Resuscitation 95 (2015) 249–263
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Resuscitation
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/resuscitation
European Resuscitation Council Guidelines for Resuscitation 2015
Section 7. Resuscitation and support of transition of babies at birth
Jonathan Wylliea,∗
, Jos Bruinenbergb
, Charles Christoph Roehrd,e
, Mario Rüdigerf
,
Daniele Trevisanutoc
, Berndt Urlesbergerg
a
Department of Neonatology, The James Cook University Hospital, Middlesbrough, UK
b
Department of Paediatrics, Sint Elisabeth Hospital, Tilburg, The Netherlands
c
Department of Women and Children’s’ Health, Padua University, Azienda Ospediliera di Padova, Padua, Italy
d
Department of Neonatology, Charité Universitätsmedizin, Berlin, Berlin, Germany
e
Newborn Services, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford University Hospitals, Oxford, UK
f
Department of Neonatology, Medizinische Fakultät Carl Gustav Carus, TU Dresden, Germany
g
Division of Neonatology, Medical University Graz, Graz, Austria
Introduction
The following guidelines for resuscitation at birth have been
developed during the process that culminated in the 2015
International Consensus on Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation and
Emergency Cardiovascular Care Science with Treatment Recommendations
(CoSTR, 2015).1,2 They are an extension of the
guidelines already published by the ERC3 and take into account
recommendations made by other national and international organisations
and previously evaluated evidence.4
Summary of changes since 2010 guidelines
The following are the main changes that have been made to the
guidelines for resuscitation at birth in 2015:
• Support of transition: Recognising the unique situation of the
baby at birth, who rarely requires ‘resuscitation’ but sometimes
needs medical help during the process of postnatal transition.
The term ‘support of transition’ has been introduced to better
distinguish between interventions that are needed to restore vital
organ functions (resuscitation) or to support transition.
• Cord clamping: For uncompromised babies, a delay in cord
clamping of at least 1 min from the complete delivery of the
infant, is now recommended for term and preterm babies. As yet
there is insufficient evidence to recommend an appropriate time
for clamping the cord in babies who require resuscitation at birth.
• Temperature: The temperature of newly born non-asphyxiated
infants should be maintained between 36.5 ◦C and 37.5 ◦C after
birth. The importance of achieving this has been highlighted and
∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: jonathan.wyllie@stees.nhs.uk (J. Wyllie).
reinforced because of the strong association with mortality and
morbidity. The admission temperature should be recorded as a
predictor of outcomes as well as a quality indicator.
• Maintenance of temperature: At <32 weeks gestation, a combination
of interventions may be required to maintain the
temperature between 36.5 ◦C and 37.5 ◦C after delivery through
admission and stabilisation. These may include warmed humidified
respiratory gases, increased room temperature plus plastic
wrapping of body and head, plus thermal mattress or a thermal
mattress alone, all of which have been effective in reducing
hypothermia.
• Optimal assessment of heart rate: It is suggested in babies
requiring resuscitation that the ECG can be used to provide a rapid
and accurate estimation of heart rate.
• Meconium: Tracheal intubation should not be routine in the
presence of meconium and should only be performed for suspected
tracheal obstruction. The emphasis should be on initiating
ventilation within the first minute of life in non-breathing or
ineffectively breathing infants and this should not be delayed.
• Air/Oxygen: Ventilatory support of term infants should start with
air. For preterm infants, either air or a low concentration of oxygen
(up to 30%) should be used initially. If, despite effective
ventilation, oxygenation (ideally guided by oximetry) remains
unacceptable, use of a higher concentration of oxygen should be
considered.
• Continuous Positive Airways Pressure (CPAP): Initial respiratory
support of spontaneously breathing preterm infants with
respiratory distress may be provided by CPAP rather than intu-
bation.
The guidelines that follow do not define the only way that resuscitation
at birth should be achieved; they merely represent a widely
accepted view of how resuscitation at birth can be carried out both
safely and effectively (Fig. 7.1).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.resuscitation.2015.07.029
0300-9572/© 2015 European Resuscitation Council. Published by Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
250 J. Wyllie et al. / Resuscitation 95 (2015) 249–263
(Antenatal counselling)
Team briefing and equipment check
Dry the baby
Maintain normal temperature
Start the clock or note the time
If gasping or not breathing:
Open the airway
Give 5 inflation breaths
Consider SpO2
± ECG monitoring
Reassess heart rate every 30 seconds
If heart rate is not detectable
or very slow (< 60 min-1
)
consider venous access and drugs
If chest not moving:
Recheck head position
Consider 2-person airway control
and other airway manoeuvres
Repeat inflation breaths
SpO2
monitoring ± ECG monitoring
Look for a response
Assess (tone), breathing and heart rate
Discuss with parents and debrief team
Re-assess
If no increase in heart rate
look for chest movement
If no increase in heart rate
look for chest movement
When the chest is moving:
If heart rate is not detectable
or very slow (< 60 min-1
)
Start chest compressions
Coordinate compressions with PPV (3:1)
Birth
Acceptable
pre-ductal SpO2
2 min 60%
3 min 70%
4 min 80%
5 min 85%
10 min 90%
60 s
Increaseoxygen
(Guidedbyoximetryifavailable)
At
All
Times
Ask:
Do
You
Need
Help?
MaintainTemperature
Fig. 7.1. Newborn life support algorithm. SpO2: transcutaneous pulse oximetry, ECG: electrocardiograph, PPV: positive pressure ventilation.
J. Wyllie et al. / Resuscitation 95 (2015) 249–263 251
Preparation
The fetal-to-neonatal transition, which occurs at the time of
birth, requires anatomic and physiological adjustments to achieve
the conversion from placental gas exchange with intra-uterine
lungs filled with fluid, to pulmonary respiration with aerated lungs.
The absorption of lung fluid, the aeration of the lungs, the initiation
of air breathing, and cessation of the placental circulation bring
about this transition.
A minority of infants require resuscitation at birth, but a few
more have problems with this perinatal transition, which, if no
support is given, might subsequently result in a need for resuscitation.
Of those needing any help, the overwhelming majority
will require only assisted lung aeration. A tiny minority may need
a brief period of chest compressions in addition to lung aeration.
