1
Reconciling Marketing with Political Science: Theories of Political Marketing.
Journal of Marketing Management, 1997, Vol 13, pp.651-663
Dominic Wring
This paper has two broad aims: to trace the theoretical development of political marketing
and then demonstrate how these concepts can be used in the analysis of election campaigns.
Electioneering is not the sole manifestation of marketing in politics but it is the most obvious,
a point underlined by recent work addressing the prominent role now played by political
marketing in a parliamentary democracy like Britain (Franklin 1994; Kavanagh 1995;
Scammell 1995). Whilst much of this material understandably concentrates on the once
neglected work of campaign practitioners, the more theoretical explorations of the
intersection between marketing and politics have tended to appear in management journals
(Shama 1976; Smith and Saunders 1990; Butler and Collins 1994). This paper intends to
explore the relationship from a political science perspective.
2
Defining Political Marketing.
In their seminal article, Kotler and Levy (1969) argued that elections should be one of the
new arenas of marketing interest: “Political contests remind us that candidates are
marketed as well as soap.” However the earliest recorded use of the term “political
marketing” did not appear in a formal management study but in the pioneering work of
political scientist Stanley Kelley which charted the emergence of the professional
campaign industry in the United States. Commenting on the activities of the first election
consultancies, Kelley wrote:
“The team relies heavily but not entirely upon their own intuitive feel for
providing political marketing conditions. They pride themselves on having “good
average minds” that help them to see things as the average man sees them.” (Kelley
1956: 53)
In spite of the opposition from marketing purists those in sympathy with the 'broadening'
thesis began to attempt to clarify, refine and establish the sub-field of political marketing.
By the mid-1970s American scholars such as Avraham Shama (1974; 1976) and the
prolific Philip Kotler (1975) were to the fore in developing theoretical foundations for the
subject. Similarly experts in Europe began to consider the political dimension to
marketing, positing the view that an exchange relationship existed between democratic
elites and their voters (O'Leary and Iredale 1976). By the mid-1980s a steady stream of
research discussing the emergence of the phenomenon helped confirm its importance
(Mauser 1983; Newman and Sheth 1985). Writing in 1988 David Reid concluded that:
“In western terms, although seldom recognised by politicians, the problem of
getting elected is essentially a marketing one. Political parties must determine the
3
scope and the most effective way of communicating its benefits to a target audience.”
(Reid 1988)
Marketing and Political Marketing.
Seymour Fine identifies the 1985 decision of the American Marketing Association (AMA)
to redefine its central concern as a milestone in the integration of social (and political)
issues into mainstream marketing thinking. New phraseology added the crucial word
“ideas” to the list of legitimate product concerns: “Marketing is the process of planning
and executing the conception, pricing, promotion and distribution of ideas, goods and
services to create exchanges that satisfy individual and organizational objectives” (cited in
Fine 1992: 1).
Since its revision the American definition has continued to enjoy wide currency in the
literature in spite of various complex arguments over what the precise nature of the subject
is, is not and ought to be (Hunt 1976; Whyte 1988; Hooley et al. 1990). The British
equivalent of the AMA statement, as agreed by the Chartered Institute of Marketing
(CIM), places similar emphasis on the notion that organisational success is an integral part
of strategic concerns: firms do not seek to satisfy consumers out of altruism but from a
desire to realise their own profit-making goals. To the CIM marketing is “the management
process responsible for identifying, anticipating and satisfying customer requirements
profitably” (cited in Whyte 1988). The British and American definitions are useful in that
they counteract the crude and oversimplistic belief that marketing is simply about firms
giving their customers what they want. Such a cliché may convey clarity but it obscures
more complex truth. And because some in political science (not to mention other
disciplines) may have misunderstood marketing in this way, it helps explain why relatively
few in the field have sought to use it as a tool of electoral analysis.
