Introduction: The Geographically Informed Person The twenty-foot EarthView globe on display in the Massachusetts State House offers students and legislators alike an enlarged spatial perspective of the world - from inside and out. The world facing the high school graduates of 2025 will be even more crowded than the world of today. The physical environment will be even more threatened. The global economy will be even more competitive and interconnected. Understanding and responding to the challenges and opportunities of the world in the twenty-first century will require many skills; the capacities to think and communicate mathematically and scientifically will remain at a premium. Geographic literacy will also be necessary for reasons of enhancing economic competitiveness, preserving quality of life, sustaining the environment, and ensuring national security. As individuals and as members of society, humans face decisions on where to live, what to build where, how and where to travel, how to conserve energy, how to wisely manage scarce resources, and how to cooperate or compete with others. Making all of these decisions, personal and collective, requires a geographically informed person—someone who sees meaning in the arrangement of things on Earths surface, who sees relations between people, places, and environments, who uses geographic skills, and who applies spatial and ecological perspectives to life situations. Geographic skills enable a person to understand the connections between patterns of rivers and the physical processes that create them, between patterns of cities and the human processes that create them, and between what happens in the places in which we live and what happens in places throughout the world, near and far. The goal of the National Geography Standards is to enable students to become geographically informed through knowledge and mastery of three things: (1) factual knowledge; (2) mental maps and tools; (3) and ways of thinking. As with any discipline, geography is built on a basis of factual knowledge; we must know what is located where and the characteristics of places and environments. This knowledge is a prerequisite. Without rich mental maps of the world, we cannot put people and places into their human and environmental contexts. To this base of factual knowledge are added the concepts that allow the geographically informed person to understand the context of world events, i.e., why and how an event occurs where it does. For example, during the first decade of the twenty-first century, for the first time in human history, more than 50 percent of the world's population lived in urban areas. In the future, increasing numbers of people will live in megacities, which are dense urban concentrations of over 10 million people. To understand the rapid growth of megacities in South Asia, an understanding is required of the connections among subsistence farming, population growth rates, rural-to-urban migration, infrastructure, comparative economic advantage, and factors of production. Factual knowledge and concepts are brought together by the tools and ways of thinking characteristic of geography. For example, to understand the possible effects of global climate change on coastal areas in Florida, the geographically informed person must understand rates of sea level rise. Maps of the elevation of coastal areas above sea level, together with maps of population distribution and density, and maps of critical parts of the infrastructure (e.g., schools, hospitals, interstate highways) are needed. Modeling of the effects of storm surges from hurricanes of varying intensities is required. In all of these steps, maps, graphs, and tables are used to analyze data. Effects at the local scale (e.g., on the Florida Keys) and statewide effects on such things as beaches, roads, and power lines are considered. Thinking geographically brings together ideas about space with graphics to allow for the visualization of what might happen where, why, and how. The geographically informed person is prepared to meet the challenges of understanding what is happening in the world, why it is happening in a particular locale, how those things might change in the future, and how to make geographically informed and reasoned decisions. With a strong grasp of geography, people are better equipped to solve personal issues at the local level and collective issues at the global level. Geographic knowledge is invaluable. But geographic knowledge is important for other reasons. From an intellectual perspective, geography captures the imagination. It stimulates curiosity about the world and its diverse inhabitants and places, as well as about local, regional, and global issues. By understanding their own places in the world, people can overcome parochialism and ethnocentrism. Geography focuses attention on fascinating people and places, on things worth knowing because they are absorbing, and because knowing them enables people to make better-informed and wiser decisions. National Geography Standards, Second Edition Part I: 7 Introduction: The Geographically Informed Person Geography lets the geographically informed person put humans and Earth into context. It provides an ethical grounding for understanding the future of the planet. Life is fragile; people are fragile. Geography provides knowledge of Earth's physical and human systems and of the interdependency of living things and physical environments. That knowledge, in turn, provides a basis for people to cooperate in the best interests of the planet and the future. n the future, increasing numbers of people will live in megacities, which are dense urban concentrations of over 10 million people. Today more than 50 percent of the world's population live in urban areas contributing to the growth of megacities around the world. Sao Paulo, Brazil is a megaciiy with more than 11 million inhabitants and a growing metro area approaching 20 million people. National Geography Standards, Second Edition Parti: 8 1KB o -BüJ sb Uüi JLB aar us ieb xd 'jlb araanbeb uahjbsee heb um au iss auas in t knows and understands: Changes in Geographic Contexts 2. Places, regions, and environments change over time Therefore, the student is able to: A. Analyze how places, regions, and environments change over time, as exemplified by being able to ►Construct a time line illustrating changes in land use, settlement, housing, and economic activities in the local community or region (e.g., the effects of migration, demographic changes, economic conditions). ►Describe and analyze the change in the number of states in the United States and their boundaries. ►Describe how the physical environment of a county or state was changed by processes of forest clearing, damming of rivers, cultivation of fields, or land leveling. GRADE the student knows and understands: Changes in Geographic Contexts 2. Change occurs in the geographic characteristics and spatial organization of places, regions, and environments Therefore, the student is able to: A. Describe and explain changes in the geographic characteristics and spatial organizations of places, regions, and environments in the past, as exemplified by being able to ►Describe and compare population settlement patterns during different historical periods (e.g., discuss regional differences in colonial settlement patterns in North America, trace the westward expansion of the United States through land acquisitions and government incentives for land ownership). ►Analyze the changing patterns of spatial organization in an area that has been occupied by different cultures (e.g., the settlement of the Mexico City area by Aztecs, Spanish, and the modern Mexican State). ► Describe the changes in the spatial organization of cities over the past 100 years (e.g., the effects of suburbanization, freeway systems, public transit, skyscrapers, shopping malls). High in Peru's Andes Mountains, Machu Picchu was built by the Incas, possibly as a retreat for the emperor. It survived the Spanish decimation of the Inca Empire in the 1500s and then disappeared into the rainforest for over three centuries. It has since reemerged to become one of the most valuable indigenous archaeological and historical sites in South America. GRADE lite student knovjs and understands: Changes in Geographic Contexts 2. The causes and processes of change in the geographic characteristics and spatial organization of places, regions, and environments over time Therefore, the student is able to: A. Identify and explain the causes and processes of change in the geographic characteristics and spatial organization of places, regions, and environments over time, as exemplified by being able to ►Explain the diffusion of a phenomenon and the effects it had on regions of contact (e.g., the spread of diseases such as bubonic plague or species such as the African honey bee, diffusion of cell phone technology, the migration of urban dwellers to the suburbs in 20th-century United States, the spread of religious faiths). ►Explain the causes of and short- and long-term effects of migrations on the receiving and sending regions (e.g., the Great Migration of African Americans to the cities of the North, the move to "El Norte" of Mexicans and other Central Americans in 1900 to the present, the population shift out of the Dust Bowl in the 1930s). ►Analyze how technological changes in infrastructure have affected human activities in places, regions, and environments over time (e.g., the effects of processes of technological change, particularly suburbanization, through creation of an interstate highway system, development of the railroad spurring migration and influencing changes in land-use patterns with access to markets). National Geography Standards, Second Edition Part II: Standard 17: 89 Essential Element: The Uses of Geography GEOGRAPHY STANDARD 17: How to apply geography to interpret the past FQ GRADE rMlWiiiiWw tfle stuclent knows and understands: GRADE the student knows and understands: Perceptions of Geographic Contexts 3. People's perceptions of the world—places, regions, and environments—changed over time Therefore, the student is able to: A. Describe examples of people's changing perceptions of the world, as exemplified by being able to ►Describe how people might have perceived a place 50 or 100 miles away before the invention of the automobile, buses, or trains. ►Describe how the reports and maps of early nautical explorers changed people's perceptions of the world (e.g., the world was not flat, the sea did not drop off into nothingness, the world could be circumnavigated). ►Describe how people's perception of die environment changed over time from limitless exploitation to sustainability (e.g., pollution of rivers during industrialization, pollution of air or scarring of land from mining, depletion of American bison from overhunting). Perceptions of Geographic Contexts 3. Historical events were influenced by people's perceptions of places, regions, and environments Therefore, the student is able to: A. Explain how historical events were influenced by people's perceptions of people, places, regions, and environments, as exemplified by being able to ►Explain how geographic perceptions impacted decisions of and actions by an individual, a group, or a nation (e.g., the perception of land uses and its values leading to the creation and later dissolution of the Indian Territory in the United States, views held resulting in Australia initially being used as a penal colony, perceptions of desert regions as resource-poor changed when oil was discovered). ►Analyze and explain how letters, promotional literature, advertisements, and newspapers in the 19th century shaped public perceptions of the American West and led to its settlement. ►Explain how the perception of oceans as buffers on both coasts contributed to US isolationist foreign policy until 1898. GRADE the student knows and understands: Perceptions of Geographic Contexts 3. Historical events must be interpreted in the contexts of people's past perceptions of places, regions, and environments Therefore, the student is able to: A. Analyze and evaluate the role that people's past perceptions of places, regions, and environments played as historical events unfolded, as exemplified as being able to ►Describe the changes in perceptions about a group, place, or geographic feature and analyze the effects of those changes (e.g., opinions about the role of fires in national forests and parks, attitudes towards and therefore treatment of wetlands in the United States from 1700 to today, changes in attitudes about the characteristics of the Great Plains from the idea of the Great American Desert to the Dustbowl to the Breadbasket). ►Analyze die effects of changes in environmental perception on the decision-making processes (e.g., lamestown, Virginia, settlers perceived Virginia to be laden with gold and a continental climate conducive for settlement, African Americans migrating to the "Promised Land" of northern industrial centers to escape Jim Crow laws, Nevada's cities changing from desert outposts or silver mining boom towns to entertainment and golf resort destinations). ►Analyze and compare the changing perceptions of the tropical Latin American rainforests on the development policies towards their use (e.g., as a source of rubber and timber, as a barrier to transcontinental travel, as a home to indigenous populations, as a source of raw materials, as areas rich in biodiversity and in need of preservation, as a carbon sink). This 1851 "Map Of The Upper Great Plains And Rocky Mountains Region" by Pierre Jean De Smet shows the territories of various North American Indian nations and early boundaries for some US states. A growing US population and desire for a transcontinental railroad to the Pacific would contribute to changes in future boundaries. National Geography Standards, Second Edition Part II: Standard 17: 90 Essential.Element: The Uses of Geography GEOGRAPHY STANDARD 18: How to apply geography to interpret the present and plan for the future US Census data show the number of counties in the southern United States with a high median age. Data like these help urban planners anticipate services and infrastructure needed in a given location. Data source: US Census Bureau. Median Age | | 22.6 - 2B.3 Q^J 29.0 - 33.1 [:.;■;:] 33.2 - 35.6 35.7-37.B |H 37.9 - 40.5 BH406 -45-2 ||| 46.0-54.3 | Stale Borders The geographically informed person must understand that the study of geography is critical to understanding the world, now and in the future, and is not simply an exercise for its own sake. As the world becomes more complex and interconnected—as a result of globalization, improvements in transportation and communication technologies, changes in physical systems, and increased cooperation and conflict—the need for geographic knowledge, skills, and perspectives increases among the world's people. While Standard 17 focuses on the importance of geography to understanding the events of the past, Standard 18 emphasizes the value and power of geography in comprehending current events and planning for the future in geographically-appropriate and sustainable ways. Therefore, Standard 18 contains these themes: Using Geography to Interpret the Present and Plan for the Future, Changes in Geographic Contexts, and Perceptions of Geographic Contexts. Knowing geography is a key to nations, peoples, and individuals being able to develop a coherent understanding of the causes, meanings, and effects of the physical and human events that occur—and are likely to occur in the future—on Earth. Consequently, the practical application of geography empowers students to participate as responsible citizens and leaders of tomorrow. Creating effective, ethical, and