The Holocene
1­–11
© The Author(s) 2016
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DOI: 10.1177/0959683616646843
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Introduction
The multi-directional translocation of goods between the western
and the eastern fringes of Eurasia reflects the beginning of the
global processes of exchange (Boivin et al., 2012; Jones et al.,
2011; Kohl, 2007; Linduff and Mei, 2009; Mei, 2003; Sherratt,
1996, 2005). The steppe and the forest-steppe zones of Siberia are
an environmental belt that links the outskirts of western Asia and
Eastern Europe. This corridor of northern steppe and forest steppe
aided the dispersal of animal and crop species, metals, precious
stones, as well as new technologies, across wide swathes of Eurasia
in prehistory (Kuzmina, 2008; Koryakova and Epimakhov,
2007). Understanding the timing and nature of the transition from
hunting and gathering to food production across this zone is of
great importance, as the arrival of ovicaprids is linked with a
series of concurrent social and economical changes. Based on the
studies of zooarchaeological, archaeobotanical data and the study
of material culture, it has been postulated that long distance connectivity
and interaction began to take place along the southern
regions of Central Asia at the end of the 3rd millennium BC (Frachetti,
2012; Spengler III, 2015). At the same time, the processes
of long distance interaction for the northern regions of Central
Asia and southwest Siberia have been linked to the beginnings of
sheep and goat breeding and bronze metallurgy (Grushin et al.,
2009). According to Zakh et al. (2010), Kovalev (2011) and others,
the aridisation of the climate around 3000 BC in southwest
Siberia, which led to the expansion of the steppe ecological zone,
has been suggested as a driver of the inflow of pastoralist communities
from the southwest to the north and east into former
forest-steppe regions. The earliest animal species of Near Eastern
origin (sheep and goat) have been found in northern Kazakhstan
and southwest Siberia in the sites of the Elunino Culture dated to
the second half of the third beginning of the 2nd millennium BC
(Kiryushin et al., 2011).
Climatic or dietary change? Stable isotope
analysis of Neolithic–Bronze Age populations
from the Upper Ob and Tobol River basins
Giedre Motuzaite Matuzeviciute,1 Yurii F Kiryushin,2
Saule Zh Rakhimzhanova,2 Svetlana Svyatko,3
Alexey A Tishkin2 and Tamsin C O’Connell4,5
Abstract
Dietary changes in the populations inhabiting southwest Siberia and northern Kazakhstan indicate concurrent changes in the economy, at the same time
marking the beginnings of East–West interaction across northern Eurasia. The introduction of domestic animal species of Near Eastern origin, such
as sheep and goat, dramatically changed the lives of the local population. Past palaeodietary research using stable isotope analysis has mainly focussed
on pastoral populations of the Bronze Age period. It is crucial, however, to assess the diets of humans and animals from earlier periods (Neolithic/
Chalcolithic) in order to understand the timing and nature of dietary change during the Bronze Age of southwest Siberia and northern Kazakhstan, in
particular the possible contribution of environmental change influencing dietary shifts. In this paper, we report the results of stable isotope analysis on
55 human and 45 faunal samples from southwest Siberia (Upper Ob River) and northern Kazakhstan (Tobol River basin), ranging from the Neolithic to
the Bronze Age. These data, combined with published human and faunal collagen results from the region as well as new accelerator mass spectrometer
(AMS) radiocarbon dating results, indicate little change in animal diet over time, but a notable change in human diet at ca. 2500 cal. BC. The data allow us
to determine the time when pastoralism came to the fore, with concomitant economic differences to the local population.
Keywords
bone collagen, Bronze Age, Chalcolithic, diet, Neolithic, northern Kazakhstan, pastoralists, southwest Siberia, stable isotope
Received 30 January 2016; revised manuscript accepted 6 April 2016
1Department of Archaeology and History Institute of Lithuania, Faculty
of History,Vilnius University, Lithuania
2The Laboratory of Interdisciplinary Studies in Archaeology of Western
Siberia and Altai, Department of Archaeology, Ethnography and
Museology, Altai State University, Russia
314CHRONO Centre for Climate, the Environment, and Chronology,
Queen’s University Belfast, UK
4McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of
Cambridge, UK
5Department of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of
Cambridge, UK
Corresponding author:
Giedre Motuzaite Matuzeviciute, History Institute of Lithuania/City
Research Centre, Kražiu, g. 5, LT-01108 Vilnius, Lithuania and Vilnius
University, Department of Archaeology, Universiteto g. 7, LT-01513,
Vilnius, Lithuania.
Email: giedre.motuzaite@gmail.com
646843HOL0010.1177/0959683616646843The HoloceneMotuzaite Matuzeviciute et al.
research-article2016
Research paper
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2	 The Holocene
The introduction of sheep and goat into southwest Siberia and
northern Kazakhstan have significantly changed the economy and
subsistence of local population. However, the exact timing of this
transition and its economical significance is not known. Stable
isotope analysis allows the investigation of past human diets and
dietary shifts at the individual level and has a potential to reveal
when dietary change happened in these regions. To address this
question with stable isotope analysis, it is important to simultaneously
compare both human and animal remains though time, as
both the introduction of pastoralism and the onset of climatic
changes can influence the stable isotope values of fauna and
human bone collagen (see section ‘Discussion’). If a dietary difference
was to be found in δ13C and δ15N values between all species
of Neolithic/Chalcolithic and Bronze Age herbivorous fauna,
including wild species, then this might result from climatic factors
and their influence on vegetation. Therefore, the shift in
human stable isotope values though time might result from climatic
rather than dietary change. On the other hand, if herbivore
stable isotope data do not differ between periods, the change in
humans though time can be linked with the dietary change, which
could be connected with the beginning of pastoralism.
