Examination questions / Biophysics

Valid from academic year 2007/2008


Questions or their parts marked with an asterisk (*) are not meant for students of dental medicine.
Double asterisk (**) means that the question or its part is only for dental medicine students.


1. Subatomic structure of matter (fundamental interactions, elementary particles and their
properties)

2. Main features of quantum theory (particle-wave dualism, de Broglie wavelength, Heisenberg
uncertainty relations)

3. Electron shell structure of the atom (electron energy levels of the hydrogen atom, quantum
numbers and their meaning, Pauli’s exclusion principle, excitation and ionisation)

4. Properties of the atomic nucleus (characteristic numbers, nuclide, isotope, isobar, isomer,
*stability of the nucleus)

5. Types of radioactive decay (alpha, beta, gamma, electron capture, nuclear fission, examples)

6. Law of radioactive decay (explanation of the formulas, activity, becquerel, curie, half-life)

7. Interaction of ionising radiation with matter (absorption, scattering, attenuation, attenuation
coefficient, photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, electron-positron pair production,
*interactions of alpha particles, beta particles and neutrons)

8. Quantities and units used to quantify ionising radiation (whole chapter 2.1.4.)

9. *Nature of chemical bonds (molecular orbitals, covalent bond, ionic bond, dipole moment of
chemical bond, hydrogen bond, van der Waals forces)

10. Viscosity of liquids (Newton’s law of viscous flow, Newtonian and non-Newtonian liquids, how to
measure viscosity)

11. Water and its properties (water molecule, thermodynamic properties of water, and role of water
in the organism)

12. Structure of nucleic acids (general features, pairing of nitrogen bases)

14. Four levels of protein structure (including isoelectric point and denaturation)

15. *Main methods of studying the structure of proteins and DNA (namely optical methods and X-ray
structural analysis)

16. Types of dispersion systems and their properties (colloids and their physical properties,
gel/sol, macroheterogeneous systems, electrokinetic potential)

17. *Centrifuges, sedimentation analysis and electrophoresis (forces taking part in sedimentation,
sedimentation coefficient, forces acting on charged particle in an electric field, electrophoretic
mobility, centrifuges – safety aspects in the use of centrifuges)

18. Basic concepts and laws of thermodynamics (thermodynamic system, equilibrium, reversible and
irreversible process, work of thermodynamic system, explanation of difference between temperature
and heat)

19. Equations of state and basic thermodynamic processes (universal gas law, van der Waals
equation, isothermal, isobaric, isochoric and adiabatic processes)

20. First and Second law of thermodynamics (including meaning of entropy,

*thermodynamic potentials - enthalpy, free energy, free enthalpy, chemical potential, chemical
equilibrium and chemical work)

21. How to explain that entropy is a measure of system ordering?

22. Osmotic pressure (explain its origin, van’t Hoff’s formula, osmolarity, tonicity)

23. Phases and phase equilibriums (Gibbs’s phase rule, Raoult’s law, Henry’s law, ebullioscopy and
cryoscopy)

24. Surface tension (definition, Laplace equation, Gibbs’ absorption equation, surfactants and
their biophysical importance, how to measure surface tension)

25. Galvanic cell (explanation, Nernst equation, **galvanic voltage in oral cavity)

26. Entropy production and the stationary state (what is the difference between stationary state
and thermodynamic equilibrium, Prigogine principle, *fluctuations, *generalised Le Chatelier
principle)

27. Diffusion (diffusion flux, Fick’s laws, Einstein formula for diffusion coefficient)

28. Goldman equation

29. Energetic processes in living organism (transformations of energy, sources of energy, why do
organisms need energy)

30. Mechanical properties of solids and tissues including blood (elasticity – Hooke’s law,
Newtonian and non-Newtonian liquids, viscoelastic and plastic-viscoelastic substances)

31. Mechanical properties of teeth and parts of the supportive-locomotor system (including muscle
contraction mechanism and *bone densitometry: X-ray and ultrasonic)

32. Work done by the heart (how is it calculated )?

33. Blood flow (equation of continuity, Bernoulli’s equation, Hagen-Poiseuille law, Reynolds number
and critical velocity, elastic and muscular vessels, resistance of the vessel bed, how to measure
blood flow, oncotic pressure and its importance for capillary filtration)

34. Biophysics of breathing (respiratory movements, breathing resistance, respiratory volumes and
capacities, respiratory work, gas exchange in alveoli, spirography)

35. Human voice and its properties (production of voice, physical properties of vowels and
consonants)

36. *Overview of biophysics of kidneys and digestive system (osmotic work of kidneys, movements of
GIT and their importance).