lasting solutions to the world's problems requires that today's students mature into adults who can make skilled and informed use of geographic knowledge, skills, and perspectives to identify possible solutions, predict their consequences, and implement the appropriate solutions. Students must understand that the world in which they live is dynamic and that actions they take, both as individuals and collectively, can help to shape the future in both positive and negative ways. They also should understand that their perceptions of geographic contexts influence their decisions. Students must continually pose and answer geographic questions about the world in which they live and the world in which they wish to live. Geographic context plays an integral role in creating the world of the future. Understanding these themes enables students to solve significant problems, make informed decisions, and take positive action on a variety of issues. Pointing the way to London's future, a high-rise dormitory in "The City" contrasts sharply with the low-rise structures characterizing traditional neighborhoods. National Geography Standards, Second Edition Part II: Standard 18: 91 Essential Element: The Uses of Geography GEOGRAPHY STANDARD 18: How to apply geography to interpret the present and plan for the future FB GRADE ■■^B the student knows and understands: GRADE the student knows and understands: 12 GRADE the student knows and understands: Using Geography to Interpret the Present and Plan for the Future Using Geography to Interpret the Present and Plan for the Future Using Geography to Interpret the Present and Plan for the Future 1. Geographic contexts (the human and physical characteristics of places and environments) are the settings for current events Therefore, the student is able to: A. Analyze geographic contexts in which current events and issues occur, as exemplified by being able to ►Describe the geographic factors that would influence the decision on where to locate a new school in the local community (available land, proximity to student populations, proximity to dangerous roads or industries). ►Describe the services a city government needs to provide due to the specific geographic characteristics of the community (e.g., big snow removal equipment in lake-effect locations, frequent brake replacement for San Francisco streetcars, wind screens for tennis courts in Great Plains locations, evacuation plans in flood-prone areas). ►Analyze a current environmental issue in the region (e.g., building or demolishing a dam, building or expansion of freeway system, creation of parks and open spaces, regulatory legislation on industry to prevent further air, water, and land pollution) and describe ways in which people and the environment interact to affect the issue positively and negatively. National Geography Standards, Second Edition 1. Geographic contexts (the human and physical characteristics of places and environments) provide the basis for problem solving and planning Therefore, the student is able to: A. Describe and analyze the influences of geographic contexts on current events and issues, as exemplified by being able to ►Explain the role of the geographic context in a current global conflict (e.g., boundary dispute, resource allocation, land-use issues) and identify strategies that might be used to settle the conflict. ►Describe and analyze the challenges a region's physical geography offers in making policy decisions about present and future needs (e.g., planning military operations in remote or rugged areas of the world, determining the advisability of extracting natural resources from environmentally fragile areas). ►Describe the geographic context and resulting challenges in monitoring and maintaining a secure southern US border. B. Describe and analyze the influences of geographic contexts on the process of planning for the future, as exemplified by being able ►Identify areas in a community with potential for growth and describe the geographic considerations for planning for future transportation and city services (e.g., schools, parks, sewage treatment plants, water and energy services). ►Analyze areas of a community most prone to potential flooding from rivers, thunderstorms, and storm surges and suggest possible mitigation strategies. ►Analyze the current pattern of interstate highways and based on projections of population growth suggest where new highways might be needed. In Virginia Beach, Virginia, and cities everywhere, geography can be used by coastal populations in planning for evacuation and disaster preparedness. 1. Geographic contexts (the human and physical characteristics of places and environments) provide the basis for analyzing current events and making predictions about future issues Therefore, the student is able to: A. Explain and evaluate the influences of the geographic context on current events and issues to make informed decisions and predictions about the future, as exemplified by being able to ►Identify different views regarding contemporary social and environmental challenges and analyze the geographic factors influencing the stakeholders and their preferred policies (e.g., visions from local citizens about the relative importance of privacy versus security, opinions from residents of multiple states about a shared resource and about mechanisms for seeking resolution, viewpoints from around the world about relationships between economic development, resource consumption, population, and environmental alteration). ►Evaluate the current zoning policies for high-crime areas in a metropolitan area and predict changes in zoning and land use that may positively affect the community. ►Analyze the geographic consequences on different continents of strategies for responding to a global health pandemic (e.g., effects of closing international airports, quarantine of ships or cargoes, implementation of immunization plans for susceptible populations). B. Analyze and evaluate the connections between the geographic contexts of current events and possible future issues, as exemplified by being able to ►Evaluate the feasibility and long-range impacts in a scries of scenarios for dealing with social and environmental issues (e.g., absorbing and dispersing refugees, responding to threats from global warming, managing the future of Antarctica). ►Analyze the geographic implications of storing low-level nuclear material in a given state or region (e.g., suitability of sites, distribution of population, transportation network and routes). ►Analyze the effects of current rates of population growth on long-term sustainability in different regions of the world. Part II: Standard 18: 92 rjgmj QU jj jj jyym jyj hj qgyj |£ |y,mfejfeUl Ul HIB BE Hi-V Essential Element: The Uses of Geography GEOGRAPHY STANDARD 18: How to apply geography to interpret the present and plan for the future GRADE the student knows and understands: Changes in Geographic Contexts 2. Places, regions, and environments will continue to change Therefore, the student is able to: A. Describe current changes in places, regions, and environments and predict how these locations may be different in the future, as exemplified by being able to ►Describe how to plan for the environmental future of a place by completing the following statements: "I will keep...." "I will change...." and "I will remove..." ►Describe the effects that building a new subdivision might have on the local environment (e.g., loss of farms or green space, increased traffic, more run off from additional paved surfaces). ►Describe the effects of opening or closing schools (e.g., gain or loss of playgrounds, fewer or more students needing buses to get to school). GRADE the student knows and understands: Changes in Geographic Contexts 2. Change occurs in the geographic characteristics and spatial organization of places, regions, and environments Therefore, the student is able to: A. Describe and explain current changes in the geographic characteristics and spatial organizations of places, regions, and environments and predict how they may be different in the future, as exemplified by being able to ►Identify environmental issues in a region and describe the consequences of these issues on the region and the appearance of the environment in the next 30 years if no action is taken, limited action is taken, or with considerable intervention. ►Describe how the increasing demand for water resources will affect the physical environment and suggest ways to replenish and conserve water resources. ►Explain why the majority of emerging megacities will continue to be located in South and East Asia. 12 GRADE the student knows and understands: Changes in Geographic Contexts 2. The current and possible future causes and processes of change in the geographic characteristics and spatial organization of places, regions, and environments Therefore, the student is able to: A. Identify and explain the causes and processes of current and possible future changes in the geographic characteristics and spatial organization of places, regions, and environments, as exemplified by being able to ►Identify areas where people are engaged in nationalistic movements and analyze the potential of these groups to change the current political geographies of their nation states. ►Describe and explain the possible effects of new electronic communication technologies on everyday life (e.g., location-based services on purchasing, telecommuting on the demand for commercial real estate and traffic volume and patterns, outsourcing of technological services). ►Describe and explain the possible effects of new routes and technologies on world trade patterns (e.g., the effects of increasing the size of the Panama Canal, opening the route through the Arctic Ocean, the development of increasingly larger supertankers and cargo ships). Perceptions of Geographic Contexts 3. People's perceptions of the world—places, regions, and environments—are constantly changing Therefore, the student is able to: A. Explain how people's perceptions of the world can change with new information and new experiences, as exemplified by being able to ►Describe a recent trip and explain what preconceived thoughts were about the place compared with how it turned out to be in reality. ►Explain how the depiction of a place in movies or on television can affect how people perceive that place. ►Describe and explain how a student's view of his or her home community can be different from someone who is only visiting the community. Perceptions of Geographic Contexts 3. People's perceptions of the world affect their views of the present, and expectations about the future Therefore, the student is able to: A. Explain the role perception plays in planning for the present and the future, as exemplified by being able to ►Identify the top five states a student would choose and not choose to live in and explain the reasons for the choices. ►Explain how the views of different stakeholder groups would need to be considered in the development of a new local facility (e.g., school, park, hospital, reservoir). ►Describe how changes in the economy of a community may affect personal perceptions of that place and people's plans for their futures. Perceptions of Geographic Contexts 3. Multiple and diverse perceptions of the world must be taken into account to understand contemporary and future issues Therefore, the student is able to: A. Evaluate how perceptions vary and affect people's views of contemporary issues and strategies for addressing them, as exemplified by being able to ►Explain how and why residents of different regions of the country might evaluate energy policy proposals differently (e.g., Alaska and Arctic National Wildlife Refuge [ANWR] oil drilling, California and off-shore oil production, mid-Atlantic states and the Marcellus Oil Shale Field). ►Explain how perceptions of immigration differ among people depending on their location, socioeconomic status, or occupation. ►Identify and compare different perspectives about international climate change agreements regarding carbon emissions from the points of view of the developed countries and the less-developed countries. National Geography Standards, Second Edition Part II: Standard 18: 93 * totes National Geography Standards, Second Edition Part II: 94 Asking and Answering Questions about the World: Geographic Skills The Importance of Geographic Skills Geographic skills provide the necessary tools and techniques for us to think geographically. They are central to geography's distinctive approach to understanding Earth's physical and human patterns and processes. Geographic skills are used in making decisions important to everyday life—where to buy or rent a home; where to get a job; how to get to work or to a friend's house; and where to shop, vacation, or go to school. All of these decisions involve the ability to acquire, arrange, and use geographic information. Daily decisions and community activities are linked to thinking systematically and spatially about environmental and societal issues. Community decisions relating to problems of air, water, and land pollution or locational issues, such as where to place industries, schools, and residential areas, also require the skillful use of geographic information. Business and government decisions—from the best site for a supermarket or a regional airport to issues of resource use or international trade—involve the analysis of geographic data. Geographic skills help people make reasoned political decisions. Whether the issues involve the evaluation of foreign affairs and international economic policy or local zoning and land use, geographic skills enable people to collect and analyze information, come to an informed conclusion, and make reasoned decisions on a course of action. Geographic skills also aid in the development and presentation of effective, persuasive arguments regarding matters of public policy. Developing Geographic Skills It is essential that students develop skills that will enable them to observe patterns, associations, and spatial order. Many of the skills that students are expected to learn involve using tools and geospa-tial technologies that are part of the process of geographic inquiry. Geographic representations, such as maps and globes, as well as their digital versions, are essential tools of geography because they assist in visualizing spatial arrangements and patterns. Other tools and geospatial technologies, including satellite-produced images, graphs, sketches, diagrams, and photographs are also integral parts of geographic analysis. The rate of growth of an urban area, for example, can be observed by comparing old and new satellite images. Large-scale land-use changes or changes in sea surface temperatures can be observed by comparing a series of satellite images. An important tool in geographic analysis is the geographic information system (GIS). Geographic information systems make the process of organizing, analyzing, and presenting geographic infor- mation easier, thus accelerating geographic inquiry. Remotely sensed data provide both archived and real-time images that can be studied independently or as a part of a GIS analysis. Digital globes and interactive online maps can display human and physical data sets to assist in systematic analysis of spatial phenomena. A global positioning system (GPS) aids in accurately identifying the location of collected data; GPS technologies are currently used in a wide range of digital mobile devices. Many of the capabilities that students need to develop geographic skills are termed "critical thinking skills." Such skills are not unique to geography and involve a number of generic thinking processes, such as