4
Marketing then is a process in which the notion of “consumer focus” plays a major
strategic role but not to the exclusion of organisational needs. Compared with
over-simplistic customer centred understandings of the subject, this theoretical
interpretation fits more easily with the world of “realpolitik”. In analysing the electoral
market Adrian Sackman emphasises this point, arguing that: “Marketing is thus built upon
a paradox; it starts with the customer, is directed at the customer, but is fundamentally
concerned with the satisfaction of the producer's own interests” (Sackman 1992). Such
sentiments resemble J.K.Galbraith's stricture that marketing and advertising are activities
governed and to some extent created by producer groups (Galbraith 1969). In political
science this view is reflected in theoretical considerations of competition which attempt to
marry the need of the organisation (that is the party) to win support with its desire to
maintain some degree of programmatic consistency between elections.
Due to the peculiar nature of the environment in which they operate and despite the
existence of “voter sovereignty”, parties rather than firms are perhaps more adequately
equipped to influence the deliberations of their market. Thus for Schattschneider elections
are based around the organising principle that: “Democracy is a competitive political
system in which competing leaders and organizations define the alternatives of public
policy in such a way that the public can participate in the decision-making process”
(Schattschneider 1960:141). This “realist” concept of democracy underpins Andrew
Gamble’s isolation of the key variables in the electoral marketplace:
“The actual workings of the mass democracy has divided the political market
into two camps. There are those that compete for office and those that vote. Like
the producers and consumers in economic markets it is a mistake to believe that these
5
two functions are of equal importance. One is active, creative and continuous; the other
is passive, receptive and intermittent.” (Gamble 1974:6)
It should be noted that whilst the statements of Schattschneider and Gamble place
emphasis on a party’s ability to shape voter preferences, neither commentator would deny
the fundamental role the electorate play in determining outcomes within a competitive
political market situation. Consequently, by emphasising the fact that it is both an
organisational as well as consumer focused exercise, it is possible to understand the
usefulness of marketing analysis to political scientists.
Political Marketing: a definition.
Making reference to the management literature outlined in the previous section, it is
possible to conceive of political marketing as:
“the party or candidate’s use of opinion research and environmental analysis to
produce and promote a competitive offering which will help realise organisational
aims and satisfy groups of electors in exchange for their votes.”
At the root of this definition is a framework developed by Philip Niffenegger (1989).
Designed with reference to the classic ‘4Ps’ marketing model popularised by McCarthy
(1960), Niffenegger’s formulation highlights the roles played by environmental analysis,
strategic tools like market research and ultimately the ‘mix’ of variables (product,
promotion, place and price) in the design of political campaigns. The desirability of
applying this ‘mix’ model to non-profit not to mention commercial marketing has been
challenged by some who consider the ‘Ps’ approach outdated and inherently flawed (Blois
1987). Similarly, recognising the implicit difficulties in analysing the ‘chimerical nature
6
of elections’, O’Shaughnessy cautions against the application of overly rigid marketing
frameworks to politics (O'Shaughnessy 1990:4). Nevertheless, in spite of these objections,
the Niffenegger framework has been adopted by Butler and Collins (1993) and other
derivations of the mix model can be found in the work of Farrell (1986), Farrell and
Wortmann (1987) and Newman (1994).
The Political Marketing Process.
The political marketing process as outlined in Table 1 consists of four parts, namely the
party (or candidate) organisation, the environment which conditions its development, the
strategic mix it deploys, and ultimately the market it must operate in.
The Political Market.
Adopting the maxim of Schumpeter (1943) that democracy is primarily concerned with
parties’ “competitive struggle for (the) people’s vote”, Gamble contends that:
“The main components of the modern political market are three; the existence of a
mass electorate; competition between two or more parties for the votes of this electorate;
and a set of rules governing this competition.” (Gamble 1974:6)
Within the political market the key relationship is based around a concept central to
marketing theory, namely that of exchange between buyer and seller. Thus citizens give
their votes to politicians who, when elected, purport to govern in the public interest (Scott
1970; Lane 1993). In a modern democracy the right to vote, commonly associated with the
age of majority, allows for a mass electorate which can typically number well into the
millions.
