Review of the
Environmental Impact of
Nuclear Energy
by Essam E. El-Hinnawi
Energy has long been viewed as an essential ingredient in meeting man's basic needs and in
stimulating and supporting economic growth and the standard of living, so much so that
often a nation identifies its wellbeing with its gargantuan and growing need for energy.
Statistical data on energy consumption of the world in recent years [1] show that world
consumption has increased by about 50% in less than ten years. It has been estimated that
the per capita use of energy has more or less doubled during the past 30 years, and current
trends indicate that consumption will grow at a faster rate in the future. This increase is a
natural result of growing socio-economic activities and the rising standard of living.
The increasing global demand for energy has hitherto been met to an increasing extent by
the use of fossil fuels and hydro power. Nuclear energy has been developed and used
commercially for about two decades to meet a fraction of the electrical energy needs.
The total installed nuclear generating capacity in the world in 1976 was 79.9 GWe from
187 power reactors operating in 19 countries [2].
Table I summarizes that most recent estimates of possible nuclear generating capacity at the
turn of the century. The estimates demonstrate the wide range of possibilities, which is
wider after 1985, because of possible changes in rates of growth of economic activity and a
variety of other considerations that may affect the rate of commissioning of nuclear power
stations. Using the IAEA estimates, nuclear energy will contribute about 11—13% of the
total electricity generating capacity in the world in 1985 and about 17—20% in the year 2000.
At the local and in some cases regional level, the environmental aspects of energy production
and use have become of paramount importance and have served as warnings of what could be
in store on a wider scale if serious consideration is not given to the environmental
implications of man's demands for energy. From recent examinations of the impact of energy
on the environment, it has become apparent that individual nations are not isolated in this
respect and that the actions of one country may well result in environmental damage in a
neighbouring State. Against this background, an awakened public awareness of the issues has
demanded that an attempt be made to examine rationally the environmental aspects of the
energy-related society. Although nuclear power stations do not emit fly-ash or noxious
gases into the atmosphere as fossil-fuel-operated plants do, the radioactivity released from
the products of nuclear fission has been the main focus of public concern about the expansion
in the use of nuclear power despite the stringent control measures and precautions taken
There have been many attempts to set up acceptable levels for radioactivity in the environment
or in man, and although the ICRP recommendations are generally accepted in
evaluating occupational hazards, their extension to large populations and the environment
as a whole has been subjected to extensive criticism.
Dr. El-Hmnawi is Senior Officer, Policy Planning, United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi
32 IAEA BULLETIN-VOL.20, NO.2
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OFTHENUCLEAR FUEL CYCLE
Today, the dominant reactor type uses enriched uranium-oxide fuel, and is moderated and
cooled by water. Thewater maygenerate steam directly in the reactor (BWR)ormay
transfer its heat to anexternal steam generator (PWR). Besides these light-water reactors
(LWR), other types based mostly on the useof graphite of D2O asmoderator have been
developed. Experimental or prototype systems include the plutonium recycle reactor, where
Plutonium makes up part or all of the fuel, andthe fast breeder reactor (e g LMFBR),
where the fuel is a mixture of plutonium oxide andnatural or depleted uranium oxide
The latter type of reactor is designed to produce more fissile material, usable asreactor fuel,
than it consumes
The 'nuclear fuel cycle' refers to the entire programme from the mining and milling of
uranium, through the manufacture of fuel elements for the reactor, transport and reprocessing
of irradiated fuel, to the management of wastes produced in all steps of the cycle The
environmental impacts associated with all these steps are reviewed in this paper.