The aim of this paper is to study the dietary change of populations
from southwest Siberian and northern Kazakhstan over the
sixth to the second millennium BC period. By analysing both
human and animal remains using stable isotope analysis, we
examine whether there is change in human stable isotope ratios of
bone collagen seen over time and whether it correlates with
changes in faunal isotope ratios, and thereby pinpointing the timing
of the transition to pastoralism in the region.
Background
Archaeological background
The samples for research were collected from various Neolithic
to Bronze Age sites located in the region of the Upper Ob River
and Tobol River basins in southwest Siberia and northern
Kazakhstan (Figure 1). The Neolithic/Chalcolithic sites such as
Itkul (Bolshoi Mys), Ust-Isha (Kiryushin, 2002; Kiryushin et al.,
2000), Firsovo-XI (Kiryushin et al., 1994), Solontsy-5 (Kungurova,
2005) and Tuzovskie Bugry-I (Abdulganeev et al., 2000;
Kiryushin and Kiryushin, 2015) are located in southwest Siberia,
in the Upper Ob River basin. The region of the Upper Ob River
basin is also referred to as the ‘forest-steppe Altai’. The local
Neolithic sites are attributed to the so-called Kuznetski-Altaisky
Neolithic (Kungurova, 2005) and Bolshemysky Chalcolithic
periods (Kiryushin, 2002). The burial grounds of the Neolithic
and Chalcolithic periods are small, often just consisting of a single
burial; the Neolithic and Chalcolithic settlement sites are
mostly located near rivers, steam banks or close to lakes. During
the Bronze Age, the size of burial grounds increased dramatically,
and organisation and complexity of the sacral space
become noticeable (Kiryushin, 2002). The Bronze Age settlements
are mainly located close to multiple environmental niches
such as hilly slopes, transition zones between steppe and forest
steppe, and/or close to rivers, saline and freshwater lakes. The
southwest Siberian burial site of Teleutsky Vzvoz-I is attributed
to the Early Bronze Age Elunino Culture, and the Firsovo-XIV
site is attributed to the Middle Bronze Age Andronovo Culture
(Fedorovo variant). The burial and settlement site of
Figure 1. The location of the sites analysed in this paper: (1) Itkul (Bolshoi Mys); (2) Ust-Isha; (3) Firsovo-XI and XIV; (4) Solontsy-5; (5)
Tuzovskie Bugry-I; (6) TeleutskyVzvoz -I; (7) Kolyvanskoe-I; (8) Berezovaya Luka; (9) Novoilinovka; (10) Lisakovsk; (11) Belkaragai-1; (12) Botai-I;
(13) Tavdinsky Grotto; (14) Bozshakol-6; (15) Kirik-Oba-1; (16) Kozai-1.
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Motuzaite Matuzeviciute et al.	 3
Novoilinovka from northern Kazakhstan is attributed to the
Sintashta-Petrovka Culture of the Middle Bronze Age, while the
Lisakovsk burial site in Kazakhstan belongs to the Andronovo
Culture (Fedorovo and Alakul variant), which in northern
Kazakhstan is attributed to the Late Bronze Age.
The Bronze Age period has been associated with significant
economical transformations in the societies of the region, from
fishing and hunting to breeding domestic animals (Frachetti and
Benecke, 2009; Kalieva and Logvin, 2011; Outram et al., 2012).
Some researchers relate the changes that occurred in the second
half of the third millennium BC with human migrations from the
West that not only introduced livestock into the region but also
bronze metallurgy (Kovalev, 2011).
The earliest evidence of ovicaprids in the region
under study
The earliest animal species of Near Eastern origin (sheep and
goat) have been found in northern Kazakhstan and southwest
Siberia in the sites of the Elunino Culture dated to the second half
of the third to the beginning of the second millennium BC (Kiryushin
et al., 2011). The remains of early ovicaprids in northern
Kazakhstan were found on the left bank of the Irtysh River at the
sites of Shiderty 10 and Shouke 1 dated to the 2500–2300 BC
(Merts, 2013). In the Upper Ob River basin of Russia, the earliest
ovicaprid bones are coming from the so-called Aleiskaya steppe
region, from the settlement of Berezovaya Luka and Kolyvanskoe-I
(analysed in this study) and dated from the second half of
the third to the beginning of the second millennium BC (Grushin,
2015; Kiryushin et al., 2005, 2011). The bones of ovicaprids from
the Early Bronze Age settlement of Berezovaya Luka constitute
99% of all faunal remains (Kiryushin et al., 2005).