7
Table 1: The Political Marketing Process.
THE MARKETING MIX
MARKET
ENVIRONMENT
Environmental Analysis
Party
Market Research
Supporters
Floating Voters
Opponents
Product Party Image
Leader Image
Manifesto
Promotion Advertising
Broadcasts
PR
Direct Mail
Place Local Work
Canvassing
Leader Tour
Price Economic
Psychological
National
Adapted from Niffenegger (1990)
ORGANISATION
Strategy
8
Commercial markets tend to resemble the competitive structure found in an electoral
system run on the grounds of proportionality as opposed to “first past the post”. This is not
to argue that market criteria cannot be applied to a political situation such as that in Britain
where purely majoritarian rules of voting operate. Indeed the need for the parties to
maintain vote share as well as court new groups of “swing” voters is as relevant to
participants in this system as it is to those operating under conditions of proportional
representation.
Analysing the Environment.
On reflection it may appear that business organisations have a considerable advantage over
politicians in respect of the amount of resources they are able to invest in analysing their
environment. However such a perception of the marketing process perhaps discounts the
immense amount of pertinent information which candidates and party professionals can
draw upon in planning their campaigns. Broadsheet newspapers, specialist magazines and
academic briefs offer a plethora of reports, analysis and opinion research material on
which political strategists can base their decisions and better understand the economic,
media and other factors shaping electors’ concerns.
In contrast to the environment, which constitutes the “givens”, Hunt (1976) identifies what
he calls “controllable factors”, namely the collection of strategic decisions which an
organisation can implement as part of its marketing programme. Together these variables
are commonly known as the “mix”, a configuration that consists of the 4Ps: product,
promotion, place and price.
Product.
9
The product is central to a marketing mix. In electoral terms the product, a “mix” of
variables in its own right, combines three key aspects: “party image”, “leader image” and
“policy commitments”. This configuration has been popularised by several analysts
including Bob Worcester, head of the MORI polling organisation (Farrell and Wortmann
1987; Worcester 1987; Worcester 1991; Shaw 1994). Using survey data, Worcester points
out the extent to which each element of the product influences opinion amongst different
groups of voters. Thus where one segment might be susceptible to primarily issue based
appeals others will display a preoccupation with the dimensions of leader or party image.
Consequently Worcester represents the preoccupations of different electors in a series of
triangular diagrams, the length of whose sides can be equated with the emphasis voters
give to each of the product concerns (Worcester,1987).
The notion that politicians are increasingly using appeals based on the promotion of image
at the expense of issues has become a common feature of journalists’ election coverage.
However such a view can no longer be regarded as a cliché and commands significant
academic support (Biocca 1991; Franklin 1994). As Terence Qualter has concluded: “The
marketing of politics means, of course, the reduction of politics to marketable images”
(Qualter 1985:138).
Whilst the notion of party image is built around factors such as the organisation’s record in
office, recent history and unity of purpose (Harrop and Shaw 1990), the substance
underpinning the concept is more likely contained within the policy platform on which an
election manifesto is based. In the last twenty years psephological research has begun to
place greater emphasis on the rational choice notion of the elector as a consumer
evaluating the issues and voting for the party most in tune with individual policy
preferences (Himmelweit et al. 1985; Harrop 1986). However the overall picture is not
10
simply one of a shift from party image to issue based explanations of voter choice because
the situation has been complicated by another factor, that of leader image, which forms the
third constituent in the political product mix.
Once a largely ignored factor in electoral research, the growing and potential future
importance of leader image has been recognised in several studies into the increasing
presidentialisation of British politics (Mughan 1993; Foley 1993; Crewe and King 1994).
Media coverage of current affairs has helped extenuate this trend; as Philip Kotler
comments: “Voters rarely know or meet the candidates; they only have mediated images of
them. They vote on the basis of their images” (Kotler 1982).
