Revision
 Simple sentence
 Complex sentence
 Compound sentence
Simple sentence
 consists of one clause only
 all sentence elements are expressed by phrases
 He came here after work.
Complex sentence
 consists of one matrix and at least one dependent
clause
 at least one sentence element must be expressed by
a clause
 He came here when he finished his work.
Compound sentence
 consists of two matrix clauses and any number of
dependent clauses
 He finished his work and came here.
 He finished his work and came here when I asked
him to.
Seven clause types
 SV - intransitive verbs
 SVC - copular verbs
 SVA - copular verbs
 SVO - monotransitive verbs
 SVOO - ditransitive verbs
 SVOC - complex-transitive verbs
 SVOA - complex-transitive verbs
Multiple class membership
 SV He’s running.
 SVC He’s getting hungry.
 SVA He got through the window.
 SVO He’ll get a surprise.
 SVOO He got her sister a splendid present.
 SVOC He got his shoes and socks wet.
 SVOA He got himself into trouble.
Multiple class membership
 She is preparing her family dinner.
 some verbs can belong to different classes
 some verbs can have different types of complementation
(e.g. the verb get can belong to all the types with the
exception of SV)
 complementation versus complement
 grammatically acceptable (correct) sentences
Subordination
 A subordinate clause may function as a sentence element
within a sentence (here nominal object clause):
Example:
I don’t know which boy is your best friend.
 A subordinate clause may function as a constituent of a
phrase, e.g. a relative clause as a postmodifier within a
noun phrase:
Example:
The boy (whom/that) we met yesterday is your best
friend.
Three structural classes of dependent
clauses:
 finite (I’ll come when I finish my work.)
 non-finite (I’ll come after finishing my work.)
 verbless (I’ll come as soon as possible.)
Coordination
 syndetic (coordinators are used)
 asyndetic (no coordinators)
 polysyndetic (a coordinator is repeatedly used)
 Examples:
Mary was running quickly and Petr was listening
to some music.
Mary was cooking, Petr was listening to some music.
Mary was cooking and Petr was listening to some
music and their mother was working in the garden.
Linkers
 coordinators (coordinating conjunctions)
 conjuncts (adverbials)
 subordinators (subordinating conjunctions)
 Examples:
Mary studied hard, but (she) failed.
Mary studied hard, yet (she) failed
Although Mary studied hard, she failed.
(Mary failed although she studied hard.)
Difference between coordination and
subordination
 Coordination = units are on the same syntactic level
(e.g. He worked hard, he failed/yet he failed/but he
failed.)
 Subordination = one unit is a constituent of a
superordinate unit (e.g. Although he worked hard, he
failed.)
Functions of subordinate clauses
 subject
 object
 complement
 adverbial
 modifiers within sentence elements
Four major categories of subordinate
clauses
 nominal clauses (subject, object, complement,
apposition)
 adverbial clauses (adverbial, A-element)
 relative clauses (modifier)
 comparative clauses (modifier)
Examples of four major categories of subordinate
clauses
 nominal clause:
I don’t know what has happened. (object)
What has happened is not important. (subject)
 adverbial clause:
If you come in time, I’ll help you. (condition)
 relative clause:
We met Barbara, who invited us to her party.
(non-restrictive)
 comparative clause:
Jane is happier than her sister (is).
Simple coordination
 coordination in which a single clause or clause element is
linked to others that are parallel in meaning, function and
mostly in form
 conjoin + conjoin = conjoint
My brother and my father are ready to go out.
My brother is happy and my father is ready to go out.
My brother and my father are happy and ready to go
out.
Types of simple coordination
 c. of clauses (David was reading a book and Mary was
watching TV.)
 c. of predicates and predications (He walks slowly and
speaks quickly. He can read and write.)
 c. of noun phrases and their constituents (my house and that
new cottage of theirs)
 c. within noun phrases (young and clever people)
Coordination of noun phrases
 combinatory coordination:
(e.g. Jim and Mary are a pleasant couple.
Jim and Mary look after each other properly.)
 segregatory coordination:
(e.g. Jim and Mary are young. = Both Jim and Mary
are young.
Jim and Mary look after themselves properly. = Jim
looks after himself and Mary looks after herself
properly.)
Complex coordination
 coordination in which the conjoins are combinations of
units rather than single units
 usually requires a strong parallelism between the conjoins
a/ each conjoin consists of contiguous elements and
the conjoins are combined in F position (He gave me a book
and her a picture.)
b/ conjoins are not in F position (John likes, but Mary
hates, swimming.)
Gapping
 a type of complex coordination in which a second or
subsequent conjoin contains a medial ellipsis, so that
the elements in these conjoins are not contiguous
e.g. One boy has written a poem and the other E a short
story. = SVO and S(V)O
Postmodification
Restrictive relative clauses
The boy that/who is playing the piano.
The boy (who(m)/that) we met.
The table that/which stands in the corner.
The table (which/that) we admire.
Nonrestrictive relative clauses (Note: The loose nonrestrictive
relationship is often semantically indistinguishable from
coordination or adverbial subordination)
Then we met Barbara, who invited him to a party/and she
invited him to a party.
He got lost on Snowdon, which he was exploring/while he was
exploring it.
Sentential relative clauses
This type has as its antecedent not a NP but a whole
clause or sentence or even sequence of sentences.
He admires Mrs Brown, which surprises me/which I find
strange.
Appositive clauses
The appositive clause resembles the relative clause in being
capable of introduction by that, and in distinguishing
between restrictive and nonrestrictive. It differs in that
the particle that is not an element in the clause structure
(e.g. S, O) as it must be in a relative clause, and the head
of the NP must be an abstract noun such as fact,
proposition, reply, remark, answer, and the like.
Examples:
A message that he would be late arrived by special
delivery.
This fact, that that is obligatory, should be easy to
remember.
Apposition
Two or more NPs are in apposition when they have
identity of reference. The appositives may be juxtaposed,
separated, the apposition may be indicated by a
conjunction or by forms such as that is and namely, e.g.
A professional singer, someone trained in Paris, had been
engaged for the concert.
His birthday present lay on the table, a book on history, the
work of his professor.
Linguistics or the study of language attracts many
students.
The outcome, that is her re-election, was a complete
surprise.