In the neighbouring Altai Mountains region, the beginning of
pastoralism is related to the Afanasevo Culture (Khazanov,
1994) dating to 2900–2500 cal. BC (Svyatko et al., 2009). The
remains of ovicaprids have been mainly found in several stratified
settlements with later occupation horizons, and the bones of
ovicaprids were not directly dated. Therefore, further research is
required to place the ovicaprid remains from the Altai within a
reliable timeframe. In central Kazakhstan, the earliest evidence
of sheep-/goat-based pastoralism has been found in a Karagash
human burial (2920–2712 cal. BC) (Motuzaite Matuzeviciute
et al., 2015), which contained both sheep skull and ribs that
accompanied the deceased as part of a ritual meal (Evdokimov
and Loman, 1989). Finally, recent analysis of Ovis sp. from
Inner Mongolia in China has demonstrated the earliest dates for
Central Asia, estimated to be 4700–4400 cal. BC (Dodson et al.,
2014). These data of early sheep in Inner Mongolia could indicate
multiple pathways and waves of pastoralism that remain
unknown and is a subject for future research.
Previous palaeodietary studies in the region
Previous palaeodietary studies of the populations from southwest
Siberia and northern Kazakhstan have mainly focussed
on the Bronze Age period. The only stable isotope research on
the diet of Neolithic populations included samples from the
Preobrazhenka 6 site in the Baraba forest-steppe region, suggesting
that the human diet was based on fish and C3 plants
(Marchenko et al., 2015). Archaeological reports describe the
Neolithic populations as hunter-gatherer mobile groups that
relied heavily on the exploitation of freshwater resources and
wild game (Molodin et al., 2012; Motuzaite Matuzeviciute,
2012; Okladnikov, 1959). Attempts to identify domesticated
plants in Siberia prior to the Early Iron Age have not been successful
to date (e.g. Kislenko and Tatarintseva, 1999; Korobkova,
1987). The Chalcolithic period in northern Kazakhstan
in particular is linked with some dietary changes, mainly due
to the local domestication of wild cattle in the Tersek Culture
(Kalieva and Logvin, 2011) and horses in the Botai Culture
(Outram et al., 2009; Zaibert, 1993) belonging to the second
half of the fourth millennium BC. Stable isotope analysis of
two Chalcolithic individuals from northern and central
Kazakhstan (Botai and Karagash) (Motuzaite Matuzeviciute
et al., 2015; O’Connell et al., 2003) was inconclusive due to a
small sample size.
Studies of the Bronze Age populations drawn on zooarchaeology
and stable isotope analysis suggest that fish was exploited as
a dietary resource in the Bronze Age period across the steppe and
forest-steppe zones (Lightfoot et al., 2014; Molodin et al., 2012;
Motuzaite Matuzeviciute, 2012; O’Connell et al., 2003; Ventresca
Miller et al., 2014). In combination with published zooarchaeological
data (e.g. Frachetti and Benecke, 2009; Kalieva and
Logvin, 2011; Outram et al., 2012), stable isotope analysis conducted
in the region under study indicates that Bronze Age population
diets were mainly based on ovicaprid and cattle meat and
milk (Katzenberg et al., 2012; Marchenko et al., 2015; O’Connell
et al., 2003; Privat, 2004; Privat et al., 2006; Ventresca Miller
et al., 2014), with some contribution of C4 plants to both fauna
and human diets (Lightfoot et al., 2014; Ventresca Miller et al.,
2014). The elevated δ13C values in Late Bronze Age humans in
the Minusinsk Basin of Siberia are most likely the result of millet
consumption (Svyatko et al., 2013). Archaeobotanical data from
the Middle Bronze Age site of Kamennyi Ambar (SintashtaPetrovka
Culture) in the Ural region of Russia report that large
quantities of Chenopodium album seeds were probably eaten by
the local populations, but no evidence of domesticated crops
were found (Rühl et al., 2015). As such, to the best of our knowledge,
no cereals have been radiocarbon dated to the Bronze Age
in the whole of southwest Siberia or northern Kazakhstan to date.
Climate and geographical setting
Southwest Siberia encompasses numerous environmental niches,
including forest steppes and steppes with varying proportions of
C4 grasses, hilly slopes, river valleys and both saline and freshwater
lakesides which carry a range of unique vegetation varieties
(Spengler III et al., 2013).
The distribution of vegetation types, and thus the borders of
the forest-steppe and steppe across the region, has changed over
time (Krivonogov et al., 2012). These changes have potential isotopic
effects on animal and human bone collagen. According to
previous palynological research, the Neolithic period in the
southwest Siberia coincides with regional aridisation at around
ca. 5700–4300 BC, when dense boggy vegetation formed in the
drying lakes and river banks (Zakh et al., 2010). During the subsequent
middle Atlantic period ca. 4300–3300 BC, there was an
increase in humidity, and the forest-steppe vegetation expanded
further south to the Tobol-Ishim River basins. A shift towards
aridity was recorded at ca. 3100–3000 BC and the southern
steppe expanded north (Zakh et al., 2010). During the third millennium
BC, the climate became more arid, with periods of
abrupt aridisation (from the ca. 2800–2600 BC), increased summer
temperatures and decreased winter temperatures have been
recorded in the Eurasian steppe (Kremenetski, 2003; Kremenetski
et al., 1999; Shishlina et al., 2009). Palynological studies in the
Tobol-Ishim River and Upper Ob River basins had shown an
expansion of grassland at this time, and the forest-steppe was
being replaced by semi-arid steppe (Kiryushin, 2002; Zakh et al.,
2010). In the floodplains and valleys of the larger rivers, however,
the conditions persisted stable and less sensitive to climatic
changes (Zakh et al., 2010). This period is believed to roughly
coincide with the transition to the Bronze Age and the beginning
of pastoralism in the region.