knowing, inferring, analyzing, judging, hypothesizing, generalizing, predicting, problem-solving, and decision-making. These skills have applications to all levels of geographic inquiry and constitute the bases on which students can build competencies in applying geographic skills to geographic inquiry. Geographic skills develop over the entire course of students' school years. For each of the three successive grade levels discussed, teachers and other curriculum developers must recognize that students' mastery of geographic skills should be sequenced effectively so that students retain and build on their understanding. The skills cannot be taught or applied in isolation. They are interconnected and complementary, and together they form a process of investigation that makes the complexity of place more intelligible and more understandable. The Rationale for Geographic Skills The geographic skills required of a geographically informed person consists of five sets of skills adapted from the Guidelines for Geographic Education: Elementary and Secondary Schools, prepared by the Joint Committee on Geographic Education by the Association of American Geographers and the National Council for Geographic Education. The five skill sets are as follows: 1. Asking Geographic Questions 2. Acquiring Geographic Information 3. Organizing Geographic Information 4. Analyzing Geographic Information 5. Answering Geographic Questions For each of the five skills sets, there is a discussion of the principles underlying the set of skills and then a presentation of what the student is expected to know, understand, and be able to do at grades 4, 8, and 12. National Geography Standards, Second Edition Part II: 95 Asking and Answering Questions about the World: Geographic Skills 1. Asking Geographic Questions Geographic inquiry involves the ability and willingness to ask and answer questions about geospatial phenomena. The key geographic questions ask Where is it located? Why is it there? What is the significance of the location? As students pose additional questions, they seek responses that help to organize spatial understandings: What is this place like? With what is it associated? What are the consequences of its location and associations? As geospatial technologies advance, students will still need to be able to ask these basic questions to select and apply the appropriate technology to conduct geographical research, thereby gaining geospatial understanding. Students should be asked to speculate about possible answers to questions. Speculation leads to the development of hypotheses that link the asking and answering stages of the process. Hypotheses guide the search for information. Geography is distinguished by the types of questions it asks—the "where" and "why there" of an issue or problem. It is important that students develop and practice the skills of asking such questions for themselves. Practice in asking geographic questions begins with distinguishing between geographic and nongeographic questions (e.g., space-based versus time-based inquiry). Students should then develop geographic questions related to issues. At higher grade levels, students can identify geographic problems and ways in which geographic inquiry can help solve problems, resolve issues, inform decisions, and lead to actions. Being able to ask geographic questions enables students to engage in doing geography by posing geographic questions to guide a geographic inquiry, realizing that questions can be refined as a part of the inquiry process. Geographic questions help increase spatial reasoning skills, identify geographic issues and problems, and develop new or additional geographic research questions and hypotheses for further investigation. PI GRADE ■ jfl the student knows and understands: Asking Geographic Questions 1. The characteristics of a geographic question Therefore, the student: A. Identifies and describes differences between geographic and nongeographic questions, as exemplified by ►Identifying examples of geographic questions from a list of both geographic and nongeographic questions (e.g., does the question ask Where is it located? Why is it there? What is the significance of the location?). ►Identifying questions that help explain the importance of the features or location of places (e.g., Why are good harbor facilities an important part of New York City's location? How does Chicago's mid-continent location influence its accessibility to the rest of the United States? How does the climate of Florida's cities affect the movement of vacationing winter visitors?). ►Describing how geographic questions seek information about the organization of human or physical features in space (e.g., Where do most people live in the world? Why are mountain ranges located where they are?). GRADE the student knows and understands: Asking Geographic Questions 1. The sources of geographic questions Therefore, the student: A. Identifies geographic issues and constructs a question from a geographic perspective, as exemplified by ►Identifying geographic issues and problems in news articles and constructing geographic questions that would address the issue from a geographic perspective (e.g., spatial or ecological perspectives). ►Identifying a local environmental issue and constructing geographic questions appropriate to study the issue (e.g., What are the pros and cons of building a community water park in the desert southwest region of the United States?). ►Identifying a global human population issue and constructing geographic questions to investigate the issue from multiple perspectives (e.g., What are some of the reasons why people move from rural areas in a developing country to its largest and most crowded city? What are some of the economic and environmental consequences of such migrations?). GRADE the student knovjs and understands: Asking Geographic Questions 1. The role of developing geographic questions in a research project that answers geographic questions Therefore, the student: A. Analyzes an issue and constructs geographic questions that inform a geographic investigation, as exemplified by ►Analyzing digital and paper maps of a place or thematic topic and constructing geographic questions to investigate the issue. ►Analyzing current trends in population and constructing geographic questions to investigate the sources and future projections of the trends. ►Analyzing a current news report and constructing geographic questions that would provide a geographic focus to the study or resolution of the topic or issue. National Geography Standards, Second Edition Part II: 96 Asking and Answering Questions about the World: Geographic Skills 2. Acquiring Geographic Information PI GRADE HLjl the student knows and understands: Acquiring Geographic Information 1. The characteristics of geographic information Therefore, the student: A. Describes and analyzes the characteristics of geographic information, as exemplified by ►Describing the characteristics of a place using observed and collected data (e.g., weather, climate, elevation, population density, availability of fresh water). ►Analyzing data examples to determine whedier or not it is geographic (e.g., Does it provide information about a location or place, connections between and among places, or the spatial organization of human or physical features on Earths surface?). ►Identifying and describing the characteristic information required for a map to be accurate and helpful (e.g., title, orientation, date, author, legend, scale, index, grid, source). Geographic information is any information connected to a location that includes data about physical and human characteristics or phenomena at any place on the planet. To answer geographic questions, students should start by gathering data from diverse sources in various ways to develop information that will inform their responses. The skills involved in acquiring geographic information include activities such as locating and collecting data, observing and systematically recording information, reading and interpreting maps and other graphic representations of spaces and places, interviewing people who can provide both information and perspectives about places and issues, and using statistical methods. Students should read and interpret all kinds of maps. They should compile and use primary and secondary information to prepare quantitative and qualitative descriptions. They should collect data from interviews, fieldwork, reference material, and digital resources. Internet-based sources for geographic information are increasingly accessible but must always be evaluated for reliability and validity. Primary sources of geographic information, especially the results of fieldwork performed by the students, are important in geographic inquiry. Fieldwork involves students conducting research in the community by distributing questionnaires, taking photographs, recording GRADE the student knows and understands: Acquiring Geographic Information 1. The process of collecting geographic information Therefore, the student: A. Explains which sources of geographic information will be needed for a geographic investigation, as exemplified by ►Describing and explaining how observations and collected geographic information can be used in a geographic investigation. ►Identifying and describing sources of reliable geographic data (e.g., US Census Bureau data, Population Reference Bureau data, CIA: The World Factbook). ►Explaining how digital globes and maps can provide base map information to provide a context for additional data layers or themes (e.g., tectonic plate boundaries and the occurrence of earthquakes, identification of climate and vegetation characteristics that may contribute to increased wildfire risk, identification of human or physical features that may affect the development of an emergency situation evacuation route). observations, interviewing citizens, and collecting samples. Fieldwork helps arouse students' curiosity and makes the study of geography more enjoyable and relevant. Fieldwork fosters active learning by enabling students to observe, ask questions, identify problems, and hone their perceptions of physical features and human activities. Fieldwork connects students' school activities with the world in which they live. Data collected using GPS technology in the field can be mapped onto digital maps and globes or viewed and analyzed in a GIS. Typical secondary sources of information include texts, maps, statistics, photographs or imagery, video or multimedia, databases, newspapers, telephone directories, and government publications. Digital data may be highly specialized such as real-time data, physical and human statistical data, and remotely sensed data and images. These sources aid in the acquisition of geographic information, especially from or about remote locations. Encyclopedias report information compiled from secondary sources and are important in some research situations. Being able to acquire geographic information enables students to engage in doing geography by mastering the techniques and skills necessary to gather and record geographic information and data from primary and secondary sources. 12 GRADE the student knows and understands: Acquiring Geographic Information 1. The criteria for evaluating the value and reliability of geographic information Therefore, the student: A. Evaluates sources of geographic information for reliability, as exemplified by ►Evaluating the metadata for geospatial database files (e.g., data that might be used in a GIS, US census data on the Census Bureau's website). ►Evaluating the reliability of Internet-based data sources to ensure validity and accuracy (e.g., information on a blogger site versus the United Nations website or political advertisement websites versus National Institute of Health Research Bulletins). ►Evaluating the date, sources, authors, and designs of geographic visualizations or representations for accuracy (e.g., dates for data displayed, construction of x- and y-axis values on charts displaying information, misuse of map symbols on cartograms). National Geography Standards, Second Edition Part II: 97 Asking and Answering Questions about the World: Geographic Skills GRADE the student knows and understands: Acquiring Geographic Information 2. The sources of geographic information Therefore, the student: A. Identifies observations, maps, globes, and other geographic representations as sources of geographic information, as exemplified by ►Identifying how satellite images provide geographic information (e.g., display patterns of population growth or decline by observing images detailing land use taken at different times, portrays contrasting shorelines of lakes in images taken at normal and drought times). ►Identifying ZIP codes as a source of geographic information that is helpful at a larger scale but less so at the neighborhood or school and classroom scale. ►Identifying digital globes and maps as sources of different types of geographic information (e.g., terrain data or road and transportation data). GRADE the student knows and understands: Acquiring Geographic Information 2. The distinction between primary and secondary sources of geographic information Therefore, the student: A. Explains the differences between primary and secondary sources of geographic information, as exemplified by ►Explaining why using digital globe and mapped projects are secondary sources of geographic information. ►Explaining why mapping student-observed or -collected data points on a digital globe or map is a primary source of geographic information. ►Explaining the difference between using a map created by someone else versus a map created by the student as secondary and primary sources of geographic information. A GPS or other mobile device can be used to determine the location of data points when acquiring geographic information. National Geography Standards, Second Edition Part II: 98 Asking and Answering Questions about the World: Geographic Skills 3. Organizing Geographic Information PI GRADE |mjH (he student knows and understands: Organizing Geographic Information 1. The different forms for displaying geographic information Therefore, the student: A. Constructs digital and paper maps, graphs, tables, and charts to display geographic information, as exemplified by ►Constructing a map using points to represent the locations of student-collected data. ►Constructing a graph to display the changes in student enrollment at the school. ►Constructing a data table with represented values and a map to display the values represented by colors (e.g., list of schools in the community with more than 100, 200, and 300 students; different types of businesses in the community; number of each, low-, medium-, and high-population states). Once collected, the geographic information should be organized and displayed in ways that assist with analysis and interpretation. Data need to be arranged systematically. Different types of data may be separated and classified in visual, graphic forms: paper and computer-generated maps, various geospatial images (e.g., photographs, aerial photos, remotely sensed images), graphs, cross sections, climographs, diagrams, tables, and cartograms. Written information from documents or interviews maybe organized into pertinent quotes or tabular form. Geographic information may also be organized in a GIS. These approaches allow students a wide range of options in displaying and organizing information. Computer-based technologies and the Internet enhance not only students' access to geographic information but also the ability to organize it. Students may need guidance in selecting appropriate applications for organizing and displaying geographic information. There is an increasing number of free, web-based, mobile