions:
A. Ai Goromo which is
The variety first arose in the
1950s as a cross between a
kohaku and an Asagai
52
coloured like a Kohaku,
except that each of the scales
within the red patches has a
darker burgundy like colour
overlay that gives it the
appearance of bunches of
grapes.
B. Tsumi-Goromo very rare
and similar to the GumiGoromo
but the hi pattern is
so dark that it appears black
Kumonryū Kumonryū is a black doitsu
scaled fish curling with
wheite markings
The patterns are reminiscent
of Japanese ink paintings of
dragons. They famously
change colour with the
seasons. Kumonryū
competes in the Kawarimono
category.
Mirror Koi
(A variation of Doitsu-goi)
See Doitsu-goi C.
Ochiba Light blue/gray koi with
copper, bronze or yellow
(Kohaku style) pattern
reminiscent of autumn leaves
on water.
The Japanese name means
“fallen leaves”.
Ōgon A metallic koi of one color
only. The most common
colours are gold, platinum
and orange. Cream
specimens are very rare.
Ōgon competes in the
Kawarimono category and
the Japanese name means
“gold”. The variety was
developed by Sawata Aoki
in 1946 from wild carp he
caught in 1921. Recently the
metallic skinned Ōgon is
being crossed with ginrin
scaled fish to create the
ginrin Ōgon with metallic
skin and sparkling metal
flake scales.
Sanke (abbreviation for
Taisho Sanke or Taishō
Sanshoku)
Similar to Kōhaku, but with
small black markings called
sumi
First exhibited in 1914 by the
Koi breeder Gonzo Hiroi
during the reign of Taisho
Emperor
The abbreviation is
commonly used in USA.
Showa (abreiviation for
Showa Sanke or Shōwa
Sanshoku)
Black koi with red (hi) and
white (Shioji) markings
First exhibited in 1927
during the reign of Showa
Emperor
The abbreviation is
commonly used in the USA.
53
Showa Sanke
(Shōwa Sanshoku)
(Often abbreviated to Showa)
Black koi with red (hi) and
white (Shioji) markings
First exhibited in 1927
during the reign of Showa
Emperor
Shōwa Sanshoku
(Showa Sanke)
(Often abbreviated to Showa)
Black koi with red (hi) and
white (Shioji) markings
First exhibited in 1927
during the reign of Showa
Emperor
Shūsui The Japanese name means
“Autumn water”. The fish
has only one single line of
mirror scales dorsally
extending from head to tail.
The most common type of
Shūsui have a pale, skyblue/gray
colour above the
lateral line and red or orange
(a rare occasions bright
yellow) below the lateral line
and on the cheeks.
The Shushi was developed in
1910 by Yoshigoro Aikyama
by crossing Japanese Asagai
with European (German)
mirror carp.
Taisho Sanke
(Taishō Sanshoku)
(Often abbreviated to
“Sanke”)
Similar to Kōhaku, but with
small black markings called
sumi
First exhibited in 1914 by the
Koi breeder Gonzo Hiroi
during the reign of Taisho
Emperor
Taishō Sanshoku
(Taisho Sanke)
(Often abbreviated to
“Sanke”)
Similar to Kōhaku, but with
small black markings called
sumi
First exhibited in 1914 by the
Koi breeder Gonzo Hiroi
during the reign of Taisho
Emperor
Tanchō Any koi with solitary red
patch on the head
Named from the very rare
Japanese crane (Grus
japonensis) which also has a
red spot on the head.
Tosai Variation in colour Lower-grade pond quality
fish selected during the first
year
Tsumi-Goromo See Koromo B.
Utsurimono A black koi with white, red
or yellow markings
The oldest attested form is
the yellow form called “black
and white markings” ((Kuro
Ki Han) in the 19th
century,
but renamed “Ki Utsuri” by
Elizabeth Hoshino an early
20th
century breeder. The red
variation is called “Hi
Utsuri” and the white “shiro
Utsuri”. The word “Utsuri”
means print as the black
markings might resemble ink
stains and sometimes even
Japanese signs.
54
Biology
Koi have a immune system that turns off at temperatures lower than 10 degree Celsius. Thus
in cold climate, like in Norway, they will be at a severe disadvantage and is often stored in
tanks indoor in winter time.
Koi reproduce through spawning with thousand of offspring from a single spawning.