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4	 The Holocene
Stable isotope methodology
Past human diets can be assessed by analysing bone chemical
composition, as the food that animals and humans eat is incorporated
into their body tissues. For dietary analyses, the most
important stable isotopes are those of carbon and nitrogen.
Stable carbon isotope measurements (expressed as δ13C) can
distinguish between diets based on plants using two photosynthetic
pathways, C3 and C4, and between diets based on marine
and terrestrial foods (Lee-Thorp, 2008; Schoeninger and
DeNiro, 1984; Vogel and Van der Merwe, 1977). In environments
where marine foods are absent, large shifts in carbon isotopic
values will be related to the relative proportions of C3 and
C4 plants in the ecosystem. The proportion of C4 to C3 plants
very much depends on the aridity of the area, as well as related
effects such as salinity, with drier regions having larger proportions
of C4 plants (Collins and Jones, 1986; Tieszen et al.,
1979). The faunal carbon isotopic values in southwest Siberia
could be elevated as a result of C4 plants in the animals’ diets
that today represent a minor component of the flora in the
steppe (Iacumin et al., 2004; Makarewicz and Tuross, 2006;
Winter, 1981). Studies have also shown smaller but still notable
increases in the carbon isotope values of C3 plants if plants are
growing in water-stressed environments (Flohr et al., 2011).
Thus, climate change and rising temperatures can affect the
δ13C ratios of plants, as well as consumers (animal and human)
that are higher up the food chain.
Nitrogen isotope ratios (δ15N) reflect the trophic level of animals
and humans, with higher trophic level consumers having
the highest δ15N values (Hedges and Reynard, 2007). The nitrogen
isotope ratios of freshwater (and marine) fish are often elevated
compared with terrestrial mammals, as aquatic ecosystems
tend to have longer food chains (Richards and Hedges, 1999;
Schoeninger and DeNiro, 1984; Schoeninger et al., 1983). Nitrogen
isotope ratios can also be affected by various environmental
factors. Animals grazing on saline soils (Britton et al., 2008;
Heaton, 1987) or living in arid climates (Ambrose and Sikes,
1991; Heaton, 1987; Hollund et al., 2010; Schwarcz et al., 1999)
in semi-deserts have higher nitrogen isotope values compared
with animals grazing in other environments, such as forest. It has
been shown, for example, that aridity increased nitrogen values
of the Bronze Age humans of Gansu province in China (Liu
et al., 2014). Recent research has also shown higher δ13C and
δ15N values for animals grazing in marshy areas (Britton et al.,
2008). The δ15N value will be elevated in manured soil resulting
in higher δ15N value in humans consuming fertilised crops
(Bogaard et al., 2007; Fraser et al., 2011). These non-dietary factors
need to be kept in mind while analysing human and faunal
stable isotope data from the Neolithic though Bronze Ages of
southwest Siberia and northern Kazakhstan.
Material and methods
Stable isotope analysis
Samples from 17 sites in southwest Siberia and northern Kazakhstan
are presented in this paper, combining new data together with
published data (Motuzaite Matuzeviciute et al., 2015; Ventresca
Miller et al., 2014) (Figure 1, SOM 1a and b, available online).
The sites are located in modern steppe and forest-steppe belt
which contains a variety of environmental niches. However,
humans and animals are not static and would have moved though
different environmental zones (Frachetti, 2008; Shishlina et al.,
2009); therefore, the isotopic signals in studied individuals of
both fauna and humans will reflect an average across more than a
single environmental niche.
Bone samples were obtained from four institutions: Altai
State University (Russia), Novosibirsk State University (Russia),
the Institute of Archaeology in Karaganda (Kazakhstan) and
Kostanay State University A. Baitursynov (Kazakhstan) (in total
of 55 humans and 45 animals). Animal bones were not available
from every site from which human remains were obtained. We
tried to collect faunal samples as close as possible to the sampled
humans.
Collagen was extracted following the standard method of the
Dorothy Garrod Laboratory, at the McDonald Institute for
Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge, UK. A volume
of 500 mg of bone was taken from each sample and the surfaces
of the bone pieces cleaned by sandblasting. Bones were
demineralised in 0.5 M aq. hydrochloric acid at 4°C for up to 10
days, changing the acid as necessary, until the mineral phase had
dissolved. Then, after rinsing three times with distilled water, the
samples were gelatinised in an acidic solution (pH 3) at 75°C for
48 h. The liquid fraction containing the gelatinised protein was
filtered off using an Ezee-Filter (Elkay Products) and freezedried.
