DOCUMENT RESUME
ED 460 839 SE 062 663
AUTHOR Thompson, Malcolm H.; Rameau, Jonathan D.
TITLE Stephen Hawking's Universe. Teacher's Guide.
INSTITUTION Thirteen WNET, New York, NY.; Public Broadcasting Service,
Washington, DC.
SPONS AGENCY Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, New York, NY.; Arthur Vining
Davis Foundations, Miami, FL.; Corporation for Public
Broadcasting, Washington, DC.
PUB DATE 1997-00-00
NOTE 13p.; Also made possible by AMGEN. "Stephen Hawking's
Universe" is a Thirteen/WNET/Uden Associates/David Filkin
Enterprises coproduction with BBC-TV. Videotape not
available from ERIC.
AVAILABLE FROM Educational Publishing, Thirteen-WNET, 356 W. 58th Street,
New York, NY 10019. Tel: 212-560-2888; Web site:
http://www.wnet.org; Web Site: http://www.pbs.org. For full
text: http://www.pbs.org/wnet/hawking/tguide.pdf.
PUB TYPE Guides Classroom Teacher (052)
EDRS PRICE MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
DESCRIPTORS Astronomy; Earth Science; Educational Television; Higher
Education; *Matter; Nuclear Physics; Physics; Science
Activities; Science Education; *Scientific Concepts;
Scientific Principles; Secondary Education; Solar System;
Space Exploration; *Space Sciences; *Stars; Teaching Guides
IDENTIFIERS Big Bang Theory; Black Holes; *Cosmology; *Hawking (Stephen)
ABSTRACT
This program guide is meant to help teachers assist ,their
students in viewing the six-part pubic television series, "Stephen Hawking's
Universe." The guide features program summaries that give background
information and brief synopses of the programs; previewing activities that
familiarize students with the subject; vocabulary that gives definitions of
the terms used in each program; postviewing activities that require students
to use mathematics, research, and writing skills to examine issues and ideas
discussed in the program; biographies of important figures in the history of
cosmology; and Web sites on related topics. The first program in this series,
"Seeing is Believing," shows the radical revisions that have taken place in
cosmology over the last two thousand years. The second, "The Big Bang,"
describes the controversies surrounding the big bang theory. The third,
"Cosmic Alchemy," examines theories concerning the evolution of matter. The
fourth, "On the Dark Side," views the role that cold, dark matter plays in
the universe. The fifth, "Black Holes and Beyond," discusses the enigmatic
objects that result from a star's catastrophic gravitational collapse. The
final program, "An Answer to Everything," examines scientists' attempts to
develop a complete theory of how the universe works. (WRM)
Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made
from the original document.
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U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
attics of Educational Research and Improvement
EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION
CENTER (ERIC)
Th document has been reproduced as
received from the person or organization
originating it.
O Minor changes have been made to
improve reproduction quality.
Points of view or opinions stated in this
document do not necessarily represent
official OERI position or policy.
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Stephen Hawking's Universe and this
guide are made possible by:
Alfred P Sloan Foundation
The Arthur Vining Davis Foundations
The Corporation for Public Broadcasting
Public television stations
AMGEN
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Acknowledgments
This guide was produced by
Mittin.wnet
Educational Resources Center
Ruth Ann Burns, Director
Project Director: Robert A.Miller
Supervising Editor: David Reisman, Ed.D.
Design/Art Direction: vanOs
*Graphics: JustM Malko
Writers: Malcolm It Thompson
Jonathan D. Rameau
Photo Researcher: Christina L. Draper
cop,: Editor and Proofreader:
Shanbon Rothenberger
Idviser: Roe Gould, Education Analyst.
Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory
Stephen Hawking's Universe is a
ThirteenAVNET/Uden Associates/David Filkin
Enterprises coproduction in association
with BBC-Tv.
Stephen Hawking's Universe
and this guide are made possible bv:
Alfred R Sloan Foundation
The Arthur Vining Davis Foundations
'the Corporation for Public Broadcasting
Public television stations
AMGEN
Copyright © 1997 ThirteenAVNET
Ordering Information
Stcpben Hawkingls Universe is available
on videocassette from PBS I I ome Video.
To order, call 1-800-645-4727.
To purchase for educational use,
call 1-800-424-7963.