device, or desktop client applications that maybe used for educational projects and instruction. There are many ways to organize geographic information. Maps play a central role in geographic inquiry, but there are other ways to translate data into visual forms, such as graphs of all kinds, tables, spreadsheets, and time lines. Such visual aids are especially useful when accompanied by clear oral or written summaries. Creativity and skill are needed to arrange geographic information effectively. Decisions about GRADE the student knows and understands: Organizing Geographic Information 1. The advantages and disadvantages of the different forms for displaying geographic information Therefore, the student: A. Describes and constructs appropriate forms of visualizations to represent different types of geographic data, as exemplified by ►Constructing a choropleth map representing demographic values and explaining why this type of map is an effective way to display this type of data. ►Describing and explaining how isopleth lines effectively represent increasing or decreasing values between locations (e.g., rainfall amounts, elevation, growing-season zones). ►Describing and constructing both point and polygon maps to represent different types of geographic data. design, color, graphics, scale, and clarity are important in developing the kinds of maps, graphs, charts, and other visualizations that best represent the data. Geography has been called "the art of the mappable." Making maps should be a common activity for all students. They should read (decode) maps to collect information and analyze geographic patterns and make (encode) maps to organize information. Making maps may mean using sketch maps to make a point in an essay or record field observations, using symbols to map data showing the location of world resources, or producing a county-level map of income by state using a GIS. Students may also use Internet-based mapping resources to develop their own maps. For students, making maps should become as common and natural as writing a paragraph. They should be skilled in interpreting and creating map symbols, finding locations on maps using various reference systems, orienting maps, finding directions, and using scales to determine distance. Using these map skills helps students think critically about the purposes and uses of maps. Being able to organize geographic information enables students to engage in doing geography by applying methods to organize geographic and geospatial information so that it can be displayed to facilitate analysis and effectively communicate geographic information. 12 GRADE the student knows and understands: Organizing Geographic Information 1. The selection and design of appropriate forms for organizing and displaying geographic information Therefore, the student: A. Evaluates the alternatives for organizing and displaying geographic information, as exemplified by ►Constructing different types of graphs representing data that describes a place (e.g., population changes, levels of personal income per state, population pyramids). ►Evaluating the use of a GIS to display and organize geographic information (e.g., Would additional data layers be helpful? Are there important relationships among data layers used? Is an appropriate scale selected to display the data?). ►Evaluating the appropriateness of using a digital globe to display point data or area data (e.g., ZIP codes, counties, states). National Geography Standards, Second Edition Part II: 99 Asking and Answering Questions about the World; Geographic Skills Precipitation -Temperature Monthly Temperature and Precipitation 60 3 50 öS JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC Month A climograph for Santiago, Chile displays data for the average seasonal variation in precipitation and temperature over the course of a year. GRADE the student knows and understands: Organizing Geographic Information 1. The advantages and disadvantages of the different forms for displaying geographic information B. Explains the advantages of using different forms of geographic representations for data, as exemplified by ►Explaining why a GIS-generated map might be the best type of map to display the overlap or relational aspects of multiple data sets. ►Explaining why one map projection may be more appropriate to use than other projections (e.g., amount of distortion, degree of accuracy in represented shapes of continents, focus on a hemisphere or pole). ►Explaining the advantages of using graphs or maps for different types of data at different scales (e.g., climographs to represent climate data, population pyramids to represent population data, US national maps to represent state-level data, state maps to represent ZlP-code-level data). Old Town Creek Water Quality Study A GIS can be used to display student-collected data with other data sets and base maps. National Geography Standards, Second Edition Image credit: Geospatial Semester, James Madison University/Robert Kolvoord and Colonial Heights High School/W. Ryan and M. Hess Part II: 100 mswertn m about the World: Geographic Skills 4. Analyzing Geographic Information PHSj GRADE gyLJH the student knows and understands: Analyzing Geographic Information 1. The process of analyzing data to identify geographic relationships, patterns, and trends Therefore, the student: A. Analyzes simple graphs, tables, and maps using geographic data to identify relationships, patterns, and trends, as exemplified by ► Constructing a graph representing geographic information from a data table to identify trends (e.g., comparing social or economic indicators between two or more countries). ►Analyzing various maps to identify relationships or similarities between countries or regions based on the data represented (e.g., variations in climate related to latitude, population densities related to climate, railway networks in relation to elevation or topographies). ►Analyzing the relationships and patterns between political boundary lines and features on maps to describe possible trends (e.g., boundaries aligned to rivers, mountain ranges, or other physical features, boundaries aligned to lines of latitude or longitude or other mathematical formulations). Analyzing geographic information involves seeking patterns, relationships, and connections. As students analyze and interpret information, meaningful patterns or processes emerge. They can then synthesize their observations into coherent explanations. Students should note associations and similarities between areas, recognize patterns, and draw inferences from maps, graphs, diagrams, tables, and other sources. Using basic statistics, students are able to look for trends, relationships, and sequences. Geographic analysis involves various thinking processes. It is sometimes difficult to separate the processes involved in organizing geographic information from the procedures used in analyzing it; the two processes go on simultaneously in many cases. But in other instances, analysis follows the manipulation of raw data into an easily understood and usable form. Both activities involve the use and development of students' spatial skills. Students should scrutinize paper and digital maps to discover GRADE the student knows and understands: Analyzing Geographic Information 1. The process of analyzing data to describe geographic relationships, patterns, and Therefore, the student: A. Analyzes graphs, tables, and maps using geographic data to describe relationships, patterns, and trends, as exemplified by ►Analyzing two or more maps or satellite images to describe changes or identifying trends that may be evident based on the data (e.g., satellite images of a city or region before and after a tsunami, earthquake, or flood, satellite images of forests where logging is taking place, maps of census data showing changes in population). ^Analyzing map legends to better understand the nature of the representation of data on the map (e.g., classification values and break points of a choroplcth map, methods for determining different classification values, review the histogram of the data to see how data are represented in another form in addition to the mapped version). ►Analyzing a GIS to describe the relationships and patterns resulting from the overlay of multiple data sets (e.g., describe the relationship of tornado occurrences with population density and state boundaries). National Geography Standards, Second Edition and compare spatial patterns and relationships. In addition, they can study tables and graphs to determine trends and relationships between and among items; probe data through statistical methods to identify trends, sequences, correlations, and relationships; and examine texts and documents to interpret, explain, and synthesize characteristics. All students need to develop these analytical skills. Digital tools provide additional ways to analyze spatial data. For example, a GIS spatial display can be used to analyze georeferenced data. Multiple data layers may reveal relationships or trends as a part of die analysis. These analytic processes dien may lead to answers to the questions that first prompted an inquiry and to the development of geographic models and generalizations. Being able to analyze geographic information enables students to engage in doing geography by using analytical methods to interpret and evaluate geographic information. Employing accurate analysis techniques and methodologies is essential in geographic inquiry. ETJ GRADE H_L^^H the student knovjs and understands: Analyzing Geographic Information 1. The process of analyzing data to explain geographic relationships, patterns, and trends Therefore, the student: A. Analyzes and explains geographic relationships, patterns, and trends using models and theories, as exemplified by ► Constructing a GIS model to analyze data from multiple locations and comparing the model results to identify patterns or relationships in those locations. ►Analyzing population data as represented in the demographic transition model to explain the changes through time in populations of countries. ►Analyzing a US city using a concentric zone model to explain the historical evolution of the commercial downtown. B. Analyzes data using statistics and other quantitative techniques, as exemplified by ► Constructing a scatter plot of data to identify possible relationships or trends in the data. ►Analyzing a histogram for data to determine the best metiiod for displaying the values on a map. ►Analyzing data using descriptive statistics such as average, median, mode, and range to determine the characteristics of the distribution in the data set. Part II: 101 5. Answering Geographic Questions In any academic discipline, good questions encourage good answers. Geography is no exception. The skills needed to build such answers require a structure that is both multifaceted and complex. Students must learn not only to manage data but also to assemble it so that it is clear and concise. The answers that derive from such a process can be organized in graphic form (maps, tables, graphs, and other geovisualizations) as well as oral and written narratives. Whatever the format, responses must be based on provable and relevant facts that inspire interpretation, analysis, reasoning, and, when appropriate, the subtleties of inference. Generalizations and new understandings are the expected results of the inquiry process. Developing generalizations requires that students use the information they have collected, processed, and analyzed to make informed statements about geographic issues. Teachers should encourage students to explore multiple points of view and to seek multiple solutions to problems. Students may also use the evidence they have acquired to make decisions, solve problems, or form judgments about a question, issue, or problem. Developing geographic generalizations may require inductive reasoning (i.e., inferring a generalization from particular instances or facts) or deductive reasoning (i.e., inferring particular instances and fact from a generalization). Inductive reasoning enables students to synthesize geographic information to answer questions and reach conclusions. Deductive reasoning enables students to identify relevant questions, collect and assess evidence, and decide whether the generalizations are appropriate by testing them. Students should have experience in both approaches to reasoning. Students should be able to communicate clearly and effectively when answering geographic questions. They can display geographic information in many engaging and effective ways. These include combinations of digital images, maps, graphs, video, and narratives in multimedia or web-based presentations. Geographic information may also be presented through the use of poems, collages, plays, journals, debates, and essays. It is important to know how to select the best means of presenting answers to geographic questions. Answering geographic questions is not always the last step in the process of geographic inquiry, because the process usually begins again with new questions suggested by the conclusions and generalizations. Geographic learning is a continuous process that is both empowering and fascinating. Being able to answer geographic questions enables students to engage in doing geography by presenting the results of their geographic inquiry to inform decision-making and offer potential solutions to problems. PI GRADE I the student knows and understands: Answering Geographic Questions 1. The process of making generalizations and drawing conclusions to answer geographic questions Therefore, the student: A. Constructs answers to geographic questions using data, as exemplified by ►Constructing a flowchart, map, and narrative summarizing the steps used in answering a geographic question. ►Constructing a digital or paper map that answers a geographic question and describing the data used to inform the answer. ►Constructing a photographic display to summarize key geographic observations based on viewing a collection of images of a place or region. GRADE the student knows and understands: Answering Geographic Questions 1. The process of explaining generalizations and conclusions that answer geographic questions Therefore, the student: A. Describes and explains the data and processes used to answer geographic questions, as exemplified by ► Constructing an answer to a geographic question by describing the characteristics and relevance of the data used to inform the answer. ►Describing how a GIS was developed and explaining why specific data layers were selected to answer a geographic question. ►Explaining the steps used in answering a geographic question including how geographic information was collected, organized, and analyzed to arrive at the answer. GRADE the student knows and understands: Answering Geographic Questions 1. The process for evaluating and defending the answers to geographic questions Therefore, the student: A. Evaluates the data sources and processes used to answer geographic questions, as exemplified by ► Constructing a narrative report that evaluates the validity and reliability of the data used and the processes used to formulate answers to geographic questions. ► Explaining how and why the data used in an investigation supports the defense of the generalizations made in answering geographic questions. ►Constructing a test of a geographic answer by applying it to a new study area or era to see if the same process yields a defensible answer. National Geography Standards, Second Edition Part II: 102 júl elat*Jut uui jui h»as u anu uhi m h mé ü§h m h n H m m m m wm m Asking and Answering Questions abov a Tne worn GRADE the student knows and understands: Answering Geographic Questions 