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37. Resting membrane potential (explanation of origin, how to measure it)

38. Action membrane potential and its propagation (explanation of origin, local currents,
salutatory conduction of the nerve impulse)

39. *Synaptic transfer of action potential (structure of the synapse, excitatory and inhibitory
synapses, summation)

40. Electrical excitability of tissues (I/t curve, reobase, chronaxy, clinical importance,
**electrical excitability of dental pulp)

41. Sensory receptors (types of receptors, receptor cells and their common features, receptor
potential, Weber-Fechner law, adaptation)

42. Basic terms of physiological acoustics (quantities used to measure sound, sound intensity and
intensity level, loudness and loudness level, hearing field)

43. Biophysical function of outer, middle and inner ear (function of drum and ossicles, structure
and function of organ of Corti, Bekesy theory, *electrical phenomena in the inner ear) and
biophysical function of the vestibular apparatus

44. Examination of hearing deficiencies and types of hearing aids (audiometry, audiogram, two types
of hearing loss, main parts of a hearing aid, what is a cochlear implant)

45. *Basic concepts of geometrical optics (what is light, laws of reflection and refraction,
refraction index, lens equation, physical properties of lenses, what is interference, diffraction
and polarisation of light)

46. Sources of light and how to measure light (luminous intensity – candela, luminous flux – lumen,
illuminance – lux, exposure, energy-based quantities and units)

47. Structure and optical properties of the eye (Gullstrand model, accommodation and amplitude of
accommodation)

48. Ametropias (myopia, hyperopia, astigmatism and how to correct them, what is a retinal implant)

49. Retina and its function (structure, rods, cones, macula lutea, structure of photoreceptor
cells, *electrical phenomena in the retina and ERG)

50. Vision (visual acuity, optotypes, depth of field, scotopic and photopic vision, *photochemical
reaction of rhodopsin, *colour vision and its disorders

51. Biophysical effects of low and high pressures (high-altitude hypoxia, decompression sickness,
hyperbaric chamber)

52. *Biophysical effects of velocity changes and mechanical forces (acceleration stress, state of
weightlessness, motion sickness, concussion)

53. Biophysical effects of sound and ultrasound (noise and hearing impairment, sources of
ultrasound, main effects of ultrasound, cavitation, importance for medicine – ultrasound therapy)

54. Biophysical effects of temperature changes (heat exchange mechanisms, influence of air
humidity)

55. Biophysical effects of electric currents (tissue impedance and conductance, electric shocks and
how to avoid them)

56. *Magnetic fields and their biophysical effects (types of magnetic fields, magnetic
permeability, possible effects of magnetic fields on human organism and their applications in
therapy)

57. Non-ionising electromagnetic radiation and its biophysical effects (what is infrared, visible
and ultraviolet light, polychromatic and monochromatic light, coherent and non-coherent light,
action on atoms and molecules, thermal and non-thermal effects of light, photodynamic therapy)

58. Laser and its biophysical effects (principle of laser, main types of lasers, properties of
laser light, thermal and non-thermal effects of laser light, lasers in therapy)

59. Biophysical effects of ionising radiation (direct and indirect effect, lethal doses, linear
energy transfer, absorbed dose - dose equivalent - effective dose and *biological effects of
nuclear explosions and disasters)

60. Protection against ionising radiation (physical, biological and chemical protection, give some
examples of safety measures in clinical practice)

61. Medical devices as sources of information about patient (what is a biosignal, how to record and
process biosignals, what is digitisation, how to store biosignals)

62. Tonometry (what is pressure, transducers, piezoelectric transducers, systolic and diastolic
blood pressure, direct method of blood pressure measurement, Riva-Rocci method, Holter monitoring,
*how is intraocular pressure measured)

63. Temperature measurement (what is temperature, Celsius and Fahrenheit scale, mercury
thermometers for medical use, bimetallic thermometer, thermistor, thermocouple, radiation
thermometer)

64. Recording of bioelectric signals (main kinds of electrodes used in electrodiagnostics, basic
properties of amplifiers, how to display a bioelectric signal)

65. Electrocardiography (electric activity of heart, description of an electrocardiogram, standard
leads, *what is vectorcardiography)

66. Electromyography, electroencephalography (including main types of EEG waves)

67. *Magnetic signals from human body (SQUID, what is the information carried by the
magnetocardiogram or magnetoencephalogram)

68. Electrochemical analytical methods (kinds of electrodes, standard hydrogen electrode, calomel
electrode, glass electrode and pH measurement, conductivity of electrolytes, what is a
conductometer)

69. *Polarography and voltametry (principle of polarography, polarogram, tensametry)

70. Spectrophotometry (main parts of an absorption spectrophotometer, Lambert-Beer’s law,
transmittance and absorbance)

71. *Polarimetry and refractometry (optical activity, principle of a polarimeter, Abbe
refractometer)

72. Light microscopy fundamentals (scheme of compound light microscope, magnification and resolving
limit, numerical aperture, immersion objectives, *spherical and chromatic aberration,
*stereomicroscope)