Regardless of the parents the fry will exhibit a wide range of colour and qualities. In selective
breeding the new fish needs to be culled at various stages. Culled fry will usually be destroyed
or fed to other fish. Fish selected at older age, like during the first year called Tosai, are often
sold as lower-grade “pond quality” pond.
Koi is less likely to be attacked by the Thelohanellus infection than the common European
carp (Cyprinus carpio carpio ).The parasite was introduced from the far east as a result of
introduction of fish and will be a problems for fingerlings of carp (Molnar, 2002).
Size
Spawning
Age
Food
55
Kuria Labeo (Other name used in English: Indian Carp) (English)
Nomenclature:
Labeo gonius (Hamilton 1822)
Common names in other languages:
Etymology
History
Description
A carp found in freshwater sources around the Bay of Bengal and rivers in Afganistan,
Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Nepal and Myanmar (Burma). Kuria laeo is not normally found
in ponds, but the fish can be cultured in ponds.
(http://www.fishbase.org/SpeciesSummary.php?id=10254)
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuria_Labeo the 21.04.2010) (Talawar and Jhingran, 1991)
Biology
Size
Maximum published length is 150 centimers.
Spawning
Spawning during the southwest monsoon.
Age
Food
56
Largescale Silver Carp (Other names used in English: Chinese Carp, Silver Carp,
Carp, Flying Carp, Family Fish, Home Fish) (English)
Nomenclature:
Hypothalmichthys harmandi
Aristichthys harmandi (no longer used)
Common names in other languages:
Etymology
History
The large scale silver carp is closely related to silver carp (Hypothalmichthys molitrix), but
with a native range further south and mostly in Vietnam. The fish has not been commonly
introduced for use in aquaculture, with the exception of one known introduction in the Soviet
Union. The population introduced to the Soviet Union hybridized with the also introduced
silver carp (Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver_carp, 20.04.2010).
Description
Biology
Size
Spawning
Age
Food
57
Minnow (English)
Nomenclature:
Phoxinus phoxinus
Phoxinus aphya (Lin)
Common names in other languages:
Střevle potočni (Czech)
Elrits, Elritse (Danish)
Mutu (Finish)
Elritze (German)
Ørekyt, Gørleie, Boindsild, Gørkyte, Åkyte (Norwegian)
Elritsa (Swedish)
Etymology
True minnows are of the subfamily Leuciscinae and can be divided in a number of different
families. The Eurasian minnows belong to the genus Phoxinus.
History
Description
Biology
Size
Spawning
Age
Food
58
Mud Carp (Other name used in English: Chinese Mud Carp, Family Fish, Home Fish,
Carp) (English)
Nomenclature:
Cirrhus molitorella (Valenciennes 1844)
Leuciscus molitorella
Chirrhinus chinensis (Günther 1868)
Common names in other languages:
Etymology
The Latin cirrus means curl fringes.
History
A carp found in freshwater sources in Vietnam, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and southern
China (Red river). The fish is used in aquaculture and fished in the wild. It is an important
food fish in the Guangdon Province in China.
Description
Biology
Size
Maximum published length is 55 cm and maximum recorded weight 500g.
Spawning
Age
Food
59
Prussian Carp (English)
Nomenclature:
Carssius gibelio
Cyprinus gibelio (McClane, 1974:242)
Carassius carassius gibelio(McClane, 1974:242)
Common names in other languages:
Etymology
History
Some authors claim that Carssius gibelio is a variation of the Crussian carp (Careassius
carassius). Today most authors seem to define the Prussian as a variant of the Crussian carp,
or a feral goldfish. However, many define it as a distinct subspecies Carassius carassius
gibelio (McClane, 1974:242)
Description
Those that accept Carassius gibelio as an independent species of Carassius carassius points
out that Carassius gibelio has a grey /greenish colour while the Carassius carassius are always
golden bronze, juvenile Carassius carassius have a black spot on the base of the tail that
disappears with age while gibelio this tail spot is never present (Wikipedia,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldfish, 21.04.2010).
Biology
Size
Spawning
Age
Food
60
Silver Carp (Other names used in English: Chinese Carp, Flying Carp Carp, Carp,
Family Fish, Home Fish) (English)
Nomenclature:
Hypothalmichthys molitrix (Richardson 1845)
Common names in other languages:
Etymology
History
The silver carp is a variety of the Asian carp native to the north and northeast of Asia. Silver
carp has been cultivated in China since ancient times and is today commonly used in
aquaculture several places in the world among them in the Czech Republic and Hungary.