2. The methods for presenting answers to geographic questions Therefore, the student: A. Describes various options for presenting answers to a geographic question, as exemplified by ► Describing how maps can display geographic information to help answer geographic questions. ►Describing how multimedia tools can be used to present answers to geographic questions. ►Identifying and describing an example of a presentation of geographic information that may answer geographic questions (e.g., map displaying an analysis from a news article, a graph displaying data used to compare two locations). GRADE the student knows and understands: Answering Geographic Questions 2. The construction of presentations to answer geographic questions Therefore, the student: A. Constructs a presentation to answer a geographic question, as exemplified by ►Constructing a map using a GIS that displays possible answers to geographic questions (e.g., preferred site location for business or schools, possible sources and paths of pollution plumes, areas for greatest or least crime risk in an urban area). ►Constructing a multimedia presentation including maps, images, and video to describe the steps and data used to answer a geographic question (e.g., show how a geographic question was chosen, present where and how data were collected or acquired, use different visual methods for organizing, displaying, and analyzing geographic information). ►Constructing an oral presentation that presents and defends the answers to a geographic question. GRADE the student knows and understands: Answering Geographic Questions 2. The process of using valid generalizations and conclusions to inform reasoned decisions Therefore, the student: A. Explains and evaluates the data and processes used to inform answers to geographic questions, as exemplified by ►Explaining the limits of the generalizations that may be made as a result of the data used in a geographic inquiry. ►Evaluating a news article that defends a possible answer to a geographic question and explaining how the data used does or does not support the proposed answer and what additional data might be considered. ►Evaluating the feasibility of an answer presented by identifying additional geographic questions or concerns that may influence the proposed answer. National Geography Standards, Second Edition Part II: 103 Bearly Relocated Using a GIS, a student presentation answers the question, "Where are the ideal locations within the Shenandoah National Park that hears can be safely relocated away from tourists and homes?" National Geography Standards, Second Edition Part II: 104 Glossary National Geography Standards, Second Edition absolute location—the location of a point on Earth's surface that can be expressed by a grid reference (e.g., latitude and longitude) accessibility—the relative ease with which a place can be reached from other places acculturation—the process of adopting the traits of a cultural group acid precipitation (rain or snow)—precipitation with a pH value of 5.6 or lower (7 is neutral, less than 7 increasing in acidity, and greater than 7 increasing in alkalinity). Precipitation becomes excessively acidic when oxides of sulfur and nitrogen released by combustion of fossil fuels combine with moisture in the atmosphere to form acids. aerial photograph—a photograph of part of Earth's surface usually taken from an airplane African Union (AU)—an association of African countries promoting economic, social, and political integration and a commitment to democratic principles among the member states agribusiness—the strategy of applying business practices to the operation of specialized commercial farms to achieve efficiency of operation and increased profit margins alluvial fan—a semiconical landform that occurs where a canyon exits a mountain range. It is composed of stream and debris flow materials that are deposited as flow spreads out and slows down once it exits the canyon. Antarctic Circle—latitude 66.5° south that encircles the continent of Antarctica. From this latitude to the South Pole, daylight lasts for 24 hours on the southern summer solstice, usually December 22, whereas on the southern winter solstice, usually June 22, nighttime lasts for 24 hours. aquifer—an underground permeable rock layer within which water is stored and can flow, and from which water can be extracted for use at the surface arable land—an area suitable for growing crops archipelago—a chain or group of islands Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR)—an area in northeast Alaska. It is managed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service to conserve wildlife, wilderness, and recreational assets and to ensure the nation's compliance with international treaty obligations affecting mineral resources, water quality, and water quantity in the region. artifacts—the material manifestations of a culture such as tools, clothing, and foods assimilation—the acceptance, by one culture group or community, of cultural traits normally associated with another astrolabe—primarily a historical term identifying an instrument once used to make astronomical measurements to calculate latitude; before the development of the sextant atmosphere—the envelope of gases, aerosols, and other materials that surrounds Earth and is held close by gravity. The gases are dominated by nitrogen (78.1 percent), oxygen (20.9 percent), argon (0.93 percent), and carbon dioxide (0.03 percent) and include much smaller percentages of helium, methane, and hydrogen. Water vapor, clouds, dust, meteor debris, salt crystals, and pollutants also contribute to the atmosphere's mass, which is concentrated within a layer that extends about twelve miles from Earth's surface. atmospheric pressure cells—areas of the atmosphere with relatively high or low barometric pressure referred to simply as "highs" and "lows." Winds on Earth are caused by air movement from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure. Large areas of permanent high or low pressure existing in bands or belts around Earth influence world climate patterns and ocean currents (e.g., the Siberian High and the Icelandic Low). B balance of power—a geopolitical term identifying efforts on the part of nations to maintain an equilibrium of economic and military power as a means of checking the predominance of one nation or coalition of nations balance of trade—an economic term identifying the difference in value over a period of time between a country's imports and exports of goods and services; a favorable balance of trade results in a trade surplus while an unfavorable one results in a trade deficit barrier island—a long, narrow off-shore island built by deposits from wave action and separated from a low-lying coastal mainland by a body of water biomes—very large ecosystems made up of specific plant and animal communities interacting with the physical environment (climate and soil); usually identified with the climate and climax vegetation of large areas of Earth's surface (e.g., the Equatorial and Tropical Rain Forest Biomes) Part III: 105 Glossary biofuel—fuel derived directly from organic matter (e.g., a fuel blend made partially from corn or sugarcane) biosphere—the realm of Earth that includes all plant and animal life forms birthrate—see "crude birthrate" bitmap—see "raster image" border—a line separating two political or geographic areas, especially countries (e.g., Germany's western border with France) or states (e.g., Indiana's northern border with Illinois) boundary—a line marking the limit or extent within which a system exists or functions, including a social group, a neighborhood, a state, or physical feature butte—an isolated and detached hill with steep sides and a flat top rising from a plain c capital—one of the factors of production of goods and services. Capital can be goods (e.g., factories, equipment, highways, information, and communications systems) and/or funds (investment and available money for operating expenses) used to increase production and wealth. Other factors arc land, water, and labor. carbon cycle—a complex natural process by which carbon is exchanged among Earth's physical systems, resulting in carbon's recycling and reuse throughout the biosphere and all its organisms carbon footprint—the scale and measurable totality of the impact of carbon use by people on the environment cardinal directions—the four main points of the compass: north, east, south, and west carrying capacity—the maximum number of animals and/or people a given area can support at a given time under specified levels of consumption without impairing relevant ecosystems cartographer—a person who designs and creates maps and other geographic representations cartography—the study of making maps census—an official count of a population conducted by a government at set intervals; typically records details and trends among individuals and groups in the population National Geography Standards, Second Edition Central Business District (CBD)—the traditional core of a city typically consisting of office buildings, hotels, retail shops, entertainment facilities, and a transportation hub; often called "downtown" central place—a village, town, or city that provides services to a surrounding region functionally tied to it central place theory—the conceptual framework that explains the size, spacing, and distribution of settlements and their economic relationships with their hinterlands choropleth map—shows differences between areas by using colors or shading to represent distinct categories of qualities (such as vegetation type) or quantities (such as the percentage graduating from high school, population density, or birthrate) cirque—a half-open steep-sided hollow excavations at the head of a valley or on a mountainside resulting from glacial erosion; often amphitheater-shaped civilization—a complex and well-organized political and social order whose status is measured in terms of material, scientific, and artistic advancement climate—long-term trends in weather elements and atmospheric conditions climate change—long-term significant modifications in the average weather conditions of the world's regions caused either by natural or human-induced processes (e.g., alterations in the physical dynamics of Earth's atmosphere or human practices such as burning fossil fuels) climate graph—see climograph climate variability—changes in the patterns of weather and climate at both temporal (beyond individual weather events) and spatial scales (globally or in a specific world region) climax vegetation—a stable community of plants established over time and at a point where it can sustain itself climograph—a graphical depiction of average monthly temperatures and precipitation amounts for a particular location cognitive map—see mental map colony—an area of the world under the full or partial political control of another country, typically occupied by settlers from the occupying country command economy—an economy where production, investment, prices, and incomes are determined centrally by the national government (e.g., economies in communist countries—former Soviet Union, People's Republic of China, Socialist Republic of Vietnam) commercial agriculture—a form of agriculture in which crops are cultivated for sale rather than for personal consumption or subsistence commercial economy—a system promoting profits through efficient methods of production and distribution to ensure the maximum utilization of resources for the benefit of all Common Market—see European Union (EU) comparative advantage—the circumstances (e.g., relative location, access to resources and markets, skilled labor force, quality infrastructure) in which a country, area, or group can produce goods or services at a lower cost than odier competitors complementarity—the mutually satisfactory exchange of raw materials, manufactured products, or information between two regions to fill the needs and wants of each concentric growth—refers to the zonal model of urban social or economic growth, which states that a city grows outward from a central area in a series of concentric rings or zones that are occupied by distinctive social groups or land uses comiectivity—a geographic concept explaining how physical and cultural features are linked to one another functionally and spatially (e.g., communication networks and transportation systems that join people and places locally, regionally, or globally) continental drift—see plate tectonics contour map—a representation of some part of Earth's surface using lines along which all points are of equal elevation above or below a fixed datum, usually sea level conurbation—see megalopolis cost-distance—the amount of money necessary for people, objects, or information to travel between two places country—unit of political space, sometimes referred to as a state crude birthrate—the total number of live births in a year for every 1,000 people in a population crude death rate—the total number of deaths in a year for every 1,000 people in a population Part III: 106 cryosphere—the frozen area of Earth's surface (e.g., glaciers, ice caps, sea ice) that is an integral part of the planet's climate system culture—learned behavior of people, which includes their belief systems and languages, their social relationships, their institutions and organizations, and their material goods (e.g., food, clothing, buildings, tools, machines) cultural characteristics—specific behavioral features showing how people within a specific social group think and act (e.g., the celebration of religious or national holidays, the methods of child rearing, clothing styles, food preferences) cultural convergence—the tendency of certain societies to become more similar with time (e.g., an immigrant group gradually loses its traditional identity as it adapts to the culture of the place where it has settled; people across the world gradually disconnect from the traditions of their groups because of the influence of films, television, the Internet, digital phones) cultural diffusion—the spread of cultural elements from one culture to another cultural divergence—the tendencies of certain societies to become less similar with time (e.g., nomadic herders rejecting new grazing practices for their cattle introduced by neighboring groups) culture hearth—the place of origin of a culture group or of a series of material and nonmaterial innovations cultural landscape—the human imprint on the physical environment; the humanized landscape as created or modified by people D data—facts and statistics about geographic phenomena gathered for analysis database—a compilation, structuring, and categorization of information (print or electronic) for analysis and interpretation data table—a tool providing a system in tabular form for arranging data for analysis and research purposes (usually on a computer screen) deforestation—the destruction and removal of a forest and its undergrowth by natural or human forces delta—area of marshland formed by deposits of silt at the mouth of some rivers (e. g., Mississippi, Nile, Ganges). Various shapes are associated with the deposition of silt, most commonly triangular (e.g., Nile River) and a bird's foot (e.g., Mississippi River). demographic—relating to the structure of populations (e.g., a census report identifying a trend toward a longer life expectancy in a country or a declining birthrate in an agricultural region) demographic change—change in population size, composition, rates of growth, density, fertility and mortality rates, and patterns of migration demographic transition—a model showing changes over time in a country's birth and death rates. The early stages of the model illustrate the high birth and death rates (slow population growth) of a predominately agricultural