Promotion.
Promotions form the most obvious part of a political marketing campaign. Misinformed
commentators sometimes inflate the importance of advertising, the most recognisable
communications tool, to the extent that it is held to represent the entire marketing process
(see, for instance, Tyler 1987). Such a mistake fails to appreciate the complexities of a
complete strategy, not to mention other parts of the promotional mix. Given the centrality
of advertising within the modern marketing industry it is perhaps not surprising that its
public profile is considerably higher than that of its “stablemates” in the fields of direct
mail and public relations. Nevertheless, with the advent of modernised forms of the latter
in the shape of “junk mail” and “spin doctors”, these parts of the promotional mix are
beginning to gain increasing public prominence and particularly in the electoral arena.
The promotional mix can be divided into two principal parts commonly referred to as
“paid” and “free” media. The term paid media covers all forms of advertising, be it in
poster, print or broadcast form. It should be noted that, though the primetime television
11
and radio advertising slots for Party Election Broadcasts (PEBs) in Britain are free, those
parties which qualify for them are technically in receipt of a state subsidy in kind
(Scammell and Semetko 1995). Hence PEBs can be placed in the same category as other
forms of political advertising. Paid media also covers the burgeoning sector of telephone
and direct mail marketing, an increasingly common feature of contemporary election
campaigning. Party colours, designs, slogan copy and symbols provide an additional
dimension to the overall communications mix.
Free media refers to the publicity which parties receive but do not buy. In contrast to
purchased advertising campaigns, organisations have less control over their product’s
exposure in the mass media. Consequently political strategists, not to mention the voting
public, tend to view this kind of coverage as being of greater importance. Electoral
organisations are becoming increasingly reliant on the techniques of news management. In
recent years the American term “spin doctor” has entered the political lexicon in
recognition of the increasing role that press, publicity and broadcasting officers can and do
play in the British electoral and parliamentary process (Jones 1995). This aspect of
campaigning provides perhaps one of the most striking contrasts between commercial and
electoral marketing strategies: unlike their political counterparts, communications staff
working for even the most senior corporate executives are unlikely to be deluged on a daily
basis by some of the most experienced journalists eager for information and answers to
highly sensitive questions.
Free media strategies are not solely concerned with defensive news management activities.
More common to commerce and increasingly a part of the political process, public
relations is a tool designed to attract favourable media attention for the organisation
concerned. It is now almost obligatory for senior British politicians to participate in
12
“photo-opportunities”, news conferences and other scenarios designed to enhance the
status of themselves and their message (Cockerell 1988; Franklin 1994). This is
particularly true of the period in the run-up to an election.
Placement.
At the heart of a placement or distribution strategy is a network of regional suppliers. In
politics the equivalent form of organisation is the party at grassroots’ level. Parties in
Britain organise their membership and machinery on a regional and local basis. The
executives of these bureaucracies help co-ordinate and supply volunteer labour and
strategic inputs during election campaigns. In addition this network also liases with the
national apparatus in order to devise and co-ordinate regional events and tours by the party
leadership. It should be noted that, precisely because it is a political marketing “mix”,
some of the activities that may constitute part of one variable can be found in another. In
this way the methods of the distribution policy closely mirror those of a promotional
strategy in that both are reliant on tools such as direct mail despite having different aims
(Farrell 1986).
Local electioneering commonly takes the form of traditional activities such as canvassing,
leafleting and what American strategists call “getting the vote out” on polling day
(Kavanagh 1970; Denver and Hands 1992). Contrary to some perceptions, most modern
campaign canvassing is now more preoccupied with identifying and contacting potential
and confirmed party supporters than it is with persuading them. This may derive from the
fact that local activities have had to change due to a decline in the availability of volunteers
coupled with the increasing desire of central headquarters to assert a common “brand”
awareness in all party electoral communications.