Silver carp is usually used in polyculture with other carp the Asian major carps, European
carps and Indian major carps. The fish has been deliberately introduced or accidently spread
into waterways in at least 88 countries around the world. The deliberate introductions have
been both enhancement of wild fisheries and water quality control (Wikipedia,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver_carp, 20.04.2010)
In the 1970s silver carp was imported to USA in order to control algae growth in aquaculture
and municipal wastewater treatment facilities. Some of the carp escaped from captivity and
wild populations were soon established. By 2003 wild silver carp populations were
established in the Missisippi, Illinois, Ohio and Missouri rivers and are close to invading the
Great Lakes via the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal. Substantial effort has been made to
limit the spread of the fish. There are concerns that the fish will compete for food with native
planktivorous fish such as the paddlefish (Polyodon spathula), gizzard shad (Dorosoma
cepedianum), and young fish of almost all species. In addition Silver Carp is a danger to high
speed watercraft and water skiers because of the tendency of leaping from the water when
startled. The fish can grow to more than 18 kg and can leap up to three meters into the air
when startled (Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver_carp, 20.04.2010).
Description
Biology
Silver carps are filter feeders and can filter remarkable small particles. The gill rakers are
fused into a sponge-like filter and an epibranchial organ secretes mucus which assists in
trapping small particles. Like all Hypothalmichthys species they have no stomachs and
depend upon constantly feeding mostly on phytoplankton, but also on zooplankton and
detritus. Certain part of toxic blue-green algae like Microcystis can pass through the silver
carp unharmed. Silver carp is naturally protected against such toxins, but might contain enogh
algal toxins to become dangerous to eat (Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver_carp,
20.04.2010).
Size
61
Spawning
Age
Food
62
Tench
Nomenclature:
Tinca tinca
Common names in other languages:
Lin obecný (Czech)
Suter (Norwegian)
Sutare (Swedish)
Tench (English)
Etymology
History
Description
Biology
Size
Maximum 70 cm and 8 kg (Nielsen and Svedberg, 2004:93) (Jonsson and Semb-Johansen,
1992:158)
Maximum 60 cm and 7,5 kg (Terofal, 2006:92)
Maximum 70 cm and 7 kg (Čihař and Knotkovi 2003:118)
Maximum 12 pounds (McClane, 1974: 1022)
Spawning
Age
Food
63
Tor khudree (Other name used in English: Indian carp)(English)
Nomenclature:
Tor khudree (Sykes, 1839)
Common names in other languages:
Maha seer(Local Indian names)
Mahseer(Local Indian names)
Etymology
History
The fish is a large freshwater fish of the carp family found in fast flowing rivers in India and
Pakistan. The fish is found all over the Indian peninsula, but in greatest quantity in mountain
streams and rocky streams.
In some cases the fish is used in aquaculture, however such use is limited to the Indian
peninsula. The fish is a very popular sport fish in India. During the British period it was
considerable interest in fishing (Thomas, 1876 and Day, 1889)
Description
A large carp fish with thick lips, an uninterrupted fold across the lower jaw, and with both the
upper and lower lips in some speciemens produced in the mesial line. The maxillary pair of
barbells are longer than the rostral, and extending to below the last third of the eye. The dorsal
fins arises opposite the ventral, and is three fourth as high as the body. The last undivided ray
of the dorsal fin is smooth, osseous, strong, and of varying length and thickness.
The colour is silvery or greenish along the upper part of the body, becoming silvery shot with
gold on the sides and beneath. Lower fins reddish yellow
Fish in Himalaya, Bengal and Central India generally have the spine strong, and from one half
to two thirds the length of the head. In Canara, Malabar and Southern India the lips are largely
developed, the spine is very much stronger and as long as the head excluding the snout. The
pectoral is as long as the snout and reaches the the venteral, which is a little shorter. The anal
laid flat does not reach the base of the caudal, which is deeply forked, the lateral line
complete, 2 – 2,5 rows of scales between the lateral line and the base of the venteral fin; 9
rows before the dorsal (Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tor_khudree, 20.04.2010).
Biology
Size
Large fish up to one meter and 45 kg have been recorded in the past, however such sizes are
no longer found.
64
(Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tor_khudree, 20.04.2010).
Spawning
The fish moves to upper reaches of small streams to spawn.
Age
Food
The fish feeds on plants, insects, shrimps and mollusks
(Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tor_khudree, 20.04.2010).