In a retrospective study, approximately 85% of babies born
at term initiated spontaneous respirations within 10 to 30 s of
birth; an additional 10% responded during drying and stimulation,
approximately 3% initiated respirations following positive pressure
ventilation, 2% were intubated to support respiratory function
and 0.1% received chest compressions and/or adrenaline.5–7 However,
of 97,648 babies born in Sweden in one year, only 10 per
1000 (1%) babies of 2.5 kg or more appeared to need any resuscitation
at delivery.8 Most of those, 8 per 1000, responded to
mask inflation of the lungs and only 2 per 1000 appeared to
need intubation. The same study tried to assess the unexpected
need for resuscitation at birth and found that for low risk babies,
i.e. those born after 32 weeks gestation and following an apparently
normal labour, about 2 per 1000 (0.2%) appeared to need
resuscitation or help with transition at delivery. Of these, 90%
responded to mask ventilation alone while the remaining 10%
appeared not to respond to mask inflation and therefore were
intubated at birth. There was almost no need for cardiac compres-
sions.
Resuscitation or support of transition is more likely to be
needed by babies with intrapartum evidence of significant fetal
compromise, babies delivering before 35 weeks gestation, babies
delivering vaginally by the breech, maternal infection and multiple
pregnancies.9 Furthermore, caesarean delivery is associated with
an increased risk of problems with respiratory transition at birth
requiring medical interventions especially for deliveries before 39
weeks gestation.10–13 However, elective caesarean delivery at term
does not increase the risk of needing newborn resuscitation in the
absence of other risk factors.14–17
Although it is sometimes possible to predict the need for resuscitation
or stabilisation before a baby is born, this is not always
the case. Any newborn may potentially develop problems during
birth, therefore, personnel trained in newborn life support should
be easily available for every delivery. In deliveries with a known
increased risk of problems, specially trained personnel should be
present with at least one person experienced in tracheal intubation.
Should there be any need for intervention, the care of the baby
should be their sole responsibility. Local guidelines indicating who
should attend deliveries should be developed, based on current
practice and clinical audit. Each institution should have a protocol
in place for rapidly mobilising a team with competent resuscitation
skills for any birth. Whenever there is sufficient time, the team
attending the delivery should be briefed before delivery and clear
role assignment should be defined. It is also important to prepare
the family in cases where it is likely that resuscitation might be
required.
A structured educational programme, teaching the standards
and skills required for resuscitation of the newborn is therefore
essential for any institution or clinical area in which deliveries may
occur. Continued experiential learning and practice is necessary to
maintain skills.
Planned home deliveries
Recommendations as to who should attend a planned home
delivery vary from country to country, but the decision to undergo
a planned home delivery, once agreed with medical and midwifery
staff, should not compromise the standard of initial assessment,
stabilisation or resuscitation at birth. There will inevitably be
some limitations to resuscitation of a newborn baby in the home,
because of the distance from further assistance, and this must be
made clear to the mother at the time plans for home delivery are
made. Ideally, two trained professionals should be present at all
home deliveries; one of these must be fully trained and experienced
in providing mask ventilation and chest compressions in the
newborn.
Equipment and environment
Unlike adult cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), resuscitation
at birth is often a predictable event. It is therefore possible
to prepare the environment and the equipment before delivery
of the baby. Resuscitation should take place in a warm, well-lit,
draught free area with a flat resuscitation surface placed below a
radiant heater (if in hospital), with other resuscitation equipment
immediately available. All equipment must be regularly checked
and tested.
When a birth takes place in a non-designated delivery area, the
recommended minimum set of equipment includes a device for
safe assisted lung aeration and subsequent ventilation of an appropriate
size for the newborn, warm dry towels and blankets, a sterile
instrument for cutting and clamping the umbilical cord and clean
gloves for the attendant and assistants. Unexpected deliveries outside
hospital are most likely to involve emergency services that
should plan for such events.
Timing of clamping the umbilical cord
Cine-radiographic studies of babies taking their first breath at
delivery showed that those whose cords were clamped prior to
this had an immediate decrease in the size of the heart during the
subsequent three or four cardiac cycles. The heart then increased in
size to almost the same size as the fetal heart. The initial decrease in
size could be interpreted as the significantly increased pulmonary
blood flow following the decrease in pulmonary vascular resistance
upon lung aeration. The subsequent increase in size would, as a consequence,
be caused by the blood returning to the heart from the
lung.18 Brady et al drew attention to the occurrence of a bradycardia
apparently induced by clamping the cord before the first
breath and noted that this did not occur in babies where clamping
occurred after breathing was established.19 Experimental evidence
from similarly treated lambs suggest the same holds true for premature
newborn.20
Studies of delayed clamping have shown an improvement in
iron status and a number of other haematological indices over the
next 3–6 months and a reduced need for transfusion in preterm
infants.21,22 They have also suggested greater use of phototherapy
for jaundice in the delayed group but this was not found in
a randomised controlled trial.21
A systematic review on delayed cord clamping and cord
milking in preterm infants found improved stability in the immediate
postnatal period, including higher mean blood pressure
and haemoglobin on admission, compared to controls.23 There
were also fewer blood transfusions in the ensuing weeks.23 Some
studies have suggested a reduced incidence of intraventricular
haemorrhage and periventricular leukomalacia22,24,25 as well as of
late-onset sepsis.24
252 J. Wyllie et al. / Resuscitation 95 (2015) 249–263
No human studies have yet addressed the effect of delaying
cord clamping on babies apparently needing resuscitation at birth
because such babies have been excluded from previous studies.
Delaying umbilical cord clamping for at least 1 min is recommended
for newborn infants not requiring resuscitation. A similar
delay should be applied to preterm babies not requiring immediate
resuscitation after birth. Until more evidence is available, infants
who are not breathing or crying may require the umbilical cord to be
clamped, so that resuscitation measures can commence promptly.
Umbilical cord milking may prove an alternative in these infants
although there is currently not enough evidence available to recommended
this as a routine measure.1,2 Umbilical cord milking
produces improved short term haematological outcomes, admission
temperature and urine output when compared to delayed
cord clamping (>30 s) in babies born by caesarean section, although
these differences were not observed in infants born vaginally.26
Temperature control
Naked, wet, newborn babies cannot maintain their body temperature
in a room that feels comfortably warm for adults.