13
The post-war decline in grassroots’ membership perhaps reflects an assumption that
localised forms of campaigning are largely ineffectual. Such a view has been widely
fostered in the United States where the use of political consultants has had an unfavourable
effect on the strength of precinct organisation (Ware 1985; O’Shaughnessy 1990).
However, recent research in Britain has begun to challenge the notion that local campaign
work is ineffectual by demonstrating the potential electoral benefits of maintaining a
healthy organisation at this level (Seyd and Whiteley 1992). Furthermore the
implementation of new and more affordable forms of campaign technology may even
increase the value of electoral initiatives at constituency level (Farrell and Wortmann
1987). Existing evidence suggests that computers, telephone canvass banks and direct
mail initiatives became the norm in British by-elections before later establishing
themselves as standard general election practice in most key marginal seats (Swaddle
1988).
Price.
Pricing, the fourth part of a conventional marketing mix, enables a commercial firm to
develop a strategy which will help maintain competitiveness and profitability in the
marketplace. Some electoral commentators have discounted the pricing element in the
belief that it adds little to the analysis of campaign planning and implementation (Farrell
1986; Farrell and Wortmann 1987). Wangen takes the variable to mean the way an
organisation raises campaign finance and attracts members (Wangen 1983). By contrast
the theoretical basis of this paper is built on a conception of the political marketing process
defined by Philip Niffenegger (1990) and which includes all the central tenets of
conventional theory (see Table 1). Niffenegger justifies the relevance of the pricing mix
by outlining its constituent parts. These elements, relating to environmental phenomena as
interpreted by the electorate, comprise voter feelings of national, economic and
14
psychological hope or insecurity. This notion of the political “price” reflects Reid’s
observation that a vote is a “psychological purchase” (Reid 1988). The parallels between
electoral and consumer behaviour have been more comprehensively analysed by Lane
(1993).
There are always problems inherent in designing campaigns according to market research
findings. These pitfalls are augmented when candidates seek to capitalise on the reported
anxieties or aspirations of a given electoral group. One public sign of the importance
attached to this kind of strategy is the growth in “negative campaigning”. This type of
electioneering, most commonly associated with American politics, involves attempts by
party or candidates’ organisations to frighten voters with robust and often startling
denunciations of opponents. The frequency with which many leading national candidates
in the United States have used this type of campaign has offended even David Ogilvy, a
staunch defender and senior member of the marketing industry: “There is one category of
advertising which is totally uncontrolled and flagrantly dishonest: the television
commercials for candidates in Presidential elections” (Ogilvy 1983, p.209).
Negative “appeals” usually focus on only one aspect of the pricing mix at a time.
Depending on the audience being targeted, common economic themes include an
opponents’ intention to either raise tax and spending or else make sweeping budget cuts.
In times of international insecurity or domestic uncertainty politicians, particularly
incumbents, often stress their rivals’ apparent lack of diplomacy or administrative
competence. Such appeals are often couched in images which stress the need to counter
what is posed as a threat to the “national interest” from “undesirable elements” be they at
home or abroad. Perhaps the least tangential element of the pricing mix relates to the
psychological cost implicit in voting. A popular feature in negative campaigns, such
15
strategies tap into often deep seated and unspoken prejudices about a given politician's lack
of ability, judgement and trustworthiness. As O'Keefe notes: “...in no other campaign
situation are target audiences required to take into account not only ideas, issues, and
policies, but also such human traits as honesty, professional expertise, and managerial
style” (O'Keefe 1989). Famous victims of this type of attack advertising have included
American presidential and vice-presidential hopefuls such as Barry Goldwater, Spiro
Agnew, Michael Dukakis and Bill Clinton (Jamieson 1992).