65
PART IV THE ETHICS OF CARP
66
Our relationship to other living beings
Humans kill other beings to eat them and sometimes to display them as trophies. We inflict
pain and we kill. We keep animals in order to make them gain weight and make a profit.
Some sport fishers inflict pain to fish in order to conquer them, display them and then
affectionately release them. In the opinion of the German philosopher and writer on ethics
Edgar Kupfer-Koberwitz a human will in order to be truly ethical help all living beings and
avoid inflicting harm to all other living beings (1947 and 1970). The consequence of his
opinion will be vegetarian and regarding all other living species, including fish, to have a
moral value equal to humans.
In many cultures, and certainly in Europe, a dominating thought has been that man has been
created in the image of God. In such an understanding humans have thought of themselves as
separate from other beings granted the dominion of nature (Flannery, 2010). In the words of
the American philosopher Oehlschlager (1991) we have an anthropcentric view of nature and
consider ourselves separate from our surroundings and in command of them. Darwin
illuminated that we were related to other beings and met strong reactions (Darwin 1895 and
2005). Many humans, even today, do not accept the thought of man being anything else than
created in God image.
According to Adorno a necessary condition for human freedom is the ability to master nature.
In his opinion human relationship to nature is dialectic and humans will have to acknowledge
themselves as part of nature in order to gain their freedom (Adorno, 1992 and Lübcke,
1988:14). Modern society have obviously a hard admitting that dialectic relationship and
mostly behave like humans can independent of, rule and master nature (Weihe, 1999:246-
247). In a way behaviour in modern societies seem to indicate that we need to be re-taught the
lessons of people living in close contact with and integrated with nature. In an interview the
Bishop of Greenland emphasized the inbuilt spirituality of living a sustainable life adapted to
the surroundings (Weihe in Huse, 2008 127-132). In many areas of the world people have
strong traditions and conditions that make them acknowledge their integrated part of nature.
In other urban, modern society people can distance themselves and gain the illusion of being
separate.
In China the carp is often called the family fish or home fish reflecting the often very personal
relationship the carp. Often that would be to one or a number of fish growing to old age and
representing the reproducing fish kept to spawn or to fertilize eggs. We all know that humans
can develop close relationships to certain animals. Most often that would be to cats, dogs,
horses and cage birds, but as many sport fishermen can attest a close and affectionate
relationship might also exist to large sized carp. Still, most people feel separate from animals
and certainly to fish.
In the view of G. A. Bradshaw, studying elephants, they are us and we are them (Bradshaw,
2010). Such an attitude focuses upon the common heritage of living beings and the
commonality among living species. In the book “Animals maker us human” the diagnosed
autistic professor Temple Grandin argues that her autism enables her to have a special
empathy with other not human creatures (Grandin and Johnson, 2010). In her opinion even
creatures raised for meat have the right to a happy life which means freedom from hunger,
pain, fear, distress, discomfort, injury and disease; and freedom to express normal behaviour.
The latter being a difficult challenge as different species, even of fish, will require different
67
conditions and what might be good for one species might be just the opposite for another
(Flannery, 2010:14).
The Chinese fishpond, or for that matter European traditional polyculture fishponds, are
attempts to utilize different environment for different fish. Even if the fish in such ponds
utilize different niches they will have to live with fear or the danger of predators, as that is
part of their natural living conditions.
Relating to a different species we often regard “the other” as part of a group; as “fish”,
“birds”, “elk”, “deer” and so on, and not as individual beings. Thomas (2010) points out, after
carefully studying a group of deer, that they were all individuals with a far range of
personalities. In Chinese thinking that is very much the same for fish (Borgese, 1980:203).
In ethical thinking acknowledging the individuality of the other is often a prerequisite of
giving the other moral rights and behaving in a considerate way (Weihe 2008, 2009 I and II).
Not doing that we risk making the other an object. Still, we know that people readily give
both human they know and other beings pain, even if acknowledging their personalities.
It is a common claim among fishermen that fish do not feel pain and fear. They struggle
against the fisherman, but do not in the fisherman’s opinion have pain like humans and higher
animals. In what Peter Singer calls; “an eloquent polemic against human abuse of animals”
Mathew Scully argues that; “the animals role among us is to awaken humility, to turn our
minds back towards the mystery of things, and to open our hearts to that most impractical of
hopes in which all creation speaks as one” (Scully, 2011:198).