society; middle stages show declines in both rates (death rate initially and birthrate later, thus causing rapid population growth) as economies change from agriculture to industry; and advanced stages indicate low birth and death rates (slow population growth) typical of industrialized urban societies. demography—the study of population statistics, changes, and trends based on various measures of fertility (adding to a population), mortality (subtracting from a population), and migration (redistribution of a population) density—the population or number of objects per unit area (e.g., per square kilometer or mile) dependency ratio—the ratio consisting (a) of a population under 15 years old and over 64 years old to (b) the percentage of a population between 16 to 64 years of age; typically used to determine how many people arc in their most productive years depopulation—a substantial reduction of the numbers of people in a population resulting from a variety of causes (e. g., death from disease, war casualties, emigration) deposition—the final stage in the process of erosion that results in the placement of sediment on a land surface that has been transported by wind, water, or ice desalination—process of converting salty seawatcr to fresh water desertification—the spread of desert conditions in arid and semi-arid regions resulting from a combination of climatic changes and increasing human pressures (e.g., overgrazing, removal of vegetation, cultivation of marginal land) developed country—an area of the world that is technologically advanced, highly urbanized, wealthy, and has generally evolved through both economic and demographic transitions developing country—an area of the world that is changing from uneven growth to more constant economic conditions and that is generally characterized by low rates of urbanization, relatively high rates of infant mortality and illiteracy, and relatively low rates of life expectancy and energy use devolution—the transfer of some powers from the central government to regional and local authorities; often a contentious political process diaspora—the scattering of people from their homeland to distant places in the world diffusion—the spread of people, ideas, technology, and products among places digital globe—a digital model of Earth using advancements in technology for representing the planet more accurately with images that keep changing to meet the user's requirements digital image—an electronically processed image displayed in an electronic format including photos, maps, graphics, aerial photos, and satellite data digital map—an electronically processed representation of a geographic area or feature rendered from digital data distribution—the arrangement of items over a specified area domesticate—taming animals and cultivating crops for farm production and human use doubling time—the number of years needed to double a population based on its current annual growth rate and a constant rate of natural increase E earthquake—vibrations and shock waves caused by the sudden movement of tectonic plates along fracture zones, called faults, in Earth's crust ecology—the study of the interactions of living organisms between themselves, their habitats, and the physical environment National Geography Standards, Second Edition Part III: 107 economic dependence—a situation resulting from one country's economic subordination to another more developed country (e.g., a developing country exports raw material to a developed country in exchange for capital, manufactures, and technology from a developed country) ecosystem (ecological system)—a set of connected living parts formed by the interaction of all living organisms (plants, animals, humans) with each other and with the physical and chemical factors of the environment in which they live edge city—a well-developed suburb connected to the central city but with a large business, commercial, entertainment, and transportation base independent of the central city; located in close proximity to the interstate highway system and a major airport egocentric stereotype—tendency to interpret and evaluate people and cultures in terms of oneself and in the exclusive context of ones own experience and culture El Nino—an irregularly occurring and complex series of climate changes (usually in 7-year intervals, with some 3-4 year sub-oscillations) characterized by the appearance of unusually warm, nutrient-poor water affecting ocean currents in the equatorial Pacific region; typically in late December and affecting climate patterns in North America and the Atlantic Ocean (the opposite of La Nina) elevation—height of a point or place above sea level (e.g., Mount Everest has an elevation of 29,028 feet above sea level) emigration—leaving one's own country to settle permanently in another empire—a group of nations, territories, or peoples controlled by a single powerful authority environment—everything in and on Earth's surface and its atmosphere within which organisms, communities, or objects exist environmental determinism—the theory that the physical environment controls various aspects of human behavior and cultural development environmental footprint—see carbon footprint environmental hazard—an extreme and often disastrous natural event that can lead to significant damage in the physical world and likely affect human activity (e.g., severe and prolonged flooding resulting in changes in a river's course and the subsequent dislocation of populations or an extended drought period due to altered weather patterns causing serious food shortages) environmental justice—initiatives seeking to establish equity for groups bearing heavy environmental burdens through no fault of their own (e.g., impoverished communities living without access to clean air, clean water, sanitary conditions, and nutritious food) epidemic—outbreak of a rapidly spreading infectious disease equator or latitude 0°—an imaginary line running east-west around the globe and dividing it into two equal parts known as the Northern and Southern Hemispheres; the places on Earth that always have approximately twelve hours of daylight and twelve hours of darkness equilibrium—the point in the operation of a system when driving forces and resisting forces are in balance equinox—the two days during the calendar year (usually September 23 and March 21) when all latitudes have twelve hours of both daylight and darkness and the sun is directly overhead at the equator ethnic enclaves—areas or neighborhoods within cities that are homogeneous in their ethnic makeup and are usually surrounded by groups of a different ethnic character (e.g., Little Italy, Chinatown) ethnocentric stereotype—process of evaluating other peoples and cultures according to the standards of one's own culture resulting in an exaggeration or misrepresentation of the other culture efhnocentrism—the belief in the inherent superiority of one's own group and culture; a tendency to view all other groups or cultures in terms of one's own European Union (EU)—an association of a number of European countries promoting free trade, cultural and political linkage, and relatively easy access among its nations. Formed in 1957, the European Union was formerly called the European Community.' eutrophication—the process in lakes and water bodies characterized by increased amounts of sediments, nutrients, and organic material expansionism—a government's policy to increase its territory or its economic influence F fauna—the animal life of an area, region, or time fertility rate—the average number of children a woman will have during her childbearing years (15 to 49 years of age) flood plain—a generally flat valley area bordering a stream or river that is subject to inundation; the most common land area for human settlement flora—the plant life of an area, region, or time flowchart—a chart or diagram showing a series of interconnected events, actions, or items that indicate the progressive development of a theme, product, or other objective flow map—a map with arrows and lines showing how something moves (e.g., migration or raw materials to industrial sites) flow pattern—the regular movement of materials, products, people, and/or ideas along a consistent route or path flow resources—resources that are neither renewable nor nonrenewable but must be used as, when, and where they occur else they are lost (e.g., running water, wind, sunlight) force—the power or energy in a process, such as weather, that results in both movement and friction formal region—a region defined by the uniformity or homogeneity of certain characteristics (e.g., precipitation, landforms, subculture, type of economic production) fossil fuel—energy source formed in past geologic times from organic materials (e.g., coal, petroleum, natural gas) free trade—international exchange of goods exempted from protective regulations, quotas, and tariffs intended to restrain trade with other nations friction of distance—-the force that inhibits the interaction of people and places on Earth. The frequency of interaction between people and places depends on the cost of overcoming this force (e.g., moving commodities over land). frontier—part of a territory with expanding settlement that is being opened up in advance of full settlement for agricultural and urban development; an area marking the limit of settled land beyond which lies wilderness National Geography Standards, Second Edition Part III: 108 ■ ■ m IUI M OB ■ HI HI II functional region—the functional unity of a region is often provided by a strong node or center of human population and activity. Regions that are defined by their ties to a central node are classified as nodal or functional regions (e.g., banking linkages between large nodal cities and smaller cities and towns). G gentrification—the process in urban areas of upper- or middle-class families moving back into a zone in transition; often surrounds the central business district of a city geographic context—the spatial aspects of human existence (i.e., sensitivity to location, place, scale, patterns of movement, and the use of maps and other graphics) including the locational circumstances of historical and contemporary events geographic information system (GIS)—a geographic database that contains computer hardware and software for creating, storing, retrieving, and analyzing information about the physical and human characteristics of places or areas; a technology-based mapping system geographic model—an idealized and simplified representation of reality representing a spatial concept; a tool for predicting outcomes in geography geography—the study of the physical and human systems across Earth's surface geomatics—the discipline of gathering, storing, processing, and delivering geographic information about Earth's physical and human systems using satellite imagery and other computer-based technologies geomorphology—the science of the processes that develop land-forms and the history of landform development geopolitics—the study of the influence of geographic factors (i.e., spatial factors) on a country's politics and foreign policy, especially with respect to disputes over borders and territorial claims georeferenced data—information connected to the location of the physical and human features of a specific place on Earth's surface; often involves computer applications, geographic information systems, and global positioning systems geospatial data—information that identifies the geographic location and characteristics of natural or constructed features and boundaries on Earth; information that describes the distribution of physical and human phenomena on Earth's surface geospatial technologies—computer hardware and software with which users analyze and represent geographic data at infinitely varied levels; includes technologies related to mapping and interpreting physical and human features on Earth's surface (i.e., global positioning systems (GPS), geographic information systems (GIS), remote sensing (RS), and geospatial visualization) geospatial visualization—the process of viewing data that are associated with a particular location as tagged information on maps or satellite imagery (or both) enabling users to discover relationships and correlations between data sets (e.g., the ability to overlay multiple data sets on top of a geospatial map) geosphere—all of solid Earth's dynamic layers including the continental and oceanic crust as well as the various layers of Earth's interior; includes the lithosphere as the outermost layer global city—a world-class city that serves as a strategic command point in the organization of the world's economic system (i.e., finance, banking, trade, markets, and innovation) that has a direct effect on international affairs; provides specialized financial services and information about market conditions and trade flows across the globe; sometimes called an alpha city or a world city global economy—the interdependence of the economies of the world's nations creating an international economic system for the exchange of goods and services global positioning system (GPS)—a satellite-based navigation system that allows land, sea, and airborne users to determine their exact location on Earth's surface global warming—increase in Earth's average temperature in recent decades due to the buildup of certain gases, including carbon dioxide and methane, that are released by human activities globalization—the increasing interconnectedness of different parts of the world resulting in the expansion of cultural, economic, and political activities so that they become worldwide in scope and influence due to technological advances in communication and transportation globe—a scale model of Earth that correctly represents area, relative size and shape of physical features, distance between points, and true compass direction greenhouse effect—the ability of certain gases in the atmosphere to absorb and thus trap heat energy released from Earth's surface grid—a pattern of lines on a chart or map, such as those representing latitude and longitude, that helps determine absolute location and assists in the analysis of distribution patterns Gross Domestic Product (GDP)—the total monetary value of goods and services produced in a country during one year Gross National Product (GNP)—gross domestic product adjusted to include the value of goods and services from other countries subsequently used in producing goods and services in the home country groundwater—subsurface water that saturates the soil and bedrock; constitutes most of the world's fresh water H hemisphere—half a sphere. Cartographers and geographers, by convention, divide Earth into the Northern and Southern Hemispheres at the equator and the Eastern and Western Hemispheres at the prime meridian (longitude 0°) and 180° meridian. hierarchy of settlements—a division and ranking of places usually according to their size and function (e.g., hamlets, villages, towns, cities, megalopolises) hills—landform features that may have steep slopes but lower elevations and less local relief than mountains (e.g., the Black Hills of South Dakota) hinterland—service area surrounding an urban center that supplies the goods, services, and labor needed in that area homogeneous society—a human community sharing the same customs, values, laws, and organizational structure human capital—the skills and knowledge acquired by an individual through training and experience; viewed in terms of the individual's value to an institution, organization, or country human process—a course or method of operation that produces, maintains, and alters human systems on Earth (e.g., migration or diffusion) National Geography Standards, Second Edition Part 111: 109 hurricane—severe tropical storm or low-pressure cell of