. A companion bookVephen Hawking's
Universe: The Casinos Evplained
be David Filkin, the series producer and
a fellow student of I lawking at Oxford, is
availabk!at bookstores for $30.
Published bv,Basic Books.
Videotaping Rights
Off-air taping rights of Stephen Hawking:s
Universe are available to educators for One
year folltiwing each broadcast release.
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introduction
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What is our place in the universe? What existed at the beginning
of space and time? Where did the universe come from and
where is it headed?
Throughout history, imaginative mathematicians and scientists
have sought the answers to these fundamental questions.
Copernicus, Galileo, Newton, Einstein, Hubble, and others used
direct observation, reasoning, applied mathematics, and new
technologies to overturn ideas about cosmology that were once
deemed fundamental truths. Their breakthroughs reshaped science's
understanding of the nature and structure of the universe.
Their work, and that of other important cosmologists,
not only provided new explanations of the universe, but also
raised seemingly paradoxical questions. Did the vast variety and
mass of matter that make up the cosmos evolve from nothing
but energy? If so, where did the energy that created all of the
matter in the universe come from?
The history of cosmology is a detective story in which each discovery
leads to even more puzzles. Yet each step brings scientists
closer to cosmology's ultimate goal a single theory that
takes into account all the forces shaping the universe.
Stephen Hawking's Universe is a six-part public television
series that invites viewers to take part in this voyage of discovery.
Hosted by renowned Cambridge University mathematics
professor Stephen Hawking, the program features noted
astronomers, mathematicians, cosmologists, and physicists who
provide an overview of the history of cosmology and the contemporary
challenges faced by astronomers.
The first program in Stephen Hawking's Universe, "Seeing is
Believing," shows the radical revisions that have taken place in
cosmology in the last two thousand years. The second, "The
Big Bang," describes the controversies surrounding the big
bang theory. The third, "Cosmic Alchemy," examines theories
concerning the evolution of matter. The fourth, "On the Dark
Side," looks at the role that cold, dark matter plays in the universe.
The fifth, "Black Holes and Beyond," discusses the enigmatic
objects that result from a star's catastrophic gravitational
collapse. The final program, "An Answer to Everything," examines
scientists' attempts to develop a complete theory of how
the universe works.
g How to Use This Guide
g This teacher's guide offers the following components:
? Program summaries that give background information and
? brief synopses of the programs;
; Previewing activities that familiarize students with the subject;
; Vocabulary that pies definitions of terms used in each pro?
gram;
? Postviewing activities that correspond to the program viewed,
? and require students to use mathematics, research and writ-
?
9 ing skills to examine issues and ideas discussed in Stephen
Hawking's Universe;
; Biographies of important figures in the history of cosmology;
; and
g Web sites on related topics.
4
9
Please Note: Each page in this guide can be photocopied and
distributed to students before viewing a program, or can be
used as background information for developing lessons. Please
tailor the use of these materials to meet your classroom needs.
Stephen Hawking's Universe can be used in both mathematics
and science classes. We encourage you to share these materials
with your colleagues.
contents
"Seeing is Believing" 2
"The Big Bang"
"Cosmic Alchemy" 4
"On the Dark Side" 5
"Black Holes and Beyond" 6
"An Answer to Everything" 7
Biographies 8
seein is believing
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I> Program Summary
From the dawn of civilization, humans have struggled to understand
the nature of the universe. The ancients sought answers
a)
from pure reason limited by beliefs in gods and an earth-cencri
tered universe. Eratosthenes's determination of the earth's
radius and Ptolemy's system of planetary motion shed no light
LLI
on more fundamental issues. In the Renaissance, Copernicus,
Kepler, Galileo, and Newton sparked a revolution in thought.
O
c.)
They added measurement and the concept of universal physical
law to reason and supposition. Science was born, initiating discoveries
which, in 1927, brought Edwin Hubble to a California
mountaintop observatory with the right question and the means
to answer it. The interpretation of his results was astounding:
the entire universe was expanding from an explosive moment
of creation the big bang.
Vocabulary
universe: the totali01 of all things.
geocentric universe: an earth-centered model of the universe.
heliocentric (adverse: a sun-centered model of the universe.
Before Viewing the Program
Divide into groups of three, each group taking responsibility
for researching the individuals on one of the lists below (some
groups will have the same list). Each member of the class
should research the dates and major achievements of one person
on the list. Present your findings to the class. What do the
people on the list have in common? What do the lists have in
common? What is different about the historical periods represented
by each list (Greek, Renaissance, modern)?