Compromised babies are particularly vulnerable.27 Exposure of the
newborn to cold stress will lower arterial oxygen tension28 and
increase metabolic acidosis.29 The association between hypothermia
and mortality has been known for more than a century,30
and the admission temperature of newborn non-asphyxiated
infants is a strong predictor of mortality at all gestations and
in all settings.31–65 Preterm infants are especially vulnerable
and hypothermia is also associated with serious morbidities
such as intraventricular haemorrhage35,42,55,66–69 need for respiratory
support31,35,37,66,70–74 hypoglycaemia31,49,60,74–79 and in some
studies late onset sepsis.49
The temperature of newly born non-asphyxiated infants should
be maintained between 36.5 ◦C and 37.5 ◦C after birth. For each 1 ◦C
decrease in admission temperature below this range there is an
associated increase in mortality by 28%.1,2,49 The admission temperature
should be recorded as a predictor of outcomes as well as
a quality indicator.
Prevent heat loss:
• Protect the baby from draughts.80 Make certain windows closed
and air-conditioning appropriately programmed.52
• Dry the term baby immediately after delivery. Cover the head and
body of the baby, apart from the face, with a warm and dry towel
to prevent further heat loss. Alternatively, place the baby skin to
skin with mother and cover both with a towel.
• Keep the delivery room warm at 23–25 ◦C.1,2,48,80 For babies less
than 28 weeks gestation the delivery room temperature should
be >25 ◦C.27,48,79,81
• If the baby needs support in transition or resuscitation then place
the baby on a warm surface under a preheated radiant warmer.
• All babies less than 32 weeks gestation should have the head and
body of the baby (apart from the face) covered with polyethylene
wrapping, without drying the baby beforehand, and also placed
under a radiant heater.73,77,82,83
• In addition, babies <32 weeks gestation, may require a combination
of further interventions to maintain the temperature
between 36.5 ◦C and 37.5 ◦C after delivery through admission and
stabilisation. These may include warmed humidified respiratory
gases,84,85 increased room temperature plus cap plus thermal
mattress 70,72,86,87 or thermal mattress alone,88–92 which have
all been effective in reducing hypothermia.
• Babies born unexpectedly outside a normal delivery environment
may benefit from placement in a food grade plastic bag after
drying and then swaddling.93,94 Alternatively, well newborns >30
weeks gestation may be dried and nursed with skin to skin contact
or kangaroo mother care to maintain their temperature whilst
they are transferred.95–101 They should be covered and protected
from draughts.
Whilst maintenance of a baby’s temperature is important, this
should be monitored in order to avoid hyperthermia (>38.0 ◦C).
Infants born to febrile mothers have a higher incidence of perinatal
respiratory depression, neonatal seizures, early mortality and cerebral
palsy.102,103 Animal studies indicate that hyperthermia during
or following ischaemia is associated with a progression of cerebral
injury.104,105
Initial assessment
The Apgar score was not designed to be assembled and ascribed
in order to then identify babies in need of resuscitation.106,107 However,
individual components of the score, namely respiratory rate,
heart rate and tone, if assessed rapidly, can identify babies needing
resuscitation, (and Virginia Apgar herself found that heart rate was
the most important predictor of immediate outcome).106 Furthermore,
repeated assessment particularly of heart rate and, to a lesser
extent breathing, can indicate whether the baby is responding or
whether further efforts are needed.
Breathing
Check whether the baby is breathing. If so, evaluate the rate,
depth and symmetry of breathing together with any evidence of an
abnormal breathing pattern such as gasping or grunting.
Heart rate
Immediately after birth the heart rate is assessed to evaluate the
condition of the baby and subsequently is the most sensitive indicator
of a successful response to interventions. Heart rate is initially
most rapidly and accurately assessed by listening to the apex beat
with a stethoscope108 or by using an electrocardiograph.109–112
Feeling the pulse in the base of the umbilical cord is often effective
but can be misleading because cord pulsation is only reliable if
found to be more than 100 beats per minute (bpm)108 and clinical
assessment may underestimate the heart rate.108,109,113 For babies
requiring resuscitation and/or continued respiratory support, a
modern pulse oximeter can give an accurate heart rate.111 Several
studies have demonstrated that ECG is faster than pulse oximetry
and more reliable, especially in the first 2 min after birth;110–115
however, the use of ECG does not replace the need to use pulse
oximetry to assess the newborn baby’s oxygenation.
Colour
Colour is a poor means of judging oxygenation,116 which is better
assessed using pulse oximetry if possible. A healthy baby is
born blue but starts to become pink within 30 s of the onset of
effective breathing. Peripheral cyanosis is common and does not,
by itself, indicate hypoxaemia. Persistent pallor despite ventilation
may indicate significant acidosis or rarely hypovolaemia. Although
colour is a poor method of judging oxygenation, it should not be
ignored: if a baby appears blue, check preductal oxygenation with
a pulse oximeter.
Tone
A very floppy baby is likely to be unconscious and will need
ventilatory support.
J. Wyllie et al. / Resuscitation 95 (2015) 249–263 253
Tactile stimulation
Drying the baby usually produces enough stimulation to induce
effective breathing. Avoid more vigorous methods of stimulation. If
the baby fails to establish spontaneous and effective breaths following
a brief period of stimulation, further support will be required.
Classification according to initial assessment
On the basis of the initial assessment, the baby can be placed
into one of three groups:
(1) Vigorous breathing or crying.
Good tone.
Heart rate higher than 100 min−1
.
There is no need for immediate clamping of the cord. This baby
requires no intervention other than drying, wrapping in a warm
towel and, where appropriate, handing to the mother. The baby
will remain warm through skin-to-skin contact with mother under
a cover, and may be put to the breast at this stage. It remains important
to ensure the baby’s temperature is maintained.
(2) Breathing inadequately or apnoeic.
Normal or reduced tone.
Heart rate less than 100 min−1
.
Dry and wrap. This baby will usually improve with mask inflation
but if this does not increase the heart rate adequately, may
rarely also require ventilations.