68
The carps relationship to humans
The perspective of the carp on those living above the surface of water and humans in
particular is mostly not taken into consideration. If we do we will have to relate to the rights
of carp and other species of fish for having a life according to their need. We will also have to
relate to other rights such as the right of having unpolluted water or water with a nutritional
value adapted to the need of the fish. Obviously such needs will be different depending upon
the species of fish. Trout after all requires different water quality than carp.
The carp is very much the victim of human activity and deterioration of aquatic environment.
Thus humans and human activity will often be an obstacle to the life of carp. At the same time
human activities have given carp opportunities and carp have existed in a relationship to
humans from ancient times.
To wait for the kill and have the anticipation of the destiny of life requires a certain kind of
consciousness and perhaps even communication across generations. The latter is possible in
the wild state, but never in a fishpond situation. The relationship between parents and children
are obviously different from what exists between fish and fry. Still, there is knowledge and
still there is communication. All fishermen know that fish to communicate and do send
signals of distress and warning.
If carps could decide according to their needs and expand their environment they would
obviously have more water, less pollution and obstacles like water-power stations. Still, we
have to relate to the carp not from the perspective of having human like reactions and
imperialism. Carp is after all a peaceful living fish living a life, in the natural state, in a
Buddhist like contemplative state. They require plenty of aquatic vegetation, shade from trees
and seem to be happy left alone and have no need to interact with humans.
69
The manipulated environment and the global market
Channels, water pollution, air-born-pollution, global warming, water-power stations,
introduction of diseases and new species, construction of ponds and lakes, drainage of water
and so on are all part of the human influence upon the environment.
As pointed out by many authors the global market is a vehicle for spreading diseases,
microorganisms and animals as well as well as animal products, services and attitudes
towards production as well as towards animal welfare (Millar, West and Nerlich 2009). We
have no way of predicting the outcome of such processes; however we can try to influence
them.
In an article in Science Hites (2004) discuss global contamination in farmed salmon. Even if
the example is salmon, the issue raised is rather general and of importance as well for other
farmed fish such as carp. Environmental contamination in farmed fish has created a big stir
worldwide. In an article the controversy is interpreted as a clash between two fishes, “a
healthy fish” and “a dangerous contaminated fish” (Skarstad, 2006: 452). Issues as the
healthiness of use of fish and contaminants in fish are of crucial importance to fish farming
and for consumption of fish. Even if the issue can be related specifically to fish farming and
carp, it is also a general relating to global food production and industrial farming as well as
global food wars (Lang and Heasman, 2004). In addition the issue is related to challenges
such as pollution, clean air and clean water.
For the producers of fish from fish farms and for fishermen catching fish in the wild, the
question is not merely a question of ethics, but also of survival and economics. The issue is
simply if the market will pay for a higher quality of fish. Many studies have been done to look
into the issue from the point of view of different food products. One such study done looked
into the demand for organic salmon in the European market (Reithe and Tveterås, 1998).
Obviously the markets exist, but the question of what the market is willing to pay will
eventually have to be measured in the market itself.
70
The ethical considerations
Even if not taking the extreme point of Kupfer-Koberwitz (1947 and 1970), arguing that we
only can be truly ethical if we inflict no harm to any other living being, how we behave to
other beings like the carp and how we manipulate our environment is of obvious ethical
importance. Other writers, like Matthew Scully, argue that animal welfare is not just a moral
problem, but also a moral opportunity (Scully, 2011).
As pointed out by Lund and Mejdell (2006:440) “fish is not traditionally included in the moral
community or given welfare concerns”. From the point of many communities with a short
history of fish farming it is also a matter of a “mental conversion” from hunting and
harvesting to that of husbandry. Such a change might illustrate the need for use of knowledge
and traditions from cultures with a long history of such husbandry. However even if a country
like the Czech republic and even more China have long traditions of fish farming it is
important to look into the change occurring to the periods of collective farming, state
regulations and central planning. In many cases that period meant a break with old traditions
and transferring the economy to a engineering approach to agriculture as well as fish farming.
The question of ethics will for some people be a question about eating fish or not eating fish
or for that matter other beings that have to be killed. Secondly it might be a question of either
only eating farmed or wild fish. Some will feel that wild fish should be left alone and that
eating farmed fish will be acceptable. Others will argue that only wild fish would be
acceptable for consumption (Vanhonacker, Verbeke and Sioen, 2006). Then of course comes
the issue of methods for fishfarming or for catching fish in the wild. Many sport fishermen
will argue that only certain ways of sport fishing will be acceptable others will argue that fish
caught in the wild should be released (catch and release).