List 1 List 2
Eratosthenes Ptolemy
Magellan Copernicus
Yuri Gegerin Hubble
List 3
Aristotle
Newton
Einstein
Each member of the class can also research the achievements
of Galileo. Discuss what he has in common with the people on
each of the lists.
Those who researched Eratosthenes can do the earth-measur'ng
activity in advance and then act as mentors for a whole
class activity before or after viewing the program.
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Activity a
Eratosthenes (276-194 BO measured the circumference of the
earth using an ingenious technique. You can use this technique
today with modern data.
C)
1) On a piece of lined paper
draw two intersecting lines.
2) With a protractor measure
the angle each drawn line
makes with one of the parallel
printed lines. The lines
represent parallel rays of sun-
light.
3) Subtract one angle from the
other.
4) Now measure the angle where the two drawn lines intersect.
It should equal the difference between the two angles.
5) Make a general statement describing your findings.
Activity b
The sun's rays are parallel. Below are data taken when the sun
was highest in the sky on August 1st in Omaha, NE and in Tulsa,
OK, 355 miles directly to the south. In both cities a stick was
driven straight into the ground, and the angle that the sun's
parallel rays made with the top of each stick determined. The
sticks are extensions of the earth's radii. From the data and
knowledge that there are 360 degrees in a circle, you can use a
simple algebraic equation to calculate the circumference of the
earth,
parallel rays
of sunlight
23.4° Il 18.25°
stick stick
low
OMAHA 355-mile arc TULSA
23.4° 18.25°
Web Sites
Galileo: http://www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/history/Mathematiclans/Gailleo.htmil
Newton: http:// ovww-groups.dcs.st-ancLac.uk/hlstory/Mathematiclans/Hewton.htmi
Einsteln: http:// Ingwve-gromps.dcs.st-anaLuc.uk/history/Mathematiclans/Ehrostein.htmll
Nubble: ihuttp:// www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/history/Mathematicians/Hubble.htnti
5
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Vocabulary
astvonomy: the study of the universe beyond the earth.
cosffuogogy: the study of the large scale structure and origin of the
universe.
Program Summary
Many scientists of the early 20th century, including Albert
Einstein, found the idea of an expanding universe with an
abrupt origin unpalatable. They viewed the universe as static
and eternal. Ironically, the most vocal advocate of the expanding
universe was Father LaMaitre of the Roman Catholic
Church, the institution that had once strenuously resisted
Galileo's ideas. Were the same human constraints that plagued
earlier astronomers present in modern times? To a certain
extent they were, but now there was a difference. All scientists
agreed that the controversy could only be settled by direct and
precise measurements. What measurements? For almost 40
years a debate raged until Robert Dicke proposed that the big
bang would have produced a flash of light still present everywhere
as a glow of radio waves. In 1965 Arno Penzias and
Robert Wilson unmistakably found that glow, now called the
Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR). The debate
was over. Our universe, the totality of all things, had a fiery
beginning about 15 billion years ago.
Before Viewing the Program
In preparation for the viewing of "The Big Bang," discuss what
you believe about an origin to the totality of all things. In viewing
the program, try to identify the fundamental nature of the
debate described. How was the controversy settled?
After Viewing the Program
Continue discussing the origins and the history of our view of
the universe. Hold a conversation on the Hubble measurements
and their interpretation. Then do the following activity and discuss
the 15-billion year result. This result assumes that the
galaxies have been traveling at a constant velocity. What if gravity
has been slowing them down? (The universe would appear to
be younger than calculated in the activity.)
Activity
Between Newton and Hubble, astronomers came to realize that
the sun was not in the center of the universe. It was just one of
billions of stars in our galaxy. Then Hubble found that our
galaxy was one of billions of galaxies in the universe. With his
colleagues, he also found that every other galaxy was speeding
away from us, and that the speed seemed to be proportional to
its distance. That is, if one galaxy is twice as far away as another,
it is moving twice as fast, three times as far, three times as
fast, and so on. This leads to a startling conclusion. You can
arrive at the same conclusion by looking at the following data.