Uranium mining and milling
The uranium production in 1975wasabout 26 000tonnes andwill, it is estimated, reach
40 000tonnes in 1980[4, 6—8] Current projections show that demand for low-cost
uranium fuel will surpass uranium production capacity by 1985. Thecumulative uranium
requirements areestimated to be about 0 8—1 million tonnes in 1990and2-3 million
tonnes by the year 2000 [6, 8] There is at present no consensus asto whether low-cost
uranium to this amount actually physically exists in the uppermost part of the earth's crust
from which it could be economically produced. In any case accelerated efforts for the
exploration andexploitation of newresources to meet the projected increasing demands of
the nuclear industry seem inevitable [6, 9].1
Uranium ores are mined by underground, surface or solution mining depending onthe
geological setting of the ore. For a 1000-MWe nuclear plant (LWR), about 50 000-
80 000tonnes of uranium ore (0 2% U content) are required. Over the lifetime of a plant,
about 30 years, the figure will be about 1 5 million tonnes This corresponds to the need
for mining about 1000 acre-feet of uranium ore ascompared to about 50 000 acre-feet of coal
for acoal-fired plant of the same capacity [10]2
Table I: Estimates of nuclear generating capacity (GWe)for the years 1985 and 2000
Year
1985
2000
OECD [3]
538-700
2800-4100
OECD-
NEA/IAEA[4]
479-530
2005-2480
USERDA[5]
390-488
1695-2250
IAEA [6]
350-400
1500-1800
1
Thesituation is similar in the case of other metals used in the nuclear industry (eg zirconium, boron,
cadmium, graphite) Appropriate management of these resources is needed to satisfy the increasing needs
of the nuclear andother industries
2
An acre-foot is thevolume of liquid or solid required to cover oneacre to adepth of one foot
One acre = 4 047 X 103
m2
, onefoot = 3 048 X10"1
m
IAEA BULLETIN-VOL.20, NO2 33
The environmental impacts associated with uranium mining can be classified into impact on
land and water (through spoil and waste water arising from mine drainage and/or from water
used in drilling) and occupational health hazards Radon produced by the radioactive decay
of 226
Ra found in the ores has been considered a major factor in increasing the cancer
incidence amoung uranium miners [11—14] Exposure is normally controlled by either
natural or artificial ventilation and is kept within the permissible limits of radon concentration
Control of dust generated in the mining processes is also necessary to prevent exposure to
hazardous levels of silica as well as radiation
It should be noted that the environmental impacts and occupational hazards associated with
coal mining (to operate a 1000 MWe plant), tend to be more significant than those associated
with uranium mining (to operate a plant with the same capacity). Accidental mining fatalities
per coal plant exceed those from nuclear plant by a factor of three [15]. The number of
'environmental deaths' among coal miners (from pneumoconiosis) is much higher than in the
case of miners in the uranium industry
In the milling process, about 70% of the total radioactivity contained in the ore fed to the
mills remains undissolved in the solid mill tailings [16]. The environmental effects of
tailings piles include: wind erosion to unrestricted areas, river pollution from piles located
near river banks, or from water level rising during flood conditions to the base of the piles
causing leaching of radium from the material and percolation of water through piles into
groundwater [17]. Studies [17-22] have shown that the tailings piles must be stabilized
against wind and water erosion for very long periods (dictated by the radioactive half-life
of 1620 years for 226
Ra). Because of the radon emanations from the radium in the mill
tailings, this material should not be used either in structural materials or in backfill material
in connection with buildings intended for human occupation, and equally such buildings
should not be constructed in the proximity of mill tailings piles
Fuel fabrication
The main potential hazard in the fuel fabrication process arises from the toxicity of
hydrogen fluoride and fluorine used in the production of uranium hexafluonde. Safe
methods of handling these chemicals are, however, well-established in the fluorochemical
industry. The UF6 produced is a highly corrosive gas as passed through enrichment plants,
but a solid at room temperature, and can be safely packaged in steel cylinders. It is at the
point of discharge from the conversion operation as UF6 that material in the fuel cycle
passes into the Non-Prohferation Treaty safeguards system set up by the IAEA. Under
these safeguards, nuclear material in all subsequent operations of the cycle must be physically
accounted for with great precision.