(3) Breathing inadequately or apnoeic.
Floppy.
Low or undetectable heart rate.
Often pale suggesting poor perfusion.
Dry and wrap. This baby will then require immediate airway
control, lung inflation and ventilation. Once this has been successfully
accomplished the baby may also need chest compressions, and
perhaps drugs.
Preterm babies may be breathing and showing signs of respiratory
distress in which case they should be supported initially with
CPAP.
There remains a very rare group of babies who, though breathing
with a good heart rate, remain hypoxaemic. This group includes
a range of possible diagnoses such as cyanotic congenital heart disease,
congenital pneumonia, pneumothorax, diaphragmatic hernia
or surfactant deficiency.
Newborn life support
Commence newborn life support if initial assessment shows that
the baby has failed to establish adequate regular normal breathing,
or has a heart rate of less than 100 min−1 (Fig. 7.1). Opening the
airway and aerating the lungs is usually all that is necessary. Furthermore,
more complex interventions will be futile unless these
two first steps have been successfully completed.
Airway
Place the baby on his or her back with the head in a neutral
position (Fig. 7.2). A 2 cm thickness of the blanket or towel placed
under the baby’s shoulder may be helpful in maintaining proper
head position. In floppy babies application of jaw thrust or the use
of an appropriately sized oropharyngeal airway may be essential in
opening the airway.
The supine position for airway management is traditional but
side-lying has also been used for assessment and routine delivery
room management of term newborns but not for resuscitation.117
Fig. 7.2. Newborn with head in neutral position.
There is no need to remove lung fluid from the oropharynx
routinely.118 Suction is needed only if the airway is obstructed.
Obstruction may be caused by particulate meconium but can
also be caused by blood clots, thick tenacious mucus or vernix
even in deliveries where meconium staining is not present.
However, aggressive pharyngeal suction can delay the onset of
spontaneous breathing and cause laryngeal spasm and vagal
bradycardia.119–121
Meconium
For over 30 years it was hoped that clearing meconium from the
airway of babies at birth would reduce the incidence and severity
of meconium aspiration syndrome (MAS). However, studies supporting
this view were based on a comparison of suctioning on
the outcome of a group of babies with the outcome of historical
controls.122,123 Furthermore other studies failed to find any evidence
of benefit from this practice.124,125
Lightly meconium stained liquor is common and does not, in
general, give rise to much difficulty with transition. The much less
common finding of very thick meconium stained liquor at birth
is an indicator of perinatal distress and should alert to the potential
need for resuscitation. Two multi-centre randomised controlled
trials showed that routine elective intubation and tracheal suctioning
of these infants, if vigorous at birth, did not reduce MAS 126 and
that suctioning the nose and mouth of such babies on the perineum
and before delivery of the shoulders (intrapartum suctioning) was
ineffective.127 Hence intrapartum suctioning and routine intubation
and suctioning of vigorous infants born through meconium
stained liquor are not recommended. A small RCT has recently
demonstrated no difference in the incidence of MAS between
patients receiving tracheal intubation followed by suctioning and
those not intubated.128
The presence of thick, viscous meconium in a non-vigorous
baby is the only indication for initially considering visualising the
oropharynx and suctioning material, which might obstruct the
airway. Tracheal intubation should not be routine in the presence
of meconium and should only be performed for suspected
tracheal obstruction.128–132 The emphasis should be on initiating
ventilation within the first minute of life in non-breathing
or ineffectively breathing infants and this should not be delayed.
If suctioning is attempted use a 12–14 FG suction catheter, or
a paediatric Yankauer sucker, connected to a suction source not
exceeding −150 mmHg.133 The routine administration of surfactant
or bronchial lavage with either saline or surfactant is not
recommended.134,135
Initial breaths and assisted ventilation
After initial steps at birth, if breathing efforts are absent or
inadequate, lung aeration is the priority and must not be delayed
(Fig. 7.3). In term babies, respiratory support should start with
air.136 The primary measure of adequate initial lung inflation is a
254 J. Wyllie et al. / Resuscitation 95 (2015) 249–263
Fig. 7.3. Mask ventilation of newborn.
prompt improvement in heart rate. If the heart rate is not improving
assess the chest wall movement. In term infants, spontaneous
or assisted initial inflations create a functional residual capacity
(FRC).137–141 The optimum pressure, inflation time and flow
required to establish an effective FRC has not been determined.
For the first five positive pressure inflations maintain the
initial inflation pressure for 2–3 s. This will usually help lung
expansion.137,142 The pressure required to aerate the fluid filled
lungs of newborn babies requiring resuscitation is 15–30 cm H2O
(1.5–2.9 kPa) with a mean of 20 cm H2O.137,141,142 For term babies
use an inflation pressure of 30 cm H2O and 20–25 cm H2O in
preterm babies.143,144
Efficacy of the intervention can be estimated by a prompt
increase in heart rate or observing the chest rise. If this is not
obtained it is likely that repositioning of the airway or mask will be
required and, rarely, higher inspiratory pressures may be needed.
Most babies needing respiratory support at birth will respond with
a rapid increase in heart rate within 30 s of lung inflation. If the heart
rate increases but the baby is not breathing adequately, ventilate
at a rate of about 30 breaths min−1 allowing approximately 1 s for
each inflation, until there is adequate spontaneous breathing.
Adequate passive ventilation is usually indicated by either a
rapidly increasing heart rate or a heart rate that is maintained
faster than 100 beats min−1. If the baby does not respond in this
way the most likely cause is inadequate airway control or inadequate
ventilation. Look for passive chest movement in time with
inflation efforts; if these are present then lung aeration has been
achieved. If these are absent then airway control and lung aeration
has not been confirmed. Mask leak, inappropriate airway
position and airway obstruction, are all possible reasons, which
may need correction.145–149 In this case, consider repositioning the
mask to correct for leakage and/or reposition the baby’s head to
correct for airway obstruction.145 Alternatively using a two person
approach to mask ventilation reduces mask leak in term and
preterm infants.146,147 Without adequate lung aeration, chest compressions
will be ineffective; therefore, confirm lung aeration and
ventilation before progressing to circulatory support.