I Distance (light years) Speed (lot years/year)
1 30,000,000 0.002
60,000,000 0.004
90,000,000 0.006
If we know how far an object is away from us, and how fast it
is speeding away, then we can calculate how long ago it left our
neighborhood. We do it by dividing the distance by the speed.
Do it now for all three galaxies. Record your results. Hubble
believed that the universe, of which our galaxy is a part, was in
a general state of expansion. From a result similar to yours, the
big bang origin of the universe was conceived. Write a brief
paragraph on how your result could lead to the idea of a
beginning of the universe at a single point in time.
Web Sites
MAP Untroduction to Cosmology Page: http://man.gsfc.nasa.gov/htmVareb_site.html
Cosmology and the Big Bang: http://csenl.phy.onffilgoviguldvy/vlolence/cosonology.htm0
A 6
cosmic alchemy0 0 0 0 0 0
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Vocabulary
Otot big bang: theory supported by Edwin Hubble that the universe
originated at a single point in space and time.
egoactevecepan a device that divides light into its component
wavelengths (colors), used to determine the chemical makeup of a distant
object.
I> Program Summary
What is the universe and everything in it made of? Where does
it all come from, and how do we know? Discoveries in the late
19th century revealed that the entire observable universe is
made of the same elements as those on earth. With knowledge
of the dual nature of matter and energy, scientists began to fit
the pieces of the macroscopic and microscopic world together.
This program covers the discovery of the nature of matter, its
initial creation from the primordial conditions in the big bang,
the building up of elements in stars, and the way this might
affect the end of the universe.
Before Viewing the Program
Discuss the question of the elemental composition of the universe.
How do we know what elements are in the universe? Do
the spectroscopy activity and focus on the identification of elements
from a distance. If the matter is glowing (a star), we can
determine its composition.
The same laws governing atoms on the earth permeate
throughout the universe, just as gravity does. These are the fundamental
assumptions of modern astronomy. They allow us to
theoretically apply the results of experiments here on earth to
the entire universe.
compact disk
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Activity
Each element gives off a unique pattern of light colors (wavelengths)
by which it can be identified. Scientists use a device
called a diffraction grating to observe the pattern. Its surface is
similar to the reflective surface of a CD, except the grooves are
parallel. You can see the component wavelengths of light by
holding a CD at just the right angle you see a rainbow. You
can actually analyze some light sources in the following way.
First, cut a slit in a piece of dark construction paper about 2
millimeters wide and 3 centimeters long. Holding a CD under
the slit paper at about a 30 degree angle (some adjustment
needed), you will see a spectrum (rainbow) reflected on the
CD. The spectrum you get depends upon the light source. Point
it at the sun or at a normal incandescent light, and you will see
a continuous spectrum. If you point it at neon signs in store
windows, you will see the line spectrum of whatever gas or
gases are in the tubes (except for red, most have mercury for
brilliance).
dark paper
with thin (1-2mm) slit
light source
Web Sites
WebEeements: http://www.sheff.ac.uir/arni/academic/A-C/cheno/web-ellements/weir-eiements-home.htoug
What is the Periodic Law and how was it forrnallated?: hictp://edie.cprost.sfor.ca/-qhflogan/perriodlic.htoni
A Littie Nut: http://www.nmission.cona/dparber/nnelears.htorol
The Day the Universe Went Runny:
hittpr://www2.nesn.edu/annity/Ilockers/usersiff/feider/pnbilic/benny/papers/relativity.htmi
4 \
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on the dark si
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Vocabulary
dark [Antler: matter in space known to exist only from indirect
observation of its gravitational effects.
radio telescope: device used to collect radio waves a nonvisible
form of light emitted by distant objects.
Program Summary
According to the observational research of Vera Rubin on the
velocities of stars around galaxies, there is a great deal of matter
exerting a gravitational force that we simply cannot see.
This matter appears to be of an entirely different nature from
the ordinary matter we experience, observe, and interact with
in everyday life. There is no spectral evidence of its presence.
This "dark matter" makes up roughly 90 percent of the stuff in
the universe, and it has important gravitational implications for
the future of the universe. Specifically, will the universe keep
expanding forever, or will it someday stop and start collapsing
upon itself on the way to a big crunch? Perhaps there is just
enough matter for the expansion to be halted by gravity, but not
enough to collapse. For science there are two problems here:
What is the mysterious dark matter? How much of it is there?