As the level of uranium enrichment increases, so too does the risk of accidental agglomeration
of sufficient quantities of 23S
U to set off achain reaction. Although criticahty accidents are
very unlikely to occur, great care is needed to ensure that such events never occur. The
depleted uranium residue from enrichment plants is normally stockpiled for possible future
use as a fertile component of reactor fuel. This material is mildly radioactive, and gradually
produces the much more hazardous nuclides 226
Ra and 222
Rn Production of these nuclides
is, however, very slow and any radiation hazard from the stockpiles is controlled by limiting
access to the area.
34 IAEA BULLETIN-VOL 20,NO.2
The production of uranium dioxide fuel elements is now a well-established procedure which
seems to be free of appreciable hazards. Manufacture of mixed-oxide fuel is, however,
much more complicated. Hazards arise from the toxicity of plutomum and from the fact
that the 'critical mass' of plutomum dioxide in which chain fission reactions can start up is
only a few kilograms. However, normal operational hazards of mixed-oxide fuel production
are not difficult to manage.
Reactor operation
During the normal operation of a nuclear reactor, radioactive fission and activation products
are produced. These radioactive materials are for the most part retained within the fuel
elements. Radionuclides which diffuse into or are formed within the cooland are removed
by the gaseous and liquid waste-processing systems Low-level releases, which occur during
normal operation, are closely regulated to ensure that authorized release limits are not
exceeded.
Radioactive releases from reactors depend on the reactor type and on the specific wasteprocessing
systems utilized. Radionuclides which diffuse into or are formed within the
coolant are removed by the gaseous and liquid waste-processing systems Low-level releases,
which occur during normal operation, are closely regulated to ensure that authorized release
limits are not exceeded.
Radioactive releases from reactors depend on the reactor type and on the specific wasteprocessing
systems utilized Radionuclides released in the airborne effluents consist
essentially of: noble gases (133
Xe), activation gases (41
Ar, 14
C, 16
N and 35
S), tritium vapour
and gas, halogens and particulates The dose rates associated with the releases of 14
C are
very low, yet with its long half-life (5730 years) it makes a significant contribution to the
collective dose [23—26] Similarly, the increasing release of tritium (mainly as tritiated
water HTO) to the atmosphere calls for detailed studies and periodic assessment of the
environmental impacts of these releases, involving chronic exposures at very low exposure
levels [27] Discharges in the liquid effluents include tritium, 137
Cs, 134
Cs, 1 3 1
I, 133
1,58
Co and
^Co besides a number of activated corrosion products such as51
Ch and 51
Mn, which are
quite prevalent in liquid effluents from LWRs
Compared to the risks from gaseous emissions produced by fossil-fuel-operated power plants,
the risks from discharges from nuclear power plants during normal operation are negligibly
small However, thermal pollution is considered to be more pronounced with nuclear plants
than with fossil-fuel plants. The former reject essentially all their reject heat to the cooling
water, while in the latter about 15% of the heat is rejected up the smoke stack along with
combustion products [28] In other words, a nuclear power plant will discharge about 50%
more waste heat to the receiving waters than a fossil-fuel plant producing the same amount
of electricity.
Public concern about reactor operation has concentrated on the possibility of the
occurrence of an accident leading to the release of a considerable amount of radioactivity to
the surrounding environment. Although various types of accidents are possible during
the operation of a nuclear reactor, many safety devices are incorporated into reactor design
and operating procedures that will automatically close the reactor down in case of any serious
malfunction In addition, most power reactors are placed inside a containment building,
the purpose of which is to contain essentially all the radioactivity that might be released in
IAEA BULLETIN-VOL 20, NO.2 35
the case of a serious accident However, the efficiency of these safety measures (particularly
the emergency core-cooling systems) has met with some criticism [13, 29—31].
Several studies have been made to determine the probability of a major nuclear reactor
accident, using information on the failure rate of the various engineering components of the
reactor. The most recent of these studies [32], generally referred to as the Rasmussen report,
estimates that a core-melting accident in LWRs has a probability of about 1 in 20 000 per
reactor-year, and that 99 out of 100 core-melting accidents would cause no early fatalities.