limited area or extent in the Atlantic and eastern Pacific with accompanying torrential rains and high-velocity winds usually in excess of 80 miles per hour. These storms are known as typhoons in the western Pacific and cyclones in southern Asia. hydroelectric power—electrical energy generated by the force of falling water that rotates turbines housed in power plants in dams on rivers hydrologic cycle—the continuous circulation of water from the oceans, through the air, to the land, and back to the sea. Water evaporates from oceans, lakes, rivers, and land surfaces and transpires from vegetation. It condenses into clouds in the atmosphere, which may result in precipitation returning water to the land. Water then seeps into the soil or flows out to sea, completing the cycle. hydrology—the study of the movement, distribution, and conservation of water on Earth's surface and in the atmosphere hydrosphere—the water realm of Earth, which includes water contained in the oceans, lakes, rivers, ground, glaciers, and water vapor in the atmosphere I icon—a symbolic or graphic representation of a place or physical feature immigration—the process of people entering a new country to establish permanent residence imperialism—-a government's policy of imposing its rule and influence over other countries or territories through military force, economic dominance, or diplomacy import—the purchase of goods and services produced and developed in another country indigenous—that which is native to a place (e.g., Native Americans in the Western Hemisphere before the arrival of Europeans or herbs such as oregano and coriander common to southern Europe) industrialization—the growth of machine production and the factory system; the process of introducing manufacturing into countries or regions where most of the people are engaged in primary economic activities infant mortality rate—the annual number of deaths among infants under one year of age for every 1,000 live births; usually provides an indication of the quality of available health care infrastructure—the basic physical and organizational structures and facilities (e.g., bridges, roads, sewage systems, power sources, transportation networks) necessary for the operation and maintenance of a society interdependence—people relying on each other in different places or in the same place for ideas, goods, and services intermediate directions—the points of the compass that fall between north and east, north and west, south and east, south and west (e.g., NE, NW, SE, SW) International Date Line—an imaginary line that roughly follows the 180° meridian in the Pacific Ocean. West of this line the calendar date is one day ahead of the calendar date east of the line. People crossing the date line in a westward direction lose a calendar day, while those crossing eastward gain a calendar day. International Monetary Fund (IMF)—an international association established by the United Nations and based in Washington, DC, to help stabilize world currencies, lower trade barriers, and assist developing nations in paying their debts intervening opportunity—the availability of an opportunity closer at hand that reduces the attractiveness of a similar opportunity at locations farther away, (e.g., shoppers may purchase bread at a local bakery rather than travel to a supermarket in a mall) isolationism—a government's policy officially avoiding economic and political contact with other countries isopleth map—a map using lines joining points of equal value to show variations in that value (e.g., contour lines showing areas with the same elevation or isobars on a weather map connecting points having the same atmospheric conditions) La Nina—a periodic and complex series of climate changes complementary to those of El Nino and characterized by the appearance of cooler-than-usual ocean temperatures occurring at irregular time intervals along the equator between the west coast of South America and the International Date Line (the opposite of El Nino) lake desiccation—the reduction in water level (drying out) of an inland water body land degradation—the physical process that wears down and levels landforms and carries away the loosened debris. This term is also used to define human misuse of the land or the environment (e.g., farming on steep slopes increases erosion). land use—the range of uses of Earth's surface made by humans. Uses are classified as urban, rural, agricultural, forested, etc., with more specific subclassifications useful for specific purposes (e.g., low-density residential, light industrial, nursery crops). landform—the shape, form, or nature of a specific physical feature of Earth's surface (e.g., plain, hill, plateau, mountain) landlocked country—a country that is completely surrounded by the territory of one or more other countries, thus denying direct access to the sea or ocean latitude—assuming that the Earth is a sphere, the angular distance in degrees measured north and south from the equator Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED)—a "green" certification system developed in the United States providing voluntary guidelines for constructing environmentally sustainable buildings legend—an explanatory description or key to features on a map or chart life expectancy—the average number of years a person can expect to live under current mortality levels in a society. Life expectancy at birth is the most common use of this measure. limits to growth—a geographic model examining the consequences of a rapidly increasing world population and finite supplies of resources to support that population linkage—contact and resulting flow of ideas, information, people, or products between places literacy rate—the percentage of a country's population able to read and write at a competent level lithosphere—the uppermost portion of the solid Earth including soil, land, and geologic formations lithospheric plates—see tectonic plates local relief—in landforms, the difference in elevation between the highest and lowest points in a specified area National Geography Standards, Second Edition Part III: 110 location—the position of a point on Earth's surface expressed by means of a grid (absolute) or in relation (relative) to the position of other places locational—understanding the positioning of a place in terms of such features as site characteristics, accessibility, connectivity, etc. longitude—the position of a point on Earth's surface expressed as its angular distance, east or west, from the prime meridian to 180° M map—a graphic representation of a portion of Earth that is usually drawn to scale on a flat surface map projection—a mathematical formula by which the lines of a global grid and the shapes of land and water bodies are transferred from a globe to a flat surface maquiladora—an assembly plant in Mexico run by a foreign company using special duty and tariff privileges for the export of products to other areas of the world megacity—a super-city with a population of more than 10 million people; characterized by its rapid growth, erratic patterns of population distribution, formal and informal economies, and high levels of social fragmentation megalopolis—the coalescence of two or more large metropolitan areas into a continuous or almost continuous built-up urban complex, sometimes referred to as conurbation mental map—an individual's internalized representation of aspects of Earth's surface; a map that represents the mental image a person has of an area, including knowledge of features and spatial relationships, as well as the individual's perceptions and attitudes regarding the place; also known as a cognitive map meridian—a north-south line of longitude used to measure both time and distance east and west of the prime meridian or longitude 0° (see prime meridian) metadata—data about data; structured information explaining or describing an information resource; provides facts about the data being documented (i.e., who? what? when? where? why? how?) metes and bounds—a survey system of precisely measuring parcels of land using distances, angles, and directions that result in a legal definition of the property that is typically recorded in county land records National Geography Standards, Second Edition metropolitan area—the US Office of Management and Budget's designation for the functional area surrounding and including a central city; has a minimum population of 50,000; is contained in the same county as the central city; and includes adjacent counties having at least 15 percent of their residents working in the central city's county microclimate—a small, localized climate area within a larger climate region that has significantly different atmospheric elements. Microclimates can be caused by human intervention or by local landform configurations (e.g., "heat islands" in a central city's areas of high skyscrapers or sheltered south-facing slopes of hills). migration—the act or process of people moving from one place to another with the intent of staying at the destination permanently or for a relatively long period of time mitigation—the process of reducing the severity of an extreme physical or human condition in a stressed environment (e.g., building levees along a river bank to diminish flooding, developing public policy on urban land-use issues in congested neighborhoods to discourage gang activity) model—see geographic model monoculture—the practice of growing one or more cash crops for export to one or more countries monsoon—a wind system that changes direction seasonally, producing distinct wet and dry seasons; used especially to describe the low-sun and high-sun seasonal wind systems of South, Southeast, and East Asia moraine—ridge composed of an unsorted mixture of boulders, sand, silt, and clay that is deposited in contact with a glacier; usually reflect a period when the glacier has remained stationary as opposed to advancing or retreating mortality rate—see crude death rate mountains—high elevation landform features composed mostly of steep slopes and large amounts of local relief within a specified area (e.g., the Alps of Europe) multiculturalism—a pluralistic society in which there are a number of subcultures multinational corporation (MNC)—corporation or enterprise that manages the production of goods or delivers services in several countries in various world locations; often with budgets that exceed those of many countries multinational organizations—organizations of nations aligned around a common economic or political cause (e.g., Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) or the Organization of American States (OAS)) N nation—a cultural concept for a group of people bound together by a strong sense of shared values and cultural characteristics including language, religion, and common history natural hazard—an event in the physical environment, such as a hurricane or earthquake, that is destructive to human life and property natural increase—see natural population increase natural population increase—the changes in population size, expressed as a percentage, attributable solely to fertility (addition by births) and mortality (subtraction by deaths) excluding migration natural vegetation—plants originally found togedier in an area. Little of the world's vegetation is entirely unmodified by human activities. network—a pattern of links between points along which movement can take place (e.g., streams, roads, or communication modes) nitrogen cycle—a complex and continuous natural process by which nitrogen is recycled in the ecosystem (i.e., nitrates from the soil are absorbed by plants that are eaten by animals that die and decay, returning the nitrogen back to the soil) node— a central point, such as a neighborhood, a market area, or a temple or parish church, where cultural and economic functions are coordinated; a strategic point in a built-up area around which the movement of people and goods occurs (e.g., a transportation complex, an agricultural service area, an industrial park) nomads—a group of people without permanent residence who move from place to place usually on a seasonal basis in search of grasslands and water for their animals (e.g., cattle, horses, sheep, camels) nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)—independent organizations that pursue activities to promote the interests of underserved populations, protect the environment, provide basic social services, relieve suffering, or undertake community development; not part of the local, state, or federal government; often international in scope nonrenewable resource—a finite resource that cannot be replaced once it is used (e.g., petroleum, minerals) Part III: 111 North America Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)—an agreement made by the United States, Canada, and Mexico to remove barriers to free trade through the gradual elimination of tariffs, various fees, and import quotas among the three participants North Pole—the geographic point farthest north on Earth; the northern end of Earth's axis. On globes and most maps, it is that place in the Northern Hemisphere where meridians converge. no-till farming—a method of farming using methods where the soil is unplowed or unturned before planting crops, thus reducing erosion of both soil and nutrients while increasing organic matter in the soil; also called zero tillage o oasis—a fertile place in the desert where underground water rises to ground level oblate spheroid—the shape of Earth, which is larger in circumference around the Equator than the poles ocean currents—the regular and consistent horizontal flow of water in the oceans, usually in response to persistent patterns of circulation in the atmosphere Organization of African Unity (OAU)—promotes harmony and solidarity among the African states and acts as a collective voice for the African continent on such issues as human rights Organization of American States (OAS)—promotes social and economic development in the Western Hemisphere through cooperation among member nations Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)—an international cartel of twelve nations designed to promote collective pricing of petroleum, unified marketing policies, and regulation of petroleum extraction; controls most of the world's oil reserves orographic—the study of the physical geography of mountains and mountain ranges outsourcing—procuring services or products, such as the parts used in manufacturing a motor vehicle, from an outside supplier or manufacturer to cut costs; often a corporate practice in the developed world to have work done in developing countries where labor costs are lower overpopulation—a situation in which the existing population is too large to be adequately supported by available resources at current levels of consumption. This should not be confused with dense population. ozone layer—a layer in the stratosphere at an altitude of 12-21 miles that has a high concentration of ozone and protects the lower atmosphere and Earth's surface by absorbing much of the ultraviolet radiation that reaches Earth from the sun P Pacific Rim—countries bordering the Pacific Ocean pandemic—a disease that spreads throughout an entire population and in many different countries; can extend worldwide parallel—an east-west line of latitude used to measure angular distance north and south of the equator or latitude 0° perceptual region—an area of Earth, such as the Middle West, identified by expressions of feelings, attitudes and images photosynthesis—a chemical process by which green plants and some other organisms use sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide and turn these natural elements into food and oxygen physical feature—an aspect of a place or area that derives from Earth's processes and the natural environment physical