Before Viewing the Program
1. Here are the levels of organization of observable matter in
the universe.
1. subatomic particles
2. atomic nucleus
3. atom
4. molecule
5. planets or stars
6. solar systems
7. galaxies
8. galaxy clusters
9. galaxy superclusters
Do research in pairs on each with regard to size and the force
holding the matter together.
After Viewing the Program
Do the following activity to examine the dark matter problem in
galaxies. What Vera Rubin found was that even beyond the edge
of the galaxies, velocity was constant, indicating large amounts
of unseen mass.
de
Activity
The velocity of an orbiting object is controlled by the amount of
matter (mass) within the orbit and the radius of the orbit: the
greater the mass, the more gravity, the higher the velocity. The
greater the radius of the orbit from the center, the lower the
velocity. This relationship is described by Newton's equation
Vorb = R
where Vorb is orbital velocity, M is mass, G is the constant of
gravity, and R is the radius (distance) from the center. More
than 99 percent of the mass in the solar system is concentrated
in the sun. Therefore, the sun's gravity controls the orbital
speeds of the planets. Here is a graph of the orbital speeds of
the planets against the distance of the sun.
planet velocity vs. distance
real solar system
0 20 40
radius
Within the whirling disk of the galaxy the velocities of orbiting
stars remain roughly constant with increasing distance from the
center. This is because the mass of the galaxy is spread out (as
R increases, M increases as well because more and more
mass is included in the orbits.) But when we come to the edge
of the visible mass in the galaxy, we expect the orbital velocity
of outlying stars and satellite dwarf galaxies to get smaller. Vera
Rubin found that that was not the case.
II 5 5
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Using the equation and your knowledge of dark matter, propose
an explanation for the observed high orbital velocities.
Web Sites
561 Primer on Dark Matter: http://csepl.phy.oragoviguldrry/viollence/darkmatter.hami
Cosmic Nide and Seek: The Search for Missing Klass: http://wIrrw.ganet/cmonliller/drkmter.htmll
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Vocabulary
hiack hole: gravitationally collapsed object from which not even light(i)
can escape.
quasar: stands for "quasi-stellar" object; energetic galactic nuclei.
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black holes and beyond
> Program Summary
The universe is a strange and violent place, full of regions
spewing out energy on an unimaginable scale and objects so
massive not even light can escape from them. With the discovery
of quasars (extremely luminous, compact objects in the
hearts of ancient galaxies), the picture of the universe became
more complex. Though the mechanism responsible for such
enormous outputs of energy is not completely established, one
answer was found in a part of Einstein's theory of relativity
black holes, specifically supermassive black holes at the centers
of distant galaxies. These objects consume enormous
amounts of matter. As the matter falls inward, it releases a large
amount of observable energy. Einstein didn't think black holes
were possible, despite the fact that his own theory implied their
existence. Robert Oppenheimer thought otherwise and set out
to prove the presence of collapsed stars so massive not even
light can escape them. Black holes seem to be a reality.
Before Viewing the Program
Black holes are so strange, they almost seem to be from science
fiction. While understanding the details of space and time
in the neighborhood of a black hole requires knowledge of
general relativity, their essence is relatively easy to grasp.
Review the introduction to the black hole activity, then do a
thought experiment. "Suppose, in our imaginations, we
squeeze the earth down to half its present radius. What
happens to the surface gravity? What happens to the
velocity required to escape?" They both increase. Now
squeeze it to half again, and again. At some radius the
velocity required to escape will exceed the velocity of
light (c). The earth will be a black hole.
Artist's
illustration of
matter from a
red giant star
being pulled
toward a black
hole.
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Activity
Any mass, if squeezed down small enough, can become a black
hole. To make the earth into a black hole it would have to be
squeezed down to a radius of .86 centimeters, about half the
size of a golf ball. To calculate the radius of the black hole for
the mass of the earth, the equation used is:
o 2MG
UV=Er
where for the earth Me=5.8*1027grams, G=6.67*104,
Re=6.4*11.08cm and c=3*lircm/sec.
If you could weigh a thimbleful of the black hole/earth, how
much would it weigh?
Classical physics predicts that the radius of a black hole
increases in exact porportion to an increase in mass (if an
object is twice the mass of the earth, it would have twice the
earth's black hole radius). What would the black hole radius of
the sun be, given its mass of 334,672.02 units of earth mass?