Triplicate samples of approximately 0.8 mg were used for
each analysis in the Godwin Laboratory, University of Cambridge,
using an automated elemental analyser (Costech, Valencia,
CA) coupled in continuous flow mode to a Thermo Finnigan
Delta V isotope ratio-monitoring mass spectrometer (Bremen,
Germany). Stable isotope concentrations are reported relative to
the international standards – VPDB for carbon and AIR for nitrogen
(Hoefs, 1997). Based on replicate analyses of international
and internal standards, measurement errors are <0.1% for δ13C
values and 0.2% for δ15N values.
Samples were tested for normality using Q-Q plots and Shapiro–Wilk
tests. The parametric data were investigated using
independent samples Student’s t-tests. For non-parametric data,
the Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used. Statistical analyses
were performed using the software R version 3.2.2. Samples
were tested for normality using p < 0.05 as a statistical significance
level.
AMS dating
A total of 10 adult human bone samples were subject to AMS
(accelerator mass spectrometry) 14C dating (Table 1). All
samples were prepared at the 14CHRONO Centre for Climate,
the Environment, and Chronology, Queen’s University
Belfast. The routine bone pre-treatment procedure of the
14CHRONO laboratory involved a simple ABA treatment
followed by gelatinisation (Longin, 1971) and ultrafiltration
(Brown et al., 1988) using a Vivaspin® filter cleaning method
introduced by Bronk Ramsey et al. (2004). The prepared collagen
was sealed under vacuum in quartz tubes with an
excess of copper oxide (CuO) and combusted at 850°C to
produce carbon dioxide (CO2). The CO2 was converted to
graphite on an iron catalyst following the zinc reduction
method (Slota et al., 1987). The graphite was then pressed to
produce a ‘target’, which was then subject to AMS dating.
The 14C age mean and standard deviation were calculated
using the Libby half-life (5568 yr), following the conventions
of Stuiver and Polach (1977). Calibration of the 14C
dates was undertaken using the IntCal013 calibration curve
(Reimer et al., 2013). All calibrated 14C ages are given at
±95.4%, that is, ±2σ probability (OxCal 4.1).
It is important to mention that a reservoir effect could be
present in the dated samples, as high δ15N values, especially
among the Neolithic population (e.g. Cook et al., 2002) (see section
‘Results’), could suggest possible freshwater fish consumption.
Previous studies on the reservoir effect in the Samara
region of southwestern Russia, the northern Caucasus and
Ukraine regions found ca. 400 year reservoir effect in dated
individuals linked to fish consumption (Anthony, 2007; Lillie
et al., 2009; Shishlina et al., 2012). The studies by Svyatko et al.
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Motuzaite Matuzeviciute et al.	 5
(2015) in northeastern Kazakhstan suggest a possible reservoir
effect of up to 300 years in Chalcolithic samples. On the other
hand, Svyatko et al. (2009) and Marchenko et al. (2015) found
no evidence for a reservoir effect in Chalcolithic and Bronze
Age human samples from the Minusinsk Basin in Siberia and
the Baraba forest-steppe in southwest Siberia. As such, the existence
of a freshwater reservoir effect on dated individuals from
southwest Siberia needs to be assessed on a site-by-site basis.
Results
In total, 49 of the 55 humans (89.1% success rate) and 45 animal
(100% success rate) samples produced collagen with atomic
C:N values within the acceptable quality range of 2.9–3.6
(DeNiro, 1985). The other human and faunal data used in this
publication were taken from already published sources by Motuzaite
Matuzeviciute et al. (2015) and Ventresca Miller et al.
(2014), making a total of 86 human and 95 faunal data points.
For the statistical analysis, we excluded one human outlier
Al_30 from the Neolithic Firsovo-XI site with δ13C values of
−15.3‰ and δ15N values of 11.46‰, as the dating of this sample
has shown that the individual belongs to the Early Iron Age
period (166–26 cal. BC) (Table 1). The information on faunal
data is presented in Table 2 and Figure 2 (all faunal data are
described in detail in SOM 1a, available online), on humans in
Table 3 and Figure 3 (all human data in detail is described in
SOM 1b, available online) and the statistical outputs in Table 4.
Faunal results
All of the faunal data are reported here, but only a subset was
examined for change over time – that of the herbivore animals,
which included ovicaprids, horses, big mammals (bovines or
horses that were not identified to genus due to bone’s taphonomic
conditions), Saiga antelope and Roe deer.
The faunal data of the herbivore animals comprise 18 individuals
attributed to the Neolithic/Chalcolithic period and 67
individuals to the Bronze Age period. The herbivores have carbon
isotopic values between −21‰ and −17.5‰ which suggest
consumption of mainly C3 vegetation, with some input of C4
plants. The nitrogen isotopic values are more variable, a range
of 3.7‰ to 10.6‰, but clustering between 5‰ and 7‰, fairly
typical of herbivores.
To examine change over time, we first compared the herbivores
from the Neolithic (Tavdinsky Grotto and Belkargaly-1)
to the Chalcolithic period (Botai-I, Kozhai-1, Belkargaly-1
sites). The statistical results have shown no difference in faunal
isotopic results, the δ13C values (p = 0.6897) and δ15N values
(p = 0.8941) (Table 4, output 1).