About 1 in 170 core-melting accidents are predicted to cause more than 10 early fatalities,
and only one core-melting accident out of 500 is predicted to cause more than 100 early
fatalities. The arguments over the adequacy of this study are extensive and complex.
Critics questioned the validity of the methods used, the estimation of the risks of accidents
and the factor of human error (see, for example, [33-35]). Other critics concentrated on
the inadequacy of consideration given by the study to the risks of natural hazards (e g.
hurricanes, earthquakes), deliberate sabotage, or war.
Accidents with fast breeder reactors may have more serious consequences than with LWRs.
The major concern arises from the theoretical possibility that an FBR core could form a
critical configuration if it is melted. Other factors suggested as possibly making them more
dangerous are the use of sodium as coolant, the higher energy density, the greater neutron
flux and the higher working temperature.
In any case, the consequences of a major accident would depend not only on the amount of
radioactivity released to the environment, but upon many other factors: for example, the
average age of the fission products, the relative quantity of actinide elements present,
the kind of release (e.g. into the atmosphere or to a river), the meteorological conditions and
population density in the area, and the rapidity with which remedial measures are taken.
Apart from these considerations, the fact that so far there has been no serious reactor accident,
and that the estimated probabilities for such an occurrence are very low, make it rather
difficult to quantify the environmental impact of possible major reactor accidents.
Complete dismantling of a nuclear power station after its write-off period (usually fixed at
20—30 years) will be difficult and hazardous, because of radioactivity induced in the reactor
structure during its operating life. Bombardment by neutrons of the materials used to build
a reactor produces a range of radioactive nuclides Some of these emit highly penetrating
gamma radiation, and have half-lives of several years. However, the experience gained in
decommissioning small power reactors gives some optimism about the possibility of totally
disposing of power reactors after their write-off. The environmental consequences of this
operation are far from being sufficiently understood
Fuel reprocessing
The spent fuel elements removed from reactors at refuelling are the most intensely radioactive
material in the fuel cycle. The main hazard is the enormous amount of gamma radiation
emitted by decay of radioactive fission products. The spent elements are removed to deep
tanks of water known as cooling ponds, and left there for some time. It is necessary to
store them in the ponds in a way that prevents the considerable amount of fissile material
present —23S
U and Pu - from forming a critical configuration. After the short-lived fission
products have decayed to low levels of activity - which takes a few months - the fuel can
be reprocessed.
36 IAEA BULLETIN-VOL.20, NO.2
The number of spent fuel elements in storage is growing rapidly and evidently will continue
to do so for some time Cooling ponds are satisfactory for short-term storage, but clearly
they cannot be a permanent resting place for spent fuel The ponds require continual
surveillance and, despite the reduction in radioactivity during storage, the actmides in the
spent elements will remain dangerously radioactive for hundreds of thousands of years
At a fuel reprocessing plant the spent fuel is chemically dissolved and the residual fuel material
recovered. During this process the major portion of the fission products, in addition to
induced radioactive products present in the fuel cladding, is converted into solid and liquid
waste material. Up to the present time, fuel reprocessing plants have been the major source
of radioactive environmental contamination from the nuclear industry
The gaseous fission products contained in the fuel elements, notably 85
Kr and 1 2 9
I, are
released from the fuel pellets during reprocessing. Tritium and volatile compounds of 14
C
are also released. Much of the radioactive material is removed from the effluent gases, but
8s
Kr (half-life 10.8 years) and tritium (half-life 12 3 years) are vented into the atmosphere
from existing plants. Most of the output of these two gases will almost certainly have to
be removed from stack emissions if radiation standards are to be maintained when large-scale
oxide fuel reprocessing begins
Low-level liquid waste, eventually discharged to the environment, also arises in reprocessing.
