Reference and inference (and referring expressions) reference – an act in which a speaker, or writer, uses linguistic forms to enable a listener, or reader, to identify something inference – its role is important for successful reference; the listener’s task is to infer correctly which entity the speaker intends to identify by using a particular referring expression Referring expressions – proper nouns (Shakespeare, Milton, Canada) – definite noun phrases (the writer, the singer) – indefinite noun phrases (a woman, a beautiful view) – pronouns (he, her, it, them) Speakers sometimes even invent names. Successful reference is necessarily collaborative. Both the speaker and the listener have a role in thinking about what the other has in mind. 1. Mister Aftershave is late today. attributive and referential use of referring expressions (whoever/whatever fits the description x speakers have a person/thing in mind) 2 a. There is a man waiting for you. b. He wants to marry a woman with lots of money. c. We’d love to find a nine‑foot‑tall basketball player. 3. There was no sign of the killer. Expressions themselves cannot be treated as having reference, but can be ‘invested’ with referential function in a context by a speaker or writer. There is basic ‘intention to identify’ and a ‘recognition-of-intention’ collaboration in work. It works between all members of a community who share a common language and culture. There is a convention that certain referring expressions will be used to identify certain entities on a regular basis. Names and referents 4 a. Can I borrow your Shakespeare? b. Yeah, it’s over there on the table. 5 a. Where’s the cheese sandwich sitting? b. He’s over there by the window. 6 a. Shakespeare takes up the whole bottom shelf. b. We’re going to see Shakespeare in London. c. I hated Shakespeare at school. 7 a. Picasso’s on the far wall. b. The new Mozart is better value than the Bach. c. My Rolling Stones is missing. 8 a. Brazil wins World Cup. b. Japan wins first round of trade talks. The role of co‑text and context The ability to identify intended referents depends on more than one’s understanding of the referring expressions. It is aided by co-text (and context). co‑text – linguistic material accompanying the referring expression range of reference – a number of possible referents context – physical environment has a powerful impact on how referring expressions are to be interpreted 9 a. The cheese sandwich is made with white bread. b. The cheese sandwich left without paying. 10 a. The heart‑attack mustn’t be moved. b. Your ten‑thirty just cancelled. c. A couple of rooms have complained about the heat. The basis of correct inference is one’s familiarity with local socio-cultural conventions. They may differ from one social group to another and may be marked differently from one language to another. Anaphoric reference – cataphoric reference antecedent – anaphor – anaphora – cataphora – zero anaphora – ellipsis 11. In the film, a man and a woman were trying to wash a cat. The man was holding the cat while the woman poured water on it. He said something to her and they started laughing. There is a range of expressions that are used for anaphoric reference in English. The most typical forms are pronouns, they are typical pro-forms. 12. Peel and slice six potatoes. Put them in cold water. 13. I turned the corner and almost stepped on it. There was a large snake in the middle of the path. 14 a. Peel an onion and slice it. b. Drop the slices into hot oil. c. Cook for three minutes. The listener is also expected to make more specific types of inference when the anaphoric expressions (anaphors) don’t seem to be linguistically connected to their antecendents. 15 a. I just rented a house. The kitchen is really big. b. We had Chardonnay with dinner. The wine was the best part. c. The bus came on time, but he didn’t stop. Speakers select linguistic expressions with the intention of identifying certain entities and with the assumption that listeners will collaborate and interpret those expressions as the speaker intended.