This results allowed us to combine both Neolithic and Chalcolithic
herbivore fauna bone collagen results and compare them to
the Bronze Age herbivore bone collagen analysis results. A comparison
of Neolithic/Chalcolithic herbivores (mean: δ13C
19.5‰ ± 1 and δ15N 6.3‰ ± 2) against the Bronze Age herbivores
(mean: δ13C 19.5‰ ± 0.7 and δ15N values 6.4‰ ± 1.2) shows that
statistically there is no difference between periods in both δ13C
Table 1.  14C dates, δ13C and δ15N values of humans from southwest Siberia.
Sample ID Site name Mean
δ13CVPDB (‰)
Mean
δ15NAIR(‰)
14CHRONO
Lab code
14C
Age
± AMS
δ 13C
Cal. BC 95.4
(2σ) OxCal 4.1
Period
Al_01 Itkul (Bolshoi Mys) −19.68 15.94 UBA-22950 6470 40 −19.1 5510–5342 Neolithic
Al_09 Itkul (Bolshoi Mys) −22.12 15.60 UBA-22951 6577 35 −20.9 5614–5478 Neolithic
Al_13 Ust-Isha −21.55 15.94 UBA-22952 5114 47 −20 4035–3792 Neolithic
Al_30 Firsovo-XI −15.30 11.46 UBA-22953 2044 34 −14.8 166–26 Early Iron Age
Al_38 Firsovo-XI −23.25 14.24 UBA-22954 6684 39 −19.8 5667–5531 Neolithic
Al_51 Solontsy-5 −18.57 12.48 UBA-22954 6354 41 −16 5469–5224 Neolithic
Al_53 Solontsy-5 −21.56 13.98 UBA-22956 5081 38 −22.4 3965–3792 Neolithic/Chalcolithic
Al_22 Tuzovskie Bugry-I −23.30 13.75 UBA-22957 5004 36 −19.3 3943–3701 Neolithic/Chalcolithic
Al_40 Firsovo-XIV −19.90 10.63 UBA-22958 3311 34 −19.4 1684–1512 Middle Bronze Age
Al_45 TeleutskyVzvoz-I −19.36 13.13 UBA-22959 3837 33 −18.7 2459–2200 Early Bronze Age
Radiocarbon data calibrated against the IntCal13 calibration curve (Reimer et al., 2013).
Table 2.  Summary of δ13C and δvalues of faunal samples from the Neolithic/Chalcolithic and Bronze Age of the southwest Siberia and
northern Kazakhstan.
Species (n) δ13CVPDB (‰) δ15NAIR (‰)
Max Min Mean SD Median Min Max Mean SD Median
Neolithic/Chalcolithic fauna
Big mammal (11) −17.5 −21 −19.3 0.9 −19.3 4.9 10.6 7.3 1.7 6.9
Horse (4) −18.5 −20.6 −19.6 1.2 −20 3.7 5.9 4.6 1 4.1
Roe deer (3) −21.4 −19.2 −20.2 1.1 −19.3 4.4 5.5 4.9 0.5 5
Beaver (3) −19.9 −20.9 −20.4 0.5 −20.3 3.8 4 3.9 0.1 3.8
Dog/wolf/fox (3) −18.2 −22.3 −19.9 2.2 −19 11.6 9.6 10.5 1 10.5
Bronze Age fauna
Sheep/goat (28) −17.6 −19.8 −19 0.5 −19.1 8.5 3.3 6.1 1.1 6
Cattle (23) −18.4 −20.7 −19.5 0.5 −19.6 5.1 8.8 6.7 1.0 6.6
Horses (15) −19.3 −20.9 −20.3 0.4 −20.3 6.9 4.2 6 0.8 6.1
Dogs (3) −17.7 −19 −18.3 0.6 −18.1 12.3 9.3 10.6 1.5 10.3
Saiga antelope (1) −20.4 −20.4 −20.4 5.3 5.3 5.3  
Sus sp. (1) −19.6 −19.6 6.1 6.1  
SD: standard deviation.
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6	 The Holocene
values (p = 0.7993) and δ15N values (p = 0.798) (see Table 4, output
2, Figure 2).
Of the remaining faunal data, of six canidae (fox, wolves and
dogs (Kz31F, Kz08F, Al13F, GM65F, GM64F, GM63F)), δ13C values
range between −22.3‰ and −17.3‰, while δ15N values range
between 12.3‰ and 9.6‰. The three samples of beavers (Kz30F,
Kz32F, Kz33F) have δ13C values of between −21‰ and −19.9‰,
while the δ15N values range between 4‰ and 3.8‰. One Sus. sp.
(Kz_13F) sample was also considered an outlier as it is an omnivore
animal that has δ13C value of −19.6‰ and δ15N values of 6.1‰.
Human results
The radiocarbon dates received for this paper from 10 dated
individuals range between ca. 5700 and 3700 cal. BC for the
Neolithic/Chalcolithic periods and between ca. 2500 and 2200
cal. BC for the Early Bronze Age period (Table 1). For the Neolithic/Chalcolithic
period, the average human–faunal offset values
are only 0.1‰ in δ13C and 7.8‰ in δ15N, suggesting that
people consumed high amounts of aquatic foods with a long
food chain. A similar situation was observed from the Bronze
Age period where the average human–faunal offset values are
−0.4‰ in δ13C and 5.5‰ in δ15N.