Generally, most of the small quantity of tritium is discharged with this waste. Improved
methods of storage or disposal of this waste have to be developed Reprocessing plants also
produce intermediate and low-level solid wastes Reprocessing the fuel used in one year
by a 1000 MWe LWR would produce some 20-60 m3
of such wastes. The mam component
of the intermediate-level solids is fuel cladding material, radioactive to a degree depending on
its composition and irradiation history It is contaminated with small amounts of spent
fuel. Up to now, most waste of this kind has been buried on land or placed in canisters and
dumped in the ocean. The OECD/NEA is currently supervising the disposal of 7000 t/a
at a depth of 4500 m in the Atlantic Ocean [36,37]. Other methods of disposal include
deep burial in abandoned mines or in suitable geological formations [38,39]
The high-activity wastes arising from the reprocessing of spent fuel are estimated to reach
20 000 m3
by 1990 [22]. These wastes contain over 99% of the fission products present
in the fuel together with smaller quantities of actmides. High-level wastes are at present
stored mainly in liquid form, and some constituents will remain dangerously radioactive for
Table II: Number of shipments in the nuclear fuel cycle projected to the year 2000 [40]
Fuel
Spent fuel
Plutonium
Wastes and fission products
1980
670
2000
20
630
Shipments/year in
1990
2500
6400
143
2450
2000
5 400
12 000
438
5 500
IAEA BULLETIN - VOL 20, NO.2 37
several hundreds of thousands of years. There is at present no generally accepted means by
which high-level waste can be permanently isolated from the environment and remain safe
for very long periods. Processes for the conversion of high-level waste to a relatively inert
solid have been developed [22] Permanent disposal of high-level solid wastes in stable
geological formations is regarded as the most likely solution, but has yet to be demonstrated
as feasible. It is not certain that such methods and disposal sites will entirely prevent
radioactive releases following disturbances caused by natural processes or human activity.
Marine disposal of high-level radioactive wastes has been extensively restricted by international
and regional conventions which are binding on many countries with nuclear power industries.
Disposal in Antarctica is prohibited by treaty.
Transport of radioactive material
One important side of the nuclear industry is the safe transport of radioactive materials.
The facilities involved in the nuclear fuel cycle are generally geographically dispersed even
within one country, and radioactive materials in various forms have to be transported to and
from such facilities. The volume of transport of radioactive materials has grown and will
continue to grow in step with the growth of the nuclear power industry Radioactive
materials arising in the nuclear fuel cycle are generally transported by surface either by truck
or rail and sea. Transport by air is commonly used for small quantities required for medical
and research purposes. The estimated number of shipments in the nuclear fuel cycle in the
United States of America is given in Table II (for LWRs, HTGRs and LMFBRs).
The transport of radioactive ore from mine to mill under normal or accident conditions is
unlikely to result in environmental effects of any consequence. Similarly the transport of
the mill product, i e. the 'yellowcake', or the subsequent transport of UF6 and UOj
contained in suitable transport containers are not likely to result in any environmental effects.
The fuel elements are shipped in packages designed to prevent accidental criticahty even
under severe accident conditions. The radioactivity of the new unirradiated fuel can have
essentially no impact on the environment, and very little on individual transport workers
under normal conditions. Even in an accident the physical properties and the low specific
activity of the fuel would limit radiation effects to very small levels. Theoretically,
accidental criticahty may lead to significant adverse environmental effects. Dose equivalents
in excess of 500 rem to individuals in the immediate vicinity might result, and the
immediate area would require a thorough and perhaps costly decontamination. However,
by means of strict controls and authoritative standards for container design and
construction, the possibility of reaching criticality during transport is practically eliminated.
Spent fuel elements are transported in shielded air- or water-cooled casks weighing 20 tonnes
or more. The heavy shielding of the casks must reduce the radiation from the spent fuel
elements inside to pre-established levels of the IAEA regulations or else the casks must be
sent under special arrangements. Under normal transport conditions the radiation dose
exposures to transport workers should be kept within permissible values by the limitation
of the radiation around the containers. If the workers are handling substantial numbers of
shipments it may be necessary to make surveys and introduce additional control measures
such as job rotation. A severe accident in which the cask walls are ruptured, resulting in a
loss of content, might have severe impacts on the public and the environment, but the
possibility of such rupture is minimized by strict adherence to the regulatory requirements
regarding design, construction testing and approval of the casks.