Some practitioners will ensure airway control by tracheal intubation,
but this requires training and experience. If this skill is not
available and the heart rate is decreasing, re-evaluate the airway
position and deliver inflation breaths while summoning a colleague
with intubation skills. Continue ventilatory support until the baby
has established normal regular breathing.
Fig. 7.4. Oxygen saturations (3rd, 10th, 25th, 50th, 75th, 90th, and 97th SpO2 percentiles)
in healthy infants at birth without medical intervention. Reproduced with
permission from. 157
Sustained inflations (SI) > 5 s
Several animal studies have suggested that a longer SI may be
beneficial for establishing functional residual capacity at birth during
transition from a fluid-filled to air-filled lung.150,151 Review of
the literature in 2015 disclosed three RCTs152–154 and two cohort
studies,144,155 which demonstrated that initial SI reduced the need
for mechanical ventilation. However, no benefit was found for
reduction of mortality, bronchopulmonary dysplasia, or air leak.
One cohort study144 suggested that the need for intubation was
less following SI. It was the consensus of the COSTR reviewers that
there was inadequate study of the safety, details of the most appropriate
length and pressure of inflation, and long-term effects, to
suggest routine application of SI of greater than 5 s duration to
the transitioning newborn.1,2 Sustained inflations >5 s should only
be considered in individual clinical circumstances or in a research
setting.
Air/Oxygen
Term babies. In term infants receiving respiratory support at birth
with positive pressure ventilation (PPV), it is best to begin with
air (21%) as opposed to 100% oxygen. If, despite effective ventilation,
there is no increase in heart rate or oxygenation (guided by
oximetry wherever possible) remains unacceptable, use a higher
concentration of oxygen to achieve an adequate preductal oxygen
saturation.156,157 High concentrations of oxygen are associated
with an increased mortality and delay in time of onset of spontaneous
breathing,158 therefore, if increased oxygen concentrations
are used they should be weaned as soon as possible.136,159
Preterm babies. Resuscitation of preterm infants less than 35 weeks
gestation at birth should be initiated in air or low concentration
oxygen (21–30%).1,2,136,160 The administered oxygen concentration
should be titrated to achieve acceptable pre-ductal oxygen saturations
approximating to the 25th percentile in healthy term babies
immediately after birth (Fig. 7.4).156,157
In a meta-analysis of seven randomized trials comparing
initiation of resuscitation with high (>65%) or low (21–30%) oxygen
concentrations, the high concentration was not associated
with any improvement in survival,159,161–166 bronchopulmonary
dysplasia,159,162,164–166 intraventricular haemorrhage159,162,165,166
or retinopathy of prematurity.159,162,166 There was an increase in
markers of oxidative stress.159
Pulse oximetry. Modern pulse oximetery, using neonatal probes,
provides reliable readings of heart rate and transcutaneous oxygen
saturation within 1–2 min of birth (Fig. 7.4).167,168 A reliable
J. Wyllie et al. / Resuscitation 95 (2015) 249–263 255
pre-ductal reading can be obtained from >90% of normal term
births, approximately 80% of those born preterm, and 80-90% of
those apparently requiring resuscitation, within 2 min of birth.167
Uncompromised babies born at term at sea level have SpO2 ∼60%
during labour,169 which increases to >90% by 10 min.156 The 25th
percentile is approximately 40% at birth and increases to ∼80% at
10 min.157 Values are lower in those born by Caesarean delivery,170
those born at altitude171 and those managed with delayed cord
clamping.172 Those born preterm may take longer to reach >90%.157
Pulse oximetry should be used to avoid excessive use of oxygen
as well as to direct its judicious use (Figs. 7.1 and 7.4).
Transcutaneous oxygen saturations above the acceptable levels
should prompt weaning of any supplemental oxygen.
Positive end expiratory pressure
All term and preterm babies who remain apnoeic despite initial
steps must receive positive pressure ventilation after initial
lung inflation. It is suggested that positive end expiratory pressure
(PEEP) of ∼5 cm H2O should be administered to preterm newborn
babies receiving PPV.173
Animal studies show that preterm lungs are easily damaged
by large-volume inflations immediately after birth174 and
suggest that maintaining a PEEP immediately after birth may
protect against lung damage175,176 although some evidence suggests
no benefit.177 PEEP also improves lung aeration, compliance
and gas exchange.178–180 Two human newborn RCTs demonstrated
no improvement in mortality, need for resuscitation or
bronchopulmonary dysplasia they were underpowered for these
outcomes.181,182 However, one of the trials suggested that PEEP
reduced the amount of supplementary oxygen required.182
Assisted ventilation devices
Effective ventilation can be achieved with a flow-inflating, a
self-inflating bag or with a T-piece mechanical device designed to
regulate pressure.181–185 The blow-off valves of self-inflating bags
are flow-dependent and pressures generated may exceed the value
specified by the manufacturer if compressed vigorously.186,187 Target
inflation pressures, tidal volumes and long inspiratory times
are achieved more consistently in mechanical models when using
T-piece devices than when using bags,187–190 although the clinical
implications are not clear. More training is required to provide
an appropriate pressure using flow-inflating bags compared with
self-inflating bags.191 A self-inflating bag, a flow-inflating bag or
a T-piece mechanical device, all designed to regulate pressure or
limit pressure applied to the airway can be used to ventilate a newborn.
However, self-inflating bags are the only devices, which can
be used in the absence of compressed gas but cannot deliver continuous
positive airway pressure (CPAP) and may not be able to
achieve PEEP even with a PEEP valve in place189,192–195
Respiratory function monitors measuring inspiratory pressures
and tidal volumes 196 and exhaled carbon dioxide monitors to
assess ventilation 197,198 have been used but there is no evidence
that they affect outcomes. Neither additional benefit above clinical
assessment alone, nor risks attributed to their use have so far been
identified. The use of exhaled CO2 detectors to assess ventilation
with other interfaces (e.g., nasal airways, laryngeal masks) during
PPV in the delivery room has not been reported.
Face mask versus nasal prong
A reported problem of using the facemask for newborn ventilation
is mask leak caused by a failure of the seal between the mask
and the face.145–148 To avoid this some institutions are using nasopharyngeal
prongs to deliver respiratory support. Two randomised
Table 1
Oral tracheal tube lengths by gestation.