The Neolithic/Chalcolithic humans (n = 40) from five sites in
southwest Russia have a mean δ13C value of −21.8±1.1‰ and a
mean δ15N value of 13.8±0.9‰. The Bronze Age humans (n = 45)
from four sites in the north of Kazakhstan and southwest Siberia
have a mean δ13C value of −19±0.6‰ and a mean δ15N value of
11.8±1‰. First, after comparing the Neolithic versus Chalcolithic
humans, no significant differences in both δ13C and δ15N are seen
(Table 4; output 3, Figure 3). By comparing Neolithic/Chalcolithic
human mean values with the Bronze Age humans, significant differences
in both δ13C and δ15N are seen (Table 4; output 4, Figure
3). Despite the small sample size, humans from the Neolithic/
Chalcolithic of the Tuzovskie Bugry-I (n = 13) are significantly
different to the humans from the Early Bronze Age site Teleutsky
Vzvoz-I (n = 4) (Table 4; output 5), indicating a change in diet.
Discussion
The consistency of δ13C and δ15N values of herbivorous animals
across the Neolithic/Chalcolithic and the Bronze Age periods
indicates that the documented climatic fluctuation during the
Bronze Age did not have any significant influence on the animal
isotopic signatures though time, despite potential vegetation
change and the possible change in plant δ13C and δ15N
values due to aridity and increased salinity (e.g. Flohr et al.,
2011; Heaton, 1987).
The significant difference in both δ13C and δ15N values of
humans between the Neolithic/Chalcolithic and Bronze Ages
indicates a significant shift in human diet between these periods,
which cannot be due to isotopic changes in consumed fauna. The
humans dating to the Neolithic/Chalcolithic periods have relatively
low δ13C and relatively high δ15N which does not suggest a
high reliance on terrestrial animals (Figure 4) and rather probably
indicates exploitation of aquatic animals. The humans dating to
the Bronze Age show higher δ13C values (by up to −2.8‰) which
is probably linked with the beginning of livestock breeding in the
region and the increased consumption of animals that grazed on
mixed C3/C4 vegetation, while the lower δ15N values (by up to
2‰) show a drop in the trophic level and a possible reduction of
fish consumption. The isotopic data also suggests a reduction in
the consumed food variety among humans during the Bronze Age
(Figure 4), as they have more narrowly distributed carbon and
nitrogen isotopic values than individuals from the Neolithic/Chalcolithic.
The isotopic results of the Bronze Age humans cluster
closer above the fauna from that period (Figure 4). Noteworthy,
the dietary change in the Bronze Age individuals appears to coincide
roughly with the earliest evidence for ovicaprids in the region
(second half of the 3rd millennium cal. BC; Kiryushin et al.,
2005), which might imply a relatively rapid transition to a different
diet and economy. Further studies might be able to clarify
whether the first pastoralists in the region under study were local
populations who adapted pastoralism or people who migrated into
these territories with their livestock.
According to the stable isotope data, the dietary shift in the
humans of southwest Siberia is visible from the Early Bronze Age
period (second half of the third millennium cal. BC). However,
looking at the published isotopic data of two humans from Chalcolithic
sites in northern Kazakhstan (Botai) and central Kazakhstan
(Karagash), their values are very similar to the ones of the
Bronze Age periods (Karagash human: δ13C value is −18.2‰ and
δ15N is 12.6‰ (Motuzaite Matuzeviciute et al., 2015); Botai
human: δ13C = −18.1‰; δ15N = 12.4‰ (O’Connell et al., 2003)).
As mentioned earlier, the Karagash burial contained the earliest
evidence of domesticated sheep in the region, while the Botai site
contained the earliest evidence of horse domestication (Outram
et al., 2011). Both sites are dated between 3500 and 2700 cal. BC
(Motuzaite Matuzeviciute et al., 2015; Outram et al., 2009).
Figure 2. The box plot showing the (a) δ13C and (b) δ15N values of
the Neolithic/Chalcolithic and Bronze Age herbivore animals from
the southwest Siberia and northern Kazakhstan.
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Motuzaite Matuzeviciute et al.	 7
Table 3.  Summary of δ13C and δ15N values of human samples from southwest Siberia and Northern Kazakhstan.