38 IAEA BULLETIN-VOL.20, NO.2
Low-level radioactive wastes are packaged in sealed containers such as 55-gallon steel drums
and are shipped by common carrier to burial grounds. Solidified high-level radioactive wastes
will be shipped to retrievable storage sites, such as geological formations, salt mines or
surface storage facilities, in containers resembling the casks utilized in shipments of spent
fuel.
Packaging and transport of radioactive materials are regulated by international as well as
national transport regulations. The IAEA has published regulations for the safe transport of
radioactive materials, and these have been adopted by virtually all international transport
authorities and taken by most Member States as the basis of their own regulations
Substantial continuing effort is being made by the IAEA to keep its regulations for the safe
transport of radioactive materials technically up to date and to encourage their adoption
and implementation
The plutonium issue
Plutonium-239 (which is not separable from the other Pu isotopes) is the isotope of greatest
concern, it is the type used in atom bombs and constitutes at least 70% of the total amount
of plutonium produced in power reactors. It has a half-life of 24 400 years Much evidence
points to the relatively great quantities of plutonium which would be generated and processed
in a major world nuclear power programme, particularly if fast breeder reactors are widely
adopted. At present, about 20 tonnes are produced each year, most of which remains in
unprocessed form in spent fuel rods By the year 2000, the annual production could be
several hundred tonnes.
Only about 6 kg of 239
Pu is needed in metal form to produce a chain reaction, perhaps 9 kg
as PuO2, and slightly larger amounts of reactor-grade plutonium containing various
plutonium isotopes The danger exists that if sufficient plutomum of reactor grade came
together inadvertently, possibly during reprocessing of fuel fabrication, a chain reaction
could occur with consequent emission of a powerful pulse of lethal radiation, and dispersion,
possibly violently, of the plutonium. Strict control measures are routinely applied and have
so far proved effective
Regarding the toxicity and carcinogenic effects of plutomum, there have been a number of
contradictory views (see, for example, [41—43]). Plutonium is highly toxic, its absolute
toxicity is comparable to that of biological toxins [43] However, the latter are unstable like
most proteins, boiled in solution they lose their activity in a few minutes Plutonium, on the
other hand, remains a hazard for periods up to some 20 times its half-life, or nearly half a
million years Unlike toxins, plutomum acts slowly, small carcinogenic doses in the lungs
may not produce cancer for 10, 20 or 40 years (Some pollutants have also long latency
periods and do not easily decay ) Several authors have therefore called for a revision of the
ICRP maximum permissible dose of 40 nCi of 239
Pu
NUCLEAR SAFEGUARDS AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
During the entire fuel cycle, including transport of nuclear material, strict vigilance and care
must be ensured, both on national and international levels, so that nuclear material does not
fall into unauthorized hands which may use it for uncontrolled activities leading to
damaging effects either on general population or the environment An enormous effort is
therefore required, both nationally and internationally, to prevent any diversion of nuclear
material or sabotage of nuclear installations.
IAEA BULLETIN-VOL.20, NO 2 39
The establishment and implementation of a physical protection system at the national level
is the primary responsibility of the Government and is closely connected to its national
system of accounting for and safeguarding and control of nuclear material. This system has
to cover the nuclear material in use, storage, and transport throughout the entire fuel cycle
both nationally and internationally. At the international level, the IAEA has initiated and
implemented a nuclear safeguards system.