The issue of animal rights as well as animal welfare is much discussed (Arluke and Sanders,
1996; Millar, West and Nerlich 2009; Ryder, 1989; Sandøe and Christiansen, 2008). In the
global world attitudes might be influenced in many ways. The logic of efficient production is
often totally alien towards animal welfare, but still logical from the point of view of efficient
production and cheap prices. Still, it might be claimed that both prices and welfare will
depend upon attitudes, ethics and legislature.
The behaviour of humans towards fish in fishfarming includes feeding them, the space and
living conditions and finally the slaughtering and transportation. Just before Christmas fish
are often marketed in big tubs of water on the streets in Brno and other towns. At sale the fish
might be bought alive or slaughtered at the place. Many of the fish sold will have wounds and
some look un-healthy. Many people tell that they do not want to buy fish at the street because
they experience the slaughtering and behaviour towards the fish is cruel. Ambrose Tinarwo
(2006) has looked into the ethical slaughter of farmed fish. Obviously many people claim that
it can be no ethics in slaughtering, just more or less painful and cruel slaughtering.
Methods of killing fish and their effects (Adapted from Tanarawo, 2006:459)
Generic Method Typical species Time to
unconsciousness
Fish welfare
Asphyxiation In air Carp, trout Slow Bad
71
Asphyxiation In ice Carp, trout Slow Bad
Mechanical Concussion Carp, salmon Immediate Very good
Mechanical Spiking Carp, salmon Immediate Good
Mechanical Spear/arrow Carp, pike Slow Bad
Mechanical Hook Carp and
several other
species
Slow Bad
Chemical CO2 Narcosis Carp, salmon,
trout
Slow/intermediate Bad
Chemical Narcosis Carp, salmon,
trout
Slow/intermediate Bad
Electrical Carp, salmon,
trout
Immediate Very Good
The question of how fish feel pain has frequently been discussed. However, today it is
overwhelming evidence that fish do feel pain, and respond in analogue manners to those of
mammals (Kestin with several more, 1994 and Tinarwo, 2006: 458). As regards to carp
research shows that carp once caught with hook is likely to remain difficult to catch for at up
to one year (Beukema, 1970).
72
The spirituality of being part of
The Norwegian author Sven Kærup Bjørneboe (2010:45) describes in one of his books visit to
Urfa in Turkey with the Aynzelika Lake and the sacred Halil pond. The lake is named after
the step daughter of Nimrod who was called Zelika. In despair after having fallen in love with
Abraham she threw herself into the flames of a fire. The fire turned into a spring that created
the lake and the pond. King Nimrod had started the fire after Abraham started to destroy the
sacred objects of his belief. The fire turned into water and was cold towards Abraham and the
firewood turned into giant carp. According to tradition the carp is sacred and some of them
immensely old, perhaps even born at the time of the Ottomans.
Carp is eaten in Anatolia served according to the tradition baked in a thick shell of salt.
Before eaten the shell is crushed with a club. As a side dish bread and thick rich Turkish
Yoghurt is served. The meal of carp is sacred and connected to a spirituality dating back from
before the Christian time, then connected to Christianity and then to Islam. Abraham is after
all a prophet both in Islam and Christianity. The two religions have the same origin and are
interwoven in ways not always easy to understand.
Salt, fish, bread and milk (yoghurt) all have some religious symbolism and representing links
between humans and the environment.
73
PART V GLOSSARY OF TERM,
LITERATURE AND INDEX
74
Glossary of terms
Aquaculture
Fish, seaweed, seashells or other biological production controlled by humans in either
freshwater or saltwater.
Monoculture
Aquaculture or agriculture with one species
Polyculture
Polyculture is aquaculture or agriculture with several species of fish, seaweed or seashells in
the same production area. In aquaculture a typical example would be several species of fish
utilizing different part of a pond like grass carp eating vegetation, another species of carp
eating plankton, black carp eating snails and ordinary carp feeding on the bottom. In some
cases other fish will be used to eat small carp of the various species or undesired species like
minnows.