Site name (per site-n) Period (total-n) δ13CVPDB (‰) δ15NAIR(‰)
Min Max Mean SD Median Min Max Mean SD Median
Neolithic/Chalcolithic
  Neolithic/Chalcolithic (40) −23.4 −18.6 −21.8 1.1 −21.9 12.5 15.9 13.8 0.9 13.6
Itkul (Bolshoi Mys) (9) Neolithic −22.1 −19.7 −21 0.8 −21.1 12.6 15.6 13.4 0.5 13.3
Ust-Isha (3) Neolithic −21.7 −21.4 −21.6 0.2 −21.6 15.5 15.9 15.6 0.3 15.5
Firsovo-XI (9) Neolithic −23.4 −22.5 −22.8 0.3 −22.8 12.5 14.2 13.3 0.6 13.3
Solontsy-5 (6) Neolithic −21.6 −18.6 −20.3 1 −20.6 12.5 15.7 13.6 1 13.6
Tuzovskie Bugry-I (13) Neolithic/Chalcolithic −23.4 −20.9 −22.2 0.6 −22.3 13.4 14.6 13.9 0.4 13.6
Bronze Age
  Bronze Age (45) −21.3 −17.5 −19 0.6 −18.9 9.9 14.4 11.8 1 11.7
Novoilinovka (8) Bronze Age −21.2 −18.6 −18.9 0.2 −18.9 11.2 11.4 10.8 0.2 11.2
Lisakovsk (28) Bronze Age −19.7 −17.5 −18.8 0.4 −18.8 9.9 14.4 12.0 1.0 12.0
Teleutsky Zvoz-I (4) Bronze Age −21.03 −18.3 −19.7 1.2 −19.7 12.4 13.2 12.8 0.4 12.9
Firsovo-XIV (5) Bronze Age −19.9 −19 −19.5 0.3 −19.4 10.5 11.4 11 0.4 10.9
Novoilinovka data were taken from Motuzaite Matuzeviciute et al. (2015) and Lisakovsk fromVentresca Miller et al. (2014).
Figure 3. The box plot showing the (a) δ13C and (b) δ15N values of the Bronze Age humans from the southwest Siberia and northern
Kazakhstan. Darker colour indicates the Neolithic/Chalcolithic humans, while lighter colour the Bronze Age humans.The human data from the
north Kazakhstan are supplemented by Motuzaite Matuzeviciute et al. (2015) andVentresca Miller et al. (2014).
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8	 The Holocene
Despite having isotopic data just from two individuals, one can
infer that the processes of transition to pastoralism visible in
human isotope data started earlier in the south (central/northern
Kazakhstan) than in the north (southwest Siberia).
Conclusion
Between the Neolithic/Chalcolithic and the Bronze Age periods
of southwest Siberia and northern Kazakhstan, human bone collagen
shows an isotopic change in both carbon and nitrogen while
that of herbivorous animals remain similar. This suggests that climatic
variation did not play a role in the observed change in
human isotopic ratios. A change in diet and a reduction in consumed
food variety among humans during the Bronze Age are
probably the main reasons for the change in isotopic values. The
increase in δ15N values between the Neolithic/Chalcolithic and
Bronze Age is probably related to the beginning of animal husbandry
in the region and the consumption of animals that grazed
on mixed C3/C4 vegetation. The high δ15N values in both the
Neolithic/Chalcolithic as well as Bronze Age humans suggest the
consumption of fish, which in turn might result in the presence of
a freshwater reservoir effect in the dated individuals. However,
this has to be tested further to be confirmed.
The apparent human dietary changes during the second half of
the 3rd millennium cal. BC can be linked to the establishment of
pastoralism in southwest Siberia and the introduction of domesticated
animals into the region. The data show that the processes of
pastoralism further south in Kazakhstan, however, may have
started slightly earlier. Overall, our results have demonstrated that
the processes of globalisation that occurred within the northern
regions of Central Asia and southwest Siberia at the third millennium
BC coincide with globalisation processes in other regions of
Central Asia (discussed in section ‘Introduction’).
Acknowledgements
We are thankful to C Kneale and J Rolfe for assistance with
isotopic analysis, L Barbera Colominas for helping with animal
bone identification, S Tur in the Altai State University
for anthropological data, I Shevnina from the Kostanai State
University A. Baitursynov for providing some faunal samples
for this study as well as other researchers who contributed
to the archaeological excavations of analysed material: AB
Shamshin, N Yu Kungurova, K Yu Kiryushin, AS Fedoruk, SP
Grushin and VN Logvin.
Funding
The authors are grateful to the McDonald Institute for Archaeological
Research, European Research Council and the Leverhulme
Trust for financial support. The archaeological excavations
in southwest Siberia were carried out as a part of the Russian
Table 4.  Results of statistical tests.
Comparison n δ13C Test for δ13C values δ15N Test for δ15N values
p value p value
Statistical test outputs of fauna
1. Neolithic versus Chalcolithic herbivores 18 0.6897 t-test 0.8941 t-test
2. Neolithic/Chalcolithic versus Bronze Age herbivores 85 0.7993 t-test 0.798 Wilcoxon signed-rank
Statistical test outputs of human data
3. Neolithic versus Chalcolithic humans 40 0.12 Wilcoxon signed-rank 0.678 t-test
4. Neolithic/Chalcolithic humans versus Bronze Age humans 86 9.12E−14 Wilcoxon signed-rank 3E−11 Wilcoxon signed-rank
5.Tuzovskie Bugry-I (Neolithic/Chalcolithic) versus Teleutsky
Vzvoz-I (Early Bronze Age)
17 2.78E−5 t-test 0.000294 t-test
Figure 4.  Graph showing δ13C (x) and δ15N (y) values of the Neolithic/Chalcolithic and Bronze Age animals and humans from the southwest
Siberia and northern Kazakhstan.
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Motuzaite Matuzeviciute et al.	 9
Federation Ministry of Education and Science Project ‘The Early
Peopling of Siberia: Origins and Evolution of Cultures in Northern
Asia’ (Resolution No. 220), Altai State University, Grant No
14.Z50.31.0010.
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