The system established under the Non-Prohferation Treaty (NPT) is the most widely applied
and, in most respects, appears to be the most effective. However, the main limitations and
weaknesses of the present safeguards arrangements which give cause for environmental
concern can be summarized as follows: the failure of many States to become parties to the
NPT, the inability of safeguards to prevent the transfer of nuclear technology from nuclear
power production to the acquisition of nuclear weapons competence; the fact that many
nuclear facilities are covered by no safeguards; the existence of a number of loopholes in
safeguards agreements regarding their application to peaceful nuclear explosions, to materials
intended for non-explosive military uses, and to the re-transfer of materials to a third State,
the absence, in practice, of safegaurds for source materials, the practical problems of
maintaining effective checks on nuclear inventories, the ease with which States can withdraw
from the NPT and from most non-NPT safeguards agreements, deficiencies in accounting
and warning procedures, and the absence of reliable sanctions to deter division of safeguarded
material.
The possibility should not be discounted of diversion of nuclear material through terrorist
acts and the risk that the opportunity and the motive for nuclear blackmail will develop
Measures designed to prevent theft of nuclear materials and attacks on nuclear installations
have been tightened in recent years. Welcome as those measures are, the evidence indicates
that the risks are real and will tend to increase with the further spread of nuclear technology.
CONCLUSIONS
Table III makes a comparison between the environmental impacts of a 1000-MWe coal-fired
power plant and three nuclear plants with the same capacity. The environmental advantages
of the reactors are: (Din the category of effluents, where the reactors are assigned 1200 to
1500 t/a as against the million tonnes of air pollutants coming from coal-fired plants, and
(2) in land use, where the 300 to 400 acres of space which is needed for a coal-fired plant is
compared with 70 to 140 acres for a nuclear plant and the 200 acres per year which must be
stripped for the coal is compared with 13 acres of uranium strip-mining for the LWBR and
much less than 1 acre for the LMFBR. The cooling-water needs are about even for the
LMFBR and coal plants and 40 to 50% higher for the LWBR However, the effect of
pollutants is not measurable by weight or volume. It is the interaction with the things vital
to life that determine the extent of the damage. It is true that non-nuclear wastes and
pollutants affect man and his environment and some may have genetic effects but in the
case of radioactive wastes, the damage would be more potential and not easily reparable
Although some countries have slowed down their nuclear energy programmes, the
abandonment of nuclear fission would, however, be neither wise nor justified [45] It is
important at this stage of nuclear power development that increased efforts should be
devoted to detailed in-depth studies of the different environmental impacts associated with
all steps of the nuclear fuel cycle, to develop adequate measures for ensuring the protection
of man and his environment.
40 IAEA BULLETIN-VOL 20,NO.2
Table III: Environmental effects of 1000-MWe generating plant [44]
Type Coal-fired LWBR HTGR LMFBR
THERMAL
Btu/sa
to be dissipated
EFFLUENT
Radioactivity
(103
Ci/a)
AIR POLLUTION
(t/a)
SO2
NOX
CO
Particulates
HC
WASTES (103
ft3
/a)c
Radioactive
Ashes
LAND
Acres mined
Plant sites (acres)
1 49 X 106
-
45 000
26 000
750
3 500
260
—
200
200
300 400
1 93 X 106
2253
1500b
900
25
120
9
12
7b
13
-<
1.43 X 106
2
1200b
700
20
95
7
10
5b
9
- 70-140 —
1.31 >
2
—
—
—
—
-
8
-
0.05
* •
a
1 Btu = 1054 X 103
J
The emissions charged to the reactors are computed from the electric energy used in
enrichment
° 1 ft3
= 2832X1(T2
m3
The United Nations Environment Programme has been concerned with studies on the
environmental impacts of all sources of energy At its fourth session (1976), the Governing
Council of UNEP requested the preparation of in-depth studies on the environmental
impacts of fossil fuels, nuclear energy and renewable sources of energy. These studies, which
are carried out in co-operation with UN bodies concerned and other organizations, will
provide a comprehensive comparative assessment of these impacts with the main goal of
identifying a priority list of inadequacies in knowledge for further research and development
This paper was presented at the 1977 International Conference on Nuclear Power and Its Fuel Cycle,
Salzburg, Austria
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[3] OECD, Energy Prospects to 1985, OECD, Pans (1974)
IAEA BULLETIN-VOL.20, NO 2 41
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