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73. Special optical microscopes (explain the principle of phase contrast microscope, fluorescence
microscope and laser scanning confocal microscope, *near field optical scanning microscope)

74. Electron microscopy (what is electron optics, transmission electron microscope, scanning
electron microscope, how to prepare a sample for TEM, what is an acoustic microscope, *STM, *AFM)

75. Measurement of ionising radiation (personal dosimeters, thermoluminescence method,
scintillation counter, *GM tube)

76. Monitoring and telemetry (basic terms, modulation of transmitted signals)

77. Overview of imaging methods (advantages and disadvantages of individual methods, safety
problems, algorithm of the imaging process, sensitivity and specificity)

78. *Contactless thermography (what is a thermogram, diagnostic importance of thermography,
thermography and occupational risks)

79. Theoretical and technical basis of ultrasound diagnostics (acoustic parameters of tissues,
acoustic impedance, piezoelectric transducer, attenuation of ultrasound, frequency and attenuation)

80. A-mode and B-mode ultrasound diagnostics (A-mode, dynamic B-mode, TM-mode, types of
transducers, importance of impulse repetition frequency)

81. Doppler flow-meter and combined methods (Doppler frequency shift, CWD, PWD, what is the duplex
method and colour flow mapping)

82. *Sonography in clinical practice (ultrasound echo-contrast agents, safety of diagnostic
ultrasound, TI, MI, advantages and disadvantages of sonography)

83. Endoscopic mirrors and endoscopes with rigid tubes

84. Fiber-optic endoscopes and videoendoscopes, construction and clinical importance

85. Theoretical and technical basis of X-ray diagnostics (attenuation of X-rays, main parts of
X-ray device, X-ray tube, bremsstrahlung and characteristic radiation)

86. Origin of X-ray image (passage of X-rays through the body, importance of collimators, filters
and grids, image blur and how to reduce it, contrast agents, explain the difference between
radiography and fluoroscopy, how to check quality of an X-ray image)

87. Image intensifier (construction and clinical importance, patient X-ray exposure and how to
reduce it)

88. **X-ray devices in dentistry (dental X-ray apparatus, panoramic images, safe use)

89. Computed tomography (how it works, Hounsfield numbers, clinical importance, patient exposures)

90. Diagnostic use of radionuclides in medicine (scintillation counter, gamma camera, SPECT, PET,
clinical importance, safety problems)

91. Nuclear magnetic resonance (magnetic moment of nucleus, Larmor precession, origin of NMR
signal, relaxation times, *contrast agents, *NMR-spectroscopy)

92. Magnetic resonance imaging (origin of NMR signal, magnetic field gradients in image
acquisition, clinical value of MRI, safety problems in MRI)

93. Extracorporeal shock-wave lithotripsy (what are the shock-waves and how to produce them,
construction of a lithotripter, clinical importance and safety problems, *laser lithotripsy,
*shock-wave therapy)

94. Electrotherapy (iontophoresis, galvanisation, apparatuses and methods for electrostimulation of
various organs, *magnetotherapy)

95. Thermotherapy (hydrotherapy and other methods based on heat transfer, thermal effects of
high-frequency electric currents, how to apply them)

96. Accelerators used in medicine (principles of cyclotron, linear accelerator and *betatron,
clinical importance)

97. Nuclear radiation in therapy (caesium and cobalt “bomb”, afterloading and other therapeutic
applications of radionuclides)

98. Methods of radiotherapy (simulators, brachytherapy and teletherapy, fractionation, clinical
importance)

99. Physical principles of modern surgical instruments (electrosurgery, lasers in surgery,
ultrasound surgery, cryosurgery, water jet surgery)

100. Artificial heart and lungs (cardiopulmonary bypass, breathing assist device, heart assist
devices and artificial heart)

101. Artificial kidney (what is dialysis, haemodialyser and its construction, *peritoneal dialysis,
*haemofiltration)

102. **Biocompatibility of materials used in dental medicine, properties of materials for dental
prostheses and implants

103. ** Rotary instruments and lever tools in dental medicine

104. **Ultrasonic and sonic devices in dental medicine

105. Common computer architecture (CPU, von Neumann scheme, how does the CPU work)

106. Peripherals of a PC (input and output devices)

107. Define the Internet, provide examples and explain possible use of some services used in this
network (World Wide Web, e-mail, Internet Relay Chat, Telnet, FTP, etc.) in health care.

108. What is the definition and role of medical informatics in today’s health care, provide some
examples, explain the concept of telemedicine.

109. What is evidence based medicine a how to search for evidence using the Web?

110. What is information and how to calculate its amount? Give an example.

111. Transmission of signals in information channels, coding, noise, redundancy

112. What is positive and negative feedback, what is the difference between controlled and
regulated systems, what is an automaton?

113. Examples of nanomedical devices