At the center of each galaxy, a black hole with a mass of a million
to a billion (106-109) times the mass of the sun is believed
to reside. What black hole radius would such massive objects
have? There are 160,000 centimeters in a mile.
The radius of our solar system is roughly 690" centimeters,
or about 3.75*109 miles. How do the radii of these massive
black holes compare to the radius of the solar system?
Web Sites
What Feeds the Monster?: http://zehm.moregon.edao/9.996/0123/coso.htm0
Hanhhie Surveys the "Nome" off Quasars: http://www.ns4ali.nipwcarDhopiquasars.html
Beyond the Event Horizon: An Ontroduction to Black NoOes: http://bradOey.hradiey.edan/dware/hlkhole.html
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Vocabulary
quantum mechanics: themy describing the properties of the atomic
and subatomic particles.
relativity: Einstein's themy of space and time describing gravity and
the large scale operation of the universe.
Program Summary
Scientists generally agree on the big bang origin of the universe
as we see it today. Fifteen billion years ago there was a momentous
event whose nature is uncertain. But as we track the
expansion backward, toward that moment of seeming creation,
the details blur. Is our universe a minor event in an endless
series of universes (or multiverses)? Our physics seem inadequate
to explain the early times in a way that is consistent with
the conditions existing today. That is a crucial requirement of
science no gaps should exist in the cause-and-effect chain
linking two moments in a physical history. If our physics fails,
understanding on the most fundamental level weakens; we have
a crisis in science. New tentative and remarkable theories uniting
relativity and quantum mechanics have been proposed
inflation theory and superstring theory. They are strange, not
yet worked out, but seem to shed light on the earliest times.
They hold the promise of providing a simple and elegant way to
explain everything in universe and how it all works.
Before Viewing the Program
Discuss the following: If all the matter and energy in the universe
are packed into a very small volume, the result fits the
characteristic profile of a black hole. Then how could it expand?
(While physicists have been able to explain this using mathematics,
there is no simple, clear verbal explanation for it yet.)
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Activity
Select one or more of the topics below, and write an essay on
the topic, citing examples from Stephen Hawking's Universe.
1. Nature stands mute on itself; progress toward explaining
even the simplest process in the universe begins with a proposal.
Describe the role of imagination in science in general
and in the history of cosmology in particular.
2. What makes science, science? As bizarre theories on the
early history and ultimate fate of the universe appear, some
have asked if physics is moving toward metaphysics.
Describe the role of measurement in science and why it
applies to all new views of the universe.
3. Mathematics is an abstract subject. But from Galileo and
Newton to today's cosmologists, advances toward understanding
the fundamental aspects of the real universe could
not have been made without mathematics. Describe the role
of mathematics in science in general and how it connects to
the real physical world.
Select all of the above topics and, incorporating the notions of
observation and/or experiment, describe how science is done.
Hourglass nebula
Web Sites
Measnvement in Quantum Mechanics FAQ: http://terwmantnonath.cono/faq/rneas-cgrn.htord
Beyond the mg Bang: http://www2.acri.net/home/odenwaid/anthoi/beyondbb.htmi
Mathematical Breakteuroughs Establish God's Extva-Dianensionai
http://www.sarff.corn/..westley/405ffaff/4q95donsn.htndl
Superstrring Theory: http://matur.lassin.comeli.edu/GradnefiteAdmissions/greene/greene.htoni
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iographies
Hicoieus Copernicus
Copernicus, born February 19, 1473
in Tomb, Poland, first proposed that
the sun, rather than the earth, was at
the center of the universe. This revolutionary
idea completely contradicted
the teachings of the Roman
Catholic Church, which dominated
scholarly and religious thought in
Europe at the time. His proposal was
suppressed. Copernicus's heliocentric universe (pictured) was
a giant leap forward in our understanding of our place in the
cosmos. He died May 24, 1543 in Poland.
Geliieo Genial
Galileo, born February 15, 1564 in Pisa,
Italy, helped bring Copernicus's heliocentric
universe into wide acceptance,
despite the protests of the church. Using
the recently invented telescope, he discovered
the phases of Venus, the
cratered and mountainous surface of the
moon, Jupiter's moons, and sunspots. He
used these observations to support the
Copernican view, for which he faced the
Inquisition. Galileo's application of
mathematics to describe the motion of objects was seminal in
setting the course of modern science. He died under house
arrest January 8, 1642.