Gestation (weeks) ETT at lips (cm)
23–24 5·5
25–26 6·0
27–29 6·5
30–32 7·0
33–34 7·5
35–37 8·0
38–40 8·5
41–43 9·0
trials in preterm infants have compared the efficacy and did not
find any difference between the methods.199,200
Laryngeal mask airway
The laryngeal mask airway can be used in resuscitation of the
newborn, particularly if facemask ventilation is unsuccessful or tracheal
intubation is unsuccessful or not feasible. The LMA may be
considered as an alternative to a facemask for positive pressure ventilation
among newborns weighing more than 2000 g or delivered
≥34 weeks gestation.201 One recent unblinded RCT demonstrated
that following training with one type of LMA, its use was associated
with less tracheal intubation and neonatal unit admission
in comparison to those receiving ventilation via a facemask.201
There is limited evidence, however, to evaluate its use for newborns
weighing <2000 gram or delivered <34 weeks gestation. The
laryngeal mask airway may be considered as an alternative to tracheal
intubation as a secondary airway for resuscitation among
newborns weighing more than 2000 g or delivered ≥34 weeks
gestation.201–206 The LMA is recommended during resuscitation of
term and preterm newborns ≥34 weeks gestation when tracheal
intubation is unsuccessful or not feasible. The laryngeal mask airway
has not been evaluated in the setting of meconium stained
fluid, during chest compressions, or for the administration of emergency
intra-tracheal medications.
Tracheal tube placement
Tracheal intubation may be considered at several points during
neonatal resuscitation:
• When suctioning the lower airways to remove a presumed tracheal
blockage.
• When, after correction of mask technique and/or the baby’s head
position, bag-mask ventilation is ineffective or prolonged.
• When chest compressions are performed.
• Special circumstances (e.g., congenital diaphragmatic hernia or
to give tracheal surfactant).
The use and timing of tracheal intubation will depend on
the skill and experience of the available resuscitators. Appropriate
tube lengths based on gestation are shown in Table 1.207 It
should be recognised that vocal cord guides, as marked on tracheal
tubes by different manufacturers to aid correct placement,
vary considerably.208
Tracheal tube placement must be assessed visually during intubation,
and positioning confirmed. Following tracheal intubation
and intermittent positive-pressure, a prompt increase in heart rate
is a good indication that the tube is in the tracheobronchial tree. 209
Exhaled CO2 detection is effective for confirmation of tracheal tube
placement in infants, including VLBW infants210–213 and neonatal
studies suggest that it confirms tracheal intubation in neonates
with a cardiac output more rapidly and more accurately than clinical
assessment alone.212–214 Failure to detect exhaled CO2 strongly
suggests oesophageal intubation210,212 but false negative readings
have been reported during cardiac arrest 210 and in VLBW infants
256 J. Wyllie et al. / Resuscitation 95 (2015) 249–263
despite models suggesting efficacy.215 However, neonatal studies
have excluded infants in need of extensive resuscitation. False
positives may occur with colorimetric devices contaminated with
adrenaline (epinephrine), surfactant and atropine.198
Poor or absent pulmonary blood flow or tracheal obstruction
may prevent detection of exhaled CO2 despite correct tracheal tube
placement. Tracheal tube placement is identified correctly in nearly
all patients who are not in cardiac arrest211; however, in critically
ill infants with poor cardiac output, inability to detect exhaled
CO2 despite correct placement may lead to unnecessary extubation.
Other clinical indicators of correct tracheal tube placement
include evaluation of condensed humidified gas during exhalation
and presence or absence of chest movement, but these have not
been evaluated systematically in newborn babies.
Detection of exhaled carbon dioxide in addition to clinical
assessment is recommended as the most reliable method
to confirm tracheal placement in neonates with spontaneous
circulation.3,4
CPAP
Initial respiratory support of all spontaneously breathing
preterm infants with respiratory distress may be provided by CPAP,
rather than intubation. Three RCTs enrolling 2358 infants born at
<30 weeks gestation demonstrated that CPAP is beneficial when
compared to initial tracheal ventilation and PPV in reducing the
rate of intubation and duration of mechanical ventilation without
any short term disadvantages.216–218 There are few data to guide
the appropriate use of CPAP in term infants at birth and further
clinical studies are required.219,220
Circulatory support
Circulatory support with chest compressions is effective only if
the lungs have first been successfully inflated. Give chest compressions
if the heart rate is less than 60 beats min−1 despite adequate
ventilation. As ventilation is the most effective and important intervention
in newborn resuscitation, and may be compromised by
compressions, it is vital to ensure that effective ventilation is occurring
before commencing chest compressions.
The most effective technique for providing chest compressions
is with two thumbs over the lower third of the sternum with the fingers
encircling the torso and supporting the back (Fig. 7.5).221–224
This technique generates higher blood pressures and coronary
artery perfusion with less fatigue than the previously used twofinger
technique.222–234 In a manikin study overlapping the thumbs
on the sternum was more effective than positioning them adjacent
but more likely to cause fatigue.235 The sternum is compressed
to a depth of approximately one-third of the anterior-posterior
diameter of the chest allowing the chest wall to return to its
relaxed position between compressions.225,236–240 Use a 3:1 compression
to ventilation ratio, aiming to achieve approximately 120
events per minute, i.e. approximately 90 compressions and 30
ventilations.241–246 There are theoretical advantages to allowing
a relaxation phase that is very slightly longer than the compression
phase.247 However, the quality of the compressions and breaths are
probably more important than the rate. Compressions and ventilations
should be coordinated to avoid simultaneous delivery.248 A
3:1 compression to ventilation ratio is used for resuscitation at birth
where compromise of gas exchange is nearly always the primary
cause of cardiovascular collapse, but rescuers may consider using
higher ratios (e.g., 15:2) if the arrest is believed to be of cardiac
origin.
When resuscitation of a newborn baby has reached the stage
of chest compressions, the steps of trying to achieve return
of spontaneous circulation using effective ventilation with low
Fig. 7.5. Ventilation and chest compression of newborn.
concentration oxygen should have been attempted. Thus, it would
appear sensible to try increasing the supplementary oxygen concentration
towards 100%. There are no human studies to support
this and animal studies demonstrate no advantage to 100% oxygen
during CPR.249–255
Check the heart rate after about 30 s and periodically thereafter.
