ESTABLISHMENT OF THE U.S. SUPREME COURT POWER
IN THE BEGINNING… the Supreme Court was perceived to be such a weak institution that
Former Chief Justice John Jay refused President John Adams reappointment to the Court in 1801
because he had no faith that it could acquire enough “energy, weight, and dignity” to play a
salient role in the national government.
—Justices had to attend court in their assigned circuit twice a year, spending a lot of
energy in endless travel under semi-primitive conditions. A number of statesmen refused
appointments to the Court, and several on it resigned in favor of better opportunities,
including Chief Justice John Jay!
—Few cases came to the Court, and even fewer were important
—The Court was reluctant to exercise its authority
The Court had: 1) to establish the doctrine of judicial independence, implied in the
Constitution with the provision of a lifetime appointment during “good behavior” (while
Congress was granted impeachment power and the control over appellate jurisdiction); 2) to
establish the power of judicial review, to declare an act of Congress or of the state legislatures
unconstitutional; and 3) to develop its power into the doctrine of judicial sovereignty, the idea
that a law may be held unconstitutional if the Court thinks it is and that the Court’s opinion is
binding on the other branches of government.
Judicial Independence before Chief Justice John Marshall
Refused to give President George Washington advice on questions of international law in
connection with the Neutrality Proclamation of 1793, arguing the “advisory opinions” were
inconsistent with the judicial function. When Congress invested the judiciary with the authority
to settle the claims of invalid war veterans, two Supreme Court justices (riding circuit) sitting
with a district judge rejected the assignment; they declared the law unconstitutional because “the
business directed by this act [was] not of a judicial nature.” In several cases decided by the
Supreme Court, the justices assumed in their opinions that they could set aside unconstitutional
state or federal laws, but they elected not to do so which disarmed their critics.
Chisholm v. Georgia (1793). Article III of the Constitution extended judicial power to
controversies “between a State and citizens of another State.” When two citizens of South
Carolina brought suit against Georgia for recovery of a debt, Georgia refused to appear in Court
in its own defense. The Court held that states could be sued and rendered a judgement of the
South Carolina plaintiffs. In the words of Justice Wilson, who sat on the pre-Marshall Court, “as
to the purposes of the Union ... Georgia is not a sovereign state,” a sensible and inevitable
conclusion, but 1793 was too soon to state it so baldly. Immediate opposition and eventual
Amendment XI to the Constitution that states could not be sued in federal court. The justices
had spoken over plainly and they spoke in support of a doctrine that immediately imperiled the
concrete interests of the states.
Chief Justice John Marshall (appointed in 1803). Marshall established the custom of
letting one justice’s opinion, usually his own, stand for the decision of the whole Court,
giving it the appearance of unity. Court opinions were bound in volumes to guide judges
in deciding the law. Established the Judicial Conference where cases were argued and
voted on, and he determined the order of discussion and voting.
Doctrine of Judicial Review
Marbury v. Madison (1803). William Marbury appointed Justice of the Peace for
Washington, DC, by President John Adams, approved by the Senate, but left on the President’s
desk in the confusion over the “midnight appointments,” filling all vacancies with Federalists
before Thomas Jefferson assumed office the next day. Marshall, for the Court, held that
Marbury’s commission was being illegally withheld from him by the Jefferson Administration
and that a writ can be directed to a cabinet official when he does not do his duty. However, the
Supreme Court was not the proper tribunal to remedy the case because the Court does not have
the power to issue writs in such circumstances. Why? Section 13 of the Judiciary Act of 1789
seems to grant that power, but the provision itself is invalid. The Court’s original jurisdiction is
defined in the Constitution, hence an act of Congress like this one which adds to original
jurisdiction, is unconstitutional.
Wrote Marshall, “the question of whether an Act repugnant to the Constitution can
become the law of the land, is a question deeply interesting to the United States; but,
happily not of an intricacy proportioned to its interest. It seems only necessary to
recognize certain principles supposed to have been long and well-established to decide
it.”
Doctrine of Judicial Independence
John Pickering Impeachment in 1803. U.S. District Court judge in New Hampshire.
Hopelessly insane and a drunkard on the bench for three years. Radical Republicans put a spin on
the Constitution to try, convict, and remove Pickering. Then turned to Supreme Court Justice
Samuel Chase. Impeachment articles brought against Chase charging misconduct in the 1800
sedition trials of Fries and Callender, in his treatment of a grand jury in the same year, and in his
political harangue of another grand jury in1803. Indecision in the Senate about criminality v.
objectionable conduct, so tangled both, and resulted in not guilty verdict for Chase
Doctrine of Judicial Sovereignty
Fletcher v. Peck (1810). Georgia state legislature bribed into selling property which is
the current states of Alabama and Mississippi. Revealed. Sale rescinded by a newly elected
reform legislature. Land already sold to innocent third parties, hence Marshall held for a
unanimous Court that the law rescinding the sale was invalid, hence declaring a state law
unconstitutional.