75
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82
Index
A
Abraham
Abramis brama
Afganistan
Africa
Agriculture
America
American mink
Amur
Anniversary
Anthropsentric
Anzelika
Aquaculture
Aristotles
Amor Koi
Anatolian
Asagi
Asia
Asian Carp
B
Backwater
Baltimore
Bangladesh
Bekko
Bengal
Bighead Carp
Black Carp
Black Moor
Boindsild
Bread
Bream
Brocaded carp
Bubble Eye
Buddhist
Burma
Butterfly Koi
C
Cambodia
Capitalist
Canada
Carassius carassius
Carssius gibelio
83
Carp
Catfish
Ce
Celestial Eye
Chagoi
Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal
Chinese Carp
Chinese Mud Carp
Chinese Silver Carp
Chinsurin
Chirrhinus chinensis
Choten gan
Christianity
Christmas
Cirrhus molitorella
Comet
Comet tailed goldfish
Common Carp
Common goldfish
Communism
Corn
Crucian Carp
Ctenopharyngodon idella
Czech
Cyprinus auratus
Cyprinus auratus auratus
Cyprinus carpio
Cyprinus carpio haematopterus
Cyprus
D
Dame Julia Berners
Danube-Odra-Elbe Channel
Disease
Distress
Doitsu-go(i)
Dorosoma cepedianum
Dragon-eye
Druid Hill Park
E
Egg
Elritsa
Elrits(e)
Elrtize
Esox lucius
Ethics
European Carp
European catfish
European Crucian Carp
84
European Otters
F
Family Fish
Fantail
Fantail goldfish
Fear
Fertilization
Filter feeder
Fingerlings
Finkelde Christian
Flying Carp
Folk medicine
Fry
G
German Carp
Germany
Ghost Koi
Ginrin
Gizzard Shad
Globe eye
Gold fish
Golden Carp
Goshiki
Gourami
Grass
Grass Carp
Great Cormorants
Grey herons
Gørkyte
Gørleie
H
Halil Pond
Hamburg
Hana fusa
Herpes
Hikari-moyomono
Himalaya
Home fish
Hungarian
Hungary
Hypothalmichthys harmandi
Hypothalmichthys molitrix
Hypothalmichthys nobilis
I
Ide
India
85
Indian Carp
Individual
Islam
J
Japan
Judaism
K
Kawarigoi
Kawarimono
King of goldfish
Kingirin
Kin-Kikuryu
Kikokuryu
Koi
Koi Carp
Koi Herpes
Kōhaku
Koromo
Kumonryū
Kuria Labeo
Kuro demekin
L
Labeo gonius
Largesscale Silver Carp
Leather Carp
Leuciscus idus
Leuciscus molitorella
Lionhead
Loon
Lucerne
M
Maihaugen
Maize
Malabar
Manure
Marketing ponds
Maryland
Medicine
Merganeser
Mexico
Microsystes
Mineral fertilization
Minnow
Mirror carp
Mirror Koi
Missisippi
86
Moral
Mosquitoe
Mud Carp
Mutu
Myanmar
Mylopharyngodon piceus
N
Netherlands
New Zealand
New Year
New York
Nimrod
Nishikigoi
Nursing Ponds
O
Ochiba
Ōgon
Old World Minnow
Oranda
Orfe
Ornamental
Ottomans
P
Paddlefish
Pain
Parasites
Pearlscale
Perch
Phoxinus aphya
Phoxinus phoxinus
Pike
Pikeperch
Plankton
Polyculture
Polydon spathula
Pompom
Pompomor pompon
Ponds
Pools
Popeye
Portugal
Predators
Prussian Carp
R
Railroads
Rainbowtroat
87
Ranchu
Red brocade
Russian
Ryukin
S
Salt
Sanke
Second World War
Showa
Showa Sanke
Shōwa Sanshoku
Shubukin
Shūsui
Silver Carp
Silurus glanis
Snails
South Africa
Soviet Union
Soya beans
Sport
Sterile
Stizostedion lucioperca
Střevle potočni
Summering ponds
T
Taisho Sanke
Taishō Sanshoku
Tanchō
Tang Dynasty
Tattoo
Telescope
Tench
Thai
Thailand
Thames
The Norwegian Carp Society
Thelohanellus infection
Thirty-Year War
Tilapia
Tinca tinca
Tor Khudree
Tosai
Toxins
Triploid
Trout
Tsumi-Goromo
U
88
Ukrainian
United States Fish Commission
Utsurimono
V
Veiltail
Vietnam
Vietnamese
W
Washington
Waterfowl
Wen
West Nile Virus
White Amur
Z
Zelika
Ø
Ørekyte
Y
Yoghurt
Å
Åkyte