Discontinue chest compressions when the spontaneous heart rate
is faster than 60 beats min−1. Exhaled carbon dioxide monitoring
and pulse oximetry have been reported to be useful in determining
the return of spontaneous circulation256–260; however, current
evidence does not support the use of any single feedback device in
a clinical setting.1,2
Drugs
Drugs are rarely indicated in resuscitation of the newly born
infant. Bradycardia in the newborn infant is usually caused by
inadequate lung inflation or profound hypoxia, and establishing
adequate ventilation is the most important step to correct it. However,
if the heart rate remains less than 60 beats min−1 despite
adequate ventilation and chest compressions, it is reasonable to
consider the use of drugs. These are best given via a centrally positioned
umbilical venous catheter (Fig. 7.6).
Adrenaline
Despite the lack of human data it is reasonable to use
adrenaline when adequate ventilation and chest compressions
have failed to increase the heart rate above 60 beats min−1. If
2 umbilical arteries
1 umbilical vein
LEGS
HEAD
Fig. 7.6. Newborn umbilical cord showing the arteries and veins.
J. Wyllie et al. / Resuscitation 95 (2015) 249–263 257
adrenaline is used, an initial dose 10 micrograms kg−1 (0.1 ml kg−1
of 1:10,000 adrenaline) should be administered intravenously
as soon as possible1,2,4 with subsequent intravenous doses of
10–30 micrograms kg−1 (0.1–0.3 ml kg−1 of 1:10,000 adrenaline) if
required.
The tracheal route is not recommended but if it is used, it
is highly likely that doses of 50–100 micrograms kg−1 will be
required.3,7,136,261–265 Neither the safety nor the efficacy of these
higher tracheal doses has been studied. Do not give these high doses
intravenously.
Bicarbonate
If effective spontaneous cardiac output is not restored despite
adequate ventilation and adequate chest compressions, reversing
intracardiac acidosis may improve myocardial function and achieve
a spontaneous circulation. There are insufficient data to recommend
routine use of bicarbonate in resuscitation of the newly born.
The hyperosmolarity and carbon dioxide-generating properties of
sodium bicarbonate may impair myocardial and cerebral function.
Use of sodium bicarbonate is not recommended during brief CPR. If
it is used during prolonged arrests unresponsive to other therapy,
it should be given only after adequate ventilation and circulation
is established with CPR. A dose of 1–2 mmol kg−1 may be given by
slow intravenous injection after adequate ventilation and perfusion
have been established.
Fluids
If there has been suspected blood loss or the infant appears
to be in shock (pale, poor perfusion, weak pulse) and has not
responded adequately to other resuscitative measures then consider
giving fluid.266 This is a rare event. In the absence of suitable
blood (i.e. irradiated and leucocyte-depleted group O Rh-negative
blood), isotonic crystalloid rather than albumin is the solution of
choice for restoring intravascular volume. Give a bolus of 10 ml kg−1
initially. If successful it may need to be repeated to maintain an
improvement. When resuscitating preterm infants volume is rarely
needed and has been associated with intraventricular and pulmonary
haemorrhages when large volumes are infused rapidly.
Withholding or discontinuing resuscitation
Mortality and morbidity for newborns varies according to region
and to availability of resources.267 Social science studies indicate
that parents desire a larger role in decisions to resuscitate and to
continue life support in severely compromised babies.268 Opinions
vary amongst providers, parents and societies about the balance of
benefits and disadvantages of using aggressive therapies in such
babies.269,270 Local survival and outcome data are important in
appropriate counselling of parents. A recent study suggests that
the institutional approach at the border of viability affects the subsequent
results in surviving infants.271
Discontinuing resuscitation
Local and national committees will define recommendations for
stopping resuscitation. If the heart rate of a newly born baby is not
detectable and remains undetectable for 10 min, it may be appropriate
to consider stopping resuscitation. The decision to continue
resuscitation efforts when the heart rate has been undetectable
for longer than 10 min is often complex and may be influenced by
issues such as the presumed aetiology, the gestation of the baby,
the potential reversibility of the situation, the availability of therapeutic
hypothermia and the parents’ previous expressed feelings
about acceptable risk of morbidity.267,272–276 The decision should
be individualised. In cases where the heart rate is less than 60 min−1
at birth and does not improve after 10 or 15 min of continuous and
apparently adequate resuscitative efforts, the choice is much less
clear. In this situation there is insufficient evidence about outcome
to enable firm guidance on whether to withhold or to continue
resuscitation.
Withholding resuscitation
It is possible to identify conditions associated with high mortality
and poor outcome, where withholding resuscitation may be
considered reasonable, particularly when there has been the opportunity
for discussion with parents.38,272,277–282 There is no evidence
to support the prospective use of any particular delivery room prognostic
score presently described, over gestational age assessment
alone, in preterm infants <25 weeks gestation.
A consistent and coordinated approach to individual cases by
the obstetric and neonatal teams and the parents is an important
goal.283 Withholding resuscitation and discontinuation of
life-sustaining treatment during or following resuscitation are considered
by many to be ethically equivalent and clinicians should
not be hesitant to withdraw support when the possibility of functional
survival is highly unlikely. The following guidelines must be
interpreted according to current regional outcomes.
• Where gestation, birth weight, and/or congenital anomalies are
associated with almost certain early death, and unacceptably
high morbidity is likely among the rare survivors, resuscitation
is not indicated.38,277,284 Examples from the published literature
include: extreme prematurity (gestational age less than 23 weeks
and/or birth weight less than 400 g), and anomalies such as anencephaly
and confirmed Trisomy 13 or 18.
• Resuscitation is nearly always indicated in conditions associated
with a high survival rate and acceptable morbidity. This will generally
include babies with gestational age of 25 weeks or above
(unless there is evidence of fetal compromise such as intrauterine
infection or hypoxia-ischaemia) and those with most congenital
malformations.