“Pricing” policy need not necessarily form a wholly negative part of the political
marketing mix. It is possible to conceive of a campaign strategy which promotes the idea
of a domestic “feelgood factor” or boasts a perceived increase in the country’s
international standing in a order to make political capital and win votes. Similarly
incumbent politicians often allude to psychological notions of “a nation at ease with itself”
in their attempt to secure re-election. Despite the fact that pricing is the least tangible
aspect of a marketing strategy, it is nevertheless a useful concept which complements the
other variables. Precisely because it is a “mix”, pricing can be seen to interlock and
overlap with the other strategic tools, particularly those concerned with communications
and product management. Marketing can be analysed in its constituent parts but should
ultimately be seen in its totality.
Strategic Considerations: market research, segmentation and positioning.
Market research plays an important role in modern electoral politics. Since its first
recorded use by an American candidate in the 1930s, private polling has mushroomed both
in terms of its expense and importance (Hodder-Williams 1970; Teer and Spence 1973;
Kavanagh 1992). The rise of opinion research offers party leaderships potential
enlightenment but also a challenge. Political elites who were once able to rely on channels
16
of mass communication to influence a captive public are now faced with commissioning
often unedifying polling findings in order to help sharpen strategy and sustain their
electoral good fortune (Wring 1996). In the past opinion research has commonly taken the
form of quantitative based surveys of key demographic groups. More recently politicians
have begun to employ consultants who specialise in the “psychographic” forms of private
polling designed to explore voters’ more deep seated values and attitudes (Kleinman 1987;
Worcester 1991). Increasingly campaign research studies are beginning to combine
traditional quantitative research with focus groups and other types of qualitative methods.
Feedback in the form of opinion research is an important component in the design of an
effective marketing mix. It also forms an integral part of the wider strategic process,
helping to segment and target the market. Market segmentation takes place when an
organisation uses research to divide available customers into categories according to their
likely need or ability to purchase the firm's offering. Having identified key consumer
segments, a marketing programme can then be targeted at defending or expanding current
market share. Given their similar strategic aims, political strategists have also drawn on
segmentation and targeting tools. Marketing analysis has pointed to the possible benefits
to be derived from dividing voters according to demographic, psychographic or geographic
criteria (Yorke and Meehan 1986; Smith and Saunders 1990). From the perspective of
political science this trend has been exacerbated by psephological studies stressing the
importance of parties' need to target the masses of uncommitted or “floating” voters in
their bids to secure electoral victory (Miller et al. 1990).
In implementing marketing strategy, organisations use research to help them best position
their offering in the market. The concept of positioning has a central place in political
marketing analysis. Downs’ classic study of party competition was based on a market
17
model in which rival organisations maximised electoral support by moving themselves
towards the electoral centreground (Downs 1957). This model has since become a popular
analytical starting point for many strategists. More recently, other theorists have
developed alternative concepts of positioning which emphasise the value of continuity in
the electoral offering and the importance of leading as well as following opinion. In their
work Smith and Saunders (1990) point to the potential political problems caused by “the
flight to the centre” whereby parties fail to differentiate the brand values of their “product”
through use of its Unique Selling Point (USP) or other positioning tools (Fletcher 1984).
In a marketing analysis of an American senatorial race, Schoenwald (1987) demonstrates the
centrality of positioning theory to candidate image management. Similarly, in his
groundbreaking work on political marketing, Gary Mauser places the concept at the core of
his research (Mauser 1983). Developing a multi-dimensional scale, Mauser demonstrates
how a candidate can use cluster analysis and other statistical methods to isolate those issues
and attributes which unite partisans with potential voters in a common resolve. The logical
consequence of this argument is that the adoption of marketing strategies does not
necessarily mean the dilution of party ideology (see also O’Cass 1996), a view most amply
demonstrated by the electoral success of the Thatcher and Reagan administrations.
Conclusions.
This paper has been concerned with demonstrating the usefulness of marketing analysis in
the study of political campaigning. Having shown how the writings of democratic theorists
might be reconciled with those of management scholars, a framework based on the basic
‘4Ps’ marketing model was used in order to identify and explore the various elements that
18
constitute an election campaign. Such an approach is arguably useful in analysing the
increasingly marketing driven politics evident in many of the major western democracies.
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