Sir iseac Newton
Almost exactly one year after Galileo died in Italy, Sir Isaac
Newton was born January 4, 1643 in England. He is considered
to be the founder of modern science. Newton engaged in a
wide range of experimental and theoretical activities, including
mathematics, optics, the nature of light, alchemy, and the creation
of a set of laws to describe motion. His crowning achievement
was his law of universal
gravitation. He proposed that the
same gravity causing objects to
fall on the earth held the moon
in orbit. Then he made the great
conceptual leap: that the laws of
physics were the same every,
where in the universe. He died
March 31, 1727 in England.
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Albert Einstein
Einstein, born March 14, 1879, is
most famous for his general theory of
relativity and the equation E=mc2.
Published in 1915, it proposed a new
way to look at gravity and the operations
of the universe on a large scale
in relation to space and time. In addition
to his theories of special and general
relativity, he also established the quantum nature of light,
for which he received the Nobel Prize in 1921. His theories
changed our view of the universe from that of the Newtonian
"straight line" physics to that of a curved, warped space-time
with many bizarre implications. He ended his career at
Princeton University and died on April 18, 1955. Until the end
of his life he was devoted to discovering a theory that could
describe everything in the universe, large and small, but he
never realized this dream.
Edwin Hubble
Edwin Hubble was born November 20, 1889. His contributions
to our understanding of the universe came in two parts. He was
the first to determine by precise measurement the distances of
galaxies, establishing that they were great but comparable
galaxies in their own right, not objects in the Milky Way. With
colleagues he went on to measure the velocities of these galaxies
and found that they were all moving away from us. The further
away a galaxy was, the faster it
moved. This velocity-to-distance ratio
was a straight-line proportion. Using
Einstein's prediction that nothing in
the universe can move faster than the
speed of light, he arrived at the conelusion
that at some point in space
and time there was a physical beginning
to the universe, the big bang,
and that the universe had been
expanding ever since. Hubble Space Telescope
He found the velocities of the galaxies to be in exact proportion
to their distances, which he interpreted as evidence of the general
expansion of the universe. Looking backward in time, one
arrives at the inescapable conclusion that all the matter in the
universe was concentrated at a single point. Hubble's work
underlies all of modern theory of cosmology. He died
September 28, 1953.
11
Meipt 3D Ilawkfing
Stephen Hawking was born January 8,
1942 in Oxford, England, into a scientific
family; his father was a prominent
research biologist. He decided early to
enter science but rejected biology for
mathematics and physics. After receiving
his bachelor's degree from Oxford,
Hawking briefly considered a career in
astronomy but resolved instead to
study cosmology at Cambridge. He was
drawn to cosmology he has said, because it asked "the really
big question: Where did the Universe come from?"
While studying at Cambridge, Hawking developed amyotrophic
lateral sclerosis, more commonly known as Lou Gehrig's disease.
The illness attacks and disables skeletal muscles and
affects such basic functions as speech and swallowing. Today
Hawking depends on a motorized wheelchair for mobility and,
because a tracheotomy injured his vocal chords, "speaks"
through a voice-processing program that responds to words he
keys into a specialized portable computer.
He received his Ph.D. from Cambridge in 1966 and collaborated
with his colleague, Roger Penrose, to refine the mathemati-
,
cal approach to black holes they had already developed.
Working alone, with Penrose, and with other collaborators,
Hawking developed a series of papers on related topics, such
as the beginning of time and the theory of "supergravity," which
has clarified certain issues surrounding the development of the
so-called grand unified theory the "theory of everything." The
discovery in the past few years of apparent black holes (including
one at the center of our own Milky Way galaxy) have helped
to focus public attention on Hawking's work.
Professor Stephen Hawking holds the post of Lucasian
Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge, a chair once held by
Isaac Newton. His calculations regarding the nature of black
holes collapsed stars so massive they absorb whatever light
they emit and devour the matter that surrounds them are
generally acknowledged to have increased science's understanding
of how the universe began and to have advanced the
prospect of a unified field theory that will unite the interactions
of the four basic forces in the universe.
His 1988 book, A Brief History of Time, sold more than eight
million copies worldwide. Stephen Hawking has received many
honors, including the Albert Einstein Award and the Maxfield
Medal.
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