• In conditions associated with uncertain prognosis, where there
is borderline survival and a relatively high rate of morbidity, and
where the anticipated burden to the child is high, parental desires
regarding resuscitation should be supported.283
• When withdrawing or withholding resuscitation, care should be
focused on the comfort and dignity of the baby and family.
Communication with the parents
It is important that the team caring for the newborn baby
informs the parents of the baby’s progress. At delivery, adhere to
the routine local plan and, if possible, hand the baby to the mother
at the earliest opportunity. If resuscitation is required inform the
parents of the procedures undertaken and why they were required.
European guidelines are supportive of family presence during
cardiopulmonary resuscitation.285 In recent years healthcare
professionals are increasingly offering family members the opportunity
to remain present during CPR and this is more likely if
resuscitation takes place within the delivery room. Parents’ wishes
to be present during resuscitation should be supported where
possible.286
The members of the resuscitation team and family members,
without coercion or pressure, make the decision about who should
be present during resuscitation jointly. It is recommended to
provide a healthcare professional whose sole responsibility is to
care for the family member. Whilst this may not always be possible
it should not mean the exclusion of the family member
from the resuscitation. Finally, there should be an opportunity
for the immediate relative to reflect, ask questions about details
of the resuscitation and be informed about the support services
available.286
258 J. Wyllie et al. / Resuscitation 95 (2015) 249–263
Decisions to discontinue resuscitation should ideally involve
senior paediatric staff. Whenever possible, the decision to attempt
resuscitation of an extremely preterm baby should be taken in close
consultation with the parents and senior paediatric and obstetric
staff. Where a difficulty has been foreseen, for example in the case
of severe congenital malformation, discuss the options and prognosis
with the parents, midwives, obstetricians and birth attendants
before delivery.283 Record carefully all discussions and decisions in
the mother’s notes prior to delivery and in the baby’s records after
birth.
Post-resuscitation care
Babies who have required resuscitation may later deteriorate.
Once adequate ventilation and circulation are established, the
infant should be maintained in or transferred to an environment
in which close monitoring and anticipatory care can be provided.
Glucose
Hypoglycaemia was associated with adverse neurological outcome
in a neonatal animal model of asphyxia and resuscitation.287
Newborn animals that were hypoglycaemic at the time of an anoxic
or hypoxic-ischemic insult had larger areas of cerebral infarction
and/or decreased survival compared to controls.288,289 One clinical
study demonstrated an association between hypoglycaemia
and poor neurological outcome following perinatal asphyxia.290 In
adults, children and extremely low-birth-weight infants receiving
intensive care, hyperglycaemia has been associated with a worse
outcome.288–292 However, in paediatric patients, hyperglycaemia
after hypoxia-ischaemia does not appear to be harmful,293 which
confirms data from animal studies294 some of which suggest it may
be protective.295 However, the range of blood glucose concentration
that is associated with the least brain injury following asphyxia
and resuscitation cannot be defined based on available evidence.
Infants who require significant resuscitation should be monitored
and treated to maintain glucose in the normal range.
Induced hypothermia
Newly born infants born at term or near-term with evolving
moderate to severe hypoxic - ischemic encephalopathy should,
where possible, be offered therapeutic hypothermia.296–301 Whole
body cooling and selective head cooling are both appropriate strategies.
Cooling should be initiated and conducted under clearly
defined protocols with treatment in neonatal intensive care facilities
and with the capabilities for multidisciplinary care. Treatment
should be consistent with the protocols used in the randomized
clinical trials (i.e. commence within 6 h of birth, continue for 72 h
of birth and re-warm over at least 4 h). Animal data would strongly
suggest that the effectiveness of cooling is related to early intervention.
There is no evidence in human newborns that cooling is
effective if started more than 6 h after birth. Commencing cooling
treatment >6 h after birth is at the discretion of the treating team
and should only be on an individualised basis. Carefully monitor
for known adverse effects of cooling such as thrombocytopenia and
hypotension. All treated infants should be followed longitudinally.
Prognostic tools
The Apgar score was proposed as a “simple, common, clear classification
or grading of newborn infants” to be used “as a basis
for discussion and comparison of the results of obstetric practices,
types of maternal pain relief and the effects of resuscitation”
(our emphasis).106 Although widely used in clinical practice, for
research purposes and as a prognostic tool,302 its applicability
has been questioned due to large inter- and intra-observer variations.
These are partly explained by a lack of agreement on how
to score infants receiving medical interventions or being born
preterm. Therefore a development of the score was recommended
as follows: all parameters are scored according to the conditions
regardless of the interventions needed to achieve the condition and
considering whether being appropriate for gestational age. In addition,
the interventions needed to achieve the condition have to be
scored as well. This Combined-Apgar has been shown to predict
outcome in preterm and term infants better than the conventional
score.303,304
Briefing/debriefing
Prior to resuscitation it is important to discuss the responsibilities
of each member of the team. After the management
in the delivery room a team debrief of the event using positive
and constructive critique techniques should be conducted
and personal bereavement counselling offered to those with a
particular need. Studies of the effect of briefings or debriefings following
resuscitation have generally shown improved subsequent
performance.305–310 However, many of these have been following
simulation training. A method that seems to further improve
the management in the delivery room is videotaping and subsequent
analysis of the videos.311 A structured analysis of perinatal
management with feedback has been shown to improve outcomes,
reducing the incidence of intraventricular haemorrhage in preterm
infants.312
Regardless of the outcome, witnessing the resuscitation of their
baby may be distressing for parents. Every opportunity should be
taken to prepare parents for the possibility of a resuscitative effort
when it is anticipated and to keep them informed as much as possible
during and certainly after the resuscitation. Whenever possible,
information should be given by a senior clinician. Early contact
between parents and their baby is important.
Conflicts of interest
Jonathan Wyllie No conflict of interest reported
Berndt Urlesberger No conflict of interest reported
Charles Christoph Roehr Educational grant Fischer&Paykel and Medical
advisor STEPHAN company
Daniele Trevisanuto No conflict of interest reported
Jos Bruinenberg No conflict of interest reported
Mario Rüdiger Speakers honorarium Chiesi, Lyomark and
Research grant SLE device
Acknowledgements
The Writing Group acknowledges the significant contributions
to this chapter by the late Sam Richmond.
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