process—a course or method of operation that produces, maintains, or alters Earth's physical systems, such as glacial processes eroding and depositing landforms physiography—the study of Earth's surface and its physical features, including relationships between air, land, and water physiological population density—the relationship between the total population of a country and the quantity of land classified as arable or permanent pasture places—locations having distinctive characteristics that give them meaning and character and distinguish them from other locations plains—landform features characterized by a maximum of gentle slopes and minimum local relief within a specified area (e.g., the pampas of Argentina) plantation agriculture—a type of agriculture involving large land-holdings that produce cash crops such as tea, rubber, coffee, sugarcane, or cocoa plateaus—landform features characterized by high elevation and gentle upland slopes plate tectonics—the theory that Earth's surface is composed of rigid slabs or plates (see tectonic plates). The divergence, convergence, and side-by-side slipping of the different plates are thought to be responsible for present-day configurations of continents, ocean basins, and major mountain ranges and valley systems. pollution—the direct or indirect process resulting from human action by which any part of the environment is made potentially or actually unhealthy, unsafe, or hazardous to the welfare of the organisms that live in it population density—the number of individuals occupying an area derived from dividing the number of people by the area they occupy (e.g., 2,000 people divided by ten square miles = 200 people per square mile) population pyramid—a bar graph showing the distribution by gender and age of a country's population population structure—the age and gender makeup of a population, usually depicted on population pyramids prevailing winds—the direction from which the wind usually blows at a particular location (e.g., the westerlies in the middle latitudes of North America) primary economic activity—the production of naturally existing or culturally improved resources (e.g., agriculture, ranching, forestry, fishing, extraction of minerals and ores) primate city—the most important city in a country that often has a population three or four times the size of the second-ranked city prune meridian (Greenwich meridian)—0°; the standard meridian from which longitude is measured. The prime meridian crosses Greenwich in London, England, the site of the Royal Naval Observatory. principal meridians—the prime meridian (Greenwich meridian) and the International Date Line National Geography Standards, Second Edition Part III: 112 principal parallels—the Equator, the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, and the Arctic and Antarctic Circles pull factors—in migration theory, the social, political, economic, and environmental attractions of new areas that draw people away from their previous locations push factors—in migration theory, the social, political, economic, and environmental forces that drive people from their previous locations to search for new ones rain shadow—areas on leeward sides of mountain ranges characterized by much lower precipitation and humidity than the windward (rainy) side raster image—(also called a bitmap) a way to represent digital images using bits of information that translate into a rectangular array of pixels when displayed rectangular land survey system—method used in the United States to identify land parcels for deeds for land usually in rural and undeveloped areas by dividing a district into 24-square-mile quadrangles and then subdividing each into six-mile square parts called townships region—an area with one or more common physical or cultural characteristics or features that give it a measure of homogeneity and make it different from surrounding areas regionalization—the partitioning of areas on Earth using a variety of criteria for the purpose of organizing elements in a complex space relative humidity—the amount of moisture actually in the air compared to the amount the air can hold at a given time at the same temperature (e.g., 85 percent) relative location—the location of a place or region in relation to other places or regions (e.g., northwest or downstream) remote sensing—information gathering about Earth's surface from a distance (usually referring to the use of aerial photography or satellite images) renewable resource—a resource that can be regenerated if used carefully (e.g., fish or timber) resource—an aspect of the physical environment that people value and use to meet a need for fuel, food, industrial product, or something else of value resource base—the available resources in a given area at a given time rural—relating to or characteristic of the countryside rather than cities s salinization—the process by which high salt content in soils is formed in arid areas where evaporation rates are high satellite image—an image produced by a variety of sensors (e.g., radar, microwave detectors, scanners) that measure and record electromagnetic radiation. The collected data are turned into digital form for transmission to ground receiving stations. The data can be reconverted into imagery in a form resembling a photograph. scale—on maps, the relationship or ratio between a linear measurement on a map and the corresponding distance on Earth's surface (e.g., the scale 1:1,000,000 means one unit [mile or kilometer] on the map represents 1,000,000 similar units on Earth's surface); also refers to the size of places or regions being studied scientific method—a technique of advancing knowledge through the use of a question using systematic observation, measurement, experiment resulting in the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses secondary economic activity—the conversion of raw materials from the primary economic sector into finished industrial products (e.g., manufactured goods, oil refining, construction, ship building) sequent occupance—the settlement of an area by successive groups, each creating a distinctive cultural landscape service industry—a business that provides assistance to a customer rather than manufactured goods (e.g., medical services in hospitals, teaching activities in schools, selling such items as clothing and books in stores, an attorney representing a client in court, driving a truck, delivering mail) settlement pattern—the spatial distribution and arrangement of human habitations, including rural and urban centers shifting cultivation—a system of agriculture in which a field or plot is cleared, cropped, and harvested and after a few years, with initial fertility exhausted, abandoned in favor of a new field; also known as slash-and-burn, milpa, or swidden silting—the buildup of sediments at points along the course of a river where the flow velocity decreases (e.g., upstream of a dam) site—the specific place where something is located, including its physical setting (e.g., on a floodplain) situation—the general location of something in relation to other places or features of a larger region (e.g., in the center of a group of cities or New York City's situation as a port of entry on the Atlantic coast, adjacent to .heavy and light industries, transportation networks, productive agricultural lands, and major market areas) smog—a mixture of chemical pollutants and particulate matter in the lower atmosphere, usually found in highest concentrations in urban-industrial areas soil—unconsolidated material found at the surface of Earth that is divided into layers (or horizons) characterized by the accumulation or loss of organic and inorganic compounds. Soil types and depths vary greatly over Earth's surface and are influenced by climate, organisms, rock type, local relief, time, and human activity. soil creep—the slow and gradual down-slope movement of masses of soil due to gravity in combination with freeze—thaw and wet-dry cycles solar radiation—energy received from the sun upon which all life on Earth depends South Pole—the geographical point farthest south on Earth; the southern end of Earth's axis. On globes and most maps, that place in the Southern Hemisphere where meridians converge. Southern Cone Common Market—a regional trade association involving several Latin American countries working together to reduce tariffs and increase economic cooperation among its members; often called the Common Market of the South sovereignty—the power and authority a state has governing a carefully defined territory and the population and resources within that space spatial—pertains to space on Earth's surface National Geography Standards, Second Edition Part III: 113 spatial change—modifications occurring in physical and human arrangements on Earths surface spatial data—information used to pose, analyze, and resolve problems about patterns on Earth's surface that reflect physical and human processes spatial distribution—the spread and placement of physical and human phenomena on Earth's surface spatial organization—the arrangement and positioning of various physical and human phenomena on Earth's surface spatial patterns—the systematic arrangement of various physical and human phenomena on Earth's surface spatial processes—a systematic and sequential series of changes affecting physical and human activity on Earth's surface spatial scale—the absolute or relative size and extent of various phenomena on Earth's surface stereotype—an oversimplified and generally inaccurate image of a place or a region (e.g., "All deserts are hot." or "Asian capitals are dirty and overcrowded."); sec egocentric stereotype and ethnocentric stereotype subsistence agriculture—a form of farming with an emphasis on self-support in which crops or livestock are cultivated for personal consumption rather than for sale supranational organizations—corporations and international agencies that have power or influence transcending national boundaries or governments sustainability—the integration of physical systems with human patterns of activity to assure continuity sustainable development—the capacity of a country to balance economic, social, and institutional needs as population and societal needs change sustainable environment—human use of resources designed to reduce stress on the physical environment system—a collection of entities that are linked and interrelated (e.g., hydrologic cycle, cities, and transportation modes) systemic—of or pertaining to a system as a whole T tariff—an official schedule of taxes imposed by a government on imports or exports technological hazards—disastrous events attributed to a failure of technology or a technological product (e.g., radioactive materials released from a nuclear power plant explosion or soil contamination from a chemical dump) technology—application of scientific knowledge to meet the goals, goods, and services needed and desired by people tectonic plates—sections of Earth's rigid crust that move as distinct units on a plastic-like mantle on which they rest. As many as twenty different plates have been identified, but only seven are considered to be major (e.g., Eurasian Plate and the South American Plate). tectonic process—a physical process within Earth (e.g., volcanic activity, folding, faulting) that creates physical features, such as mountains, on the surface terraces—the step-like flat surfaces created on steep hill slopes for the purpose of farming land that would be subject to erosion under normal cultivation practices tertiary economic activity—the provision of services to the general population (e.g., banking, retailing, education) thematic map—a map representing a specific spatial distribution, theme, or topic (e.g., population density, cattle production, climates of the world) threshold—in physical and environmental processes, the point in the operation of a system when a jump or relatively great change occurs in response to a minor input (e.g., massive flooding in a region resulting from a brief but intense summer storm); in an economic context, the minimum population needed for a service (e.g., auto dealer) to locate in a central place tune zone—a division of Earth, usually of longitude 15°, within which the time at the central meridian of the division represents the whole division; a range of longitudes where a common standard time is used time-distance—the amount of time necessary to travel between two places time-distance decay—diminishing acceptance of an idea or innovation as time and distance increase from its point of origin topographic map— a detailed map on a large scale (e.g., 1:25,000 or 1:50,000) illustrating selected physical and human features of a place (see also contour map) topography—the examination of the arrangement of the physical and human features of an area at any scale tornado—a small but intense funnel-shaped low-pressure cell with very low barometric pressure, strong and violent updrafts, and high-velocity converging winds transregional alliances—political and economic alliances between or among nation states that transcend traditional cultural regions (e.g., Organization of African Unity) travel effort—the difficulty involved in people moving from one place to another as measured in time, monetary cost, or physical distance Tropic of Cancer—latitude 23.5° north; the farthest north the sun is directly overhead during the year, usually June 22 Tropic of Capricorn—latitude 23.5° south; the farthest south the sun is directly over head during the year, usually December 22 u urban heat island—a phenomenon of urban settlements where relatively warmer atmospheric temperatures prevail in the most heavily built-up areas and decrease outward toward the fringes urbanization—a process by which there is an increase in die percentage of people living and working in urban places as compared to rural places V vector image—type of remotely sensed or digitally drawn imagery resulting in either a point, line, or area (polygon) of information that is based on and stored as a mathematical formula (e.g., a mountain top or building [point], a river or a street fline], a lake or recreational park [area]) volcanism—a process resulting in the upward movement and expulsion of molten (melted) material from within Earth onto the surface where it cools and hardens (e.g., this process created the Hawaiian Islands) National Geography Standards, Second Edition Part III: 114 Glossary w watershed—the drainage area of a river and its tributaries weathering—the breaking down, disintegration, or dissolving of Earth's surface and subsurface rocks and minerals by physical, chemical, and organic processes Weber's Least Cost Theory—a model developed by Alfred Weber, a 19th-century German theoretician, establishing that a site chosen for an industry should be located in a place that will reduce costs and maximize profits (i.e., a site that provides the combined lowest cost, accessibility to materials, availability of supplies, a competent workforce, cost-effective transportation, and markets) World Bank—an international organization supported by the world's developed countries with the mission to aid developing countries in the process of economic emergence with loans, advice, and research Z zonation—the division of a large area into smaller areas based on certain predetermined characteristics (e.g., areas of a country where large numbers of tornadoes occur; sections of a state with high unemployment rates; parts of a city with heavy concentrations of high-rise apartment buildings and condominiums) zoning—a system of sectioning areas within cities, towns, and villages for specific land-use purposes through local ordinances (e.g., residential, light manufacturing, commercial uses) National Geography Standards, Second Edition Part III: 115