Adverbial phrases
We can use the following adverbial phrases to mean generally
I tend to. They go at the beginning of the sentence or clause.
In general, people here don't eat much foreign food.
On the whole, people meet in a restaurant rather than at their
home.
As a rule, we didn't eat much meat when I was a kid. Generally speaking, I eat after seven at night
Adverbs
You can also use adverbs like usually, generally, normally or hardly ever 1 any. They usually go between the subject and the verb,
/ normally stay at home during the week. People hardly ever kiss in public.
in negative sentences, they usually come after the auxiliary
verb and before the main verb.
/ don't normally eat lunch.
People don't generally kiss in public.
Exercise 1
Complete the sentences with one word in each space. Contractions count as one word.
1 I don't like cooking, so I_to eat out a lot.
2 _general, the food here is really good.
3 I don't_eat shellfish, but this is really nice.
4 People here_complain if the service is bad. It's
just that I personally tend_to.
5 As a       ,       , I eat as healthily as I can, so I_,
ever eat fried foods.
6 The problem is, most people_tend to think about
where meat comes from once it's packaged, so _
speaking, they don't worry that much about animal welfare.
7 On the_, food from my country is fairly unhealthy,
but I still love it.
8 He has a terrible diet, I mean, he eats hardly_
vegetables or fruit.
SECOND CONDITIONALS
We use second conditionals to speculate about situations and possible results. They usually have two parts: an /f-clause referring to the situation and a second clause showing results or consequences.
We use the past simple, past continuous (or could) in the /f-clause. The //-clause refers to a situation in the present or future which is impossible to change or is not going to take place.
The other clause explains the imagined results or consequences. We use would + infinitive (without to) to show a definite result, or might + infinitive (without to) to show a possible result.
Either clause can come first. When the //-clause comes first, add a comma after it.
If I ate this kind of thing every day, I'd get really fat!
If I wasn't working part-time in the restaurant, I wouldn't be
able to pay my university fees.
I'd go there more often if it wasn *r so expensive!
It'd be better if they served bigger portions.
You're so unadventurous! If you actually tried it, you might like
it!
I'd buy more organic food if it was I were cheaper.
If it wasn't I weren't so expensive, I'd shop there all the time.
DID YOU KNOW?
It is very common in spoken English to say If 11 he I she / it was .... However, some people see this as incorrect and prefer If II he I she I it were ... .
Exercise 1
Choose the correct option.
1 I'd love to come tonight, but I'm afraid I have to take an important client out to dinner. If it is I was I would be anyone else, 1 cancel I will cancel I would cancel it, but I really can't. Sorry.
2 It's not really my kind of place, to be honest. Perhaps if I am I would be I were a bit younger, I enjoy I might enjoy / would be enjoy it, but it's just a bit too trendy for me now.
3 That sounds horrible! I don't know what I do I would do I wit. do if that happens f would happen I happened to me.
4 I would be I am i will be happy to have the party at our placf if our flat is I were I would be a bit bigger, but it's just too small for something like this.
5 It's a lovely place, but it's not cheap! I mean, you will only go I would only go I only go there if you would be I will be / were earning good money!
Exercise 2
Decide which six sentences are incorrect then correct them.
1 I will really miss eating fried chicken if I were a vegetarian!
2 You'd be in trouble if you had to use chopsticks alt the time!
3 I wouldn't eat tripe even if you'd pay me!
4 You might lose weight if you didn't drink so much!
5 They would can make more money if they started stocking more foreign food.
6 If I would be better at cooking, I might invite people round for dinner more often.
7 I'd be happy to pay for dinner sometimes - if you wanted me to!
8 I would go crazy if I had to go on a diet!
9 I wouldn't ask you if I wouldn't really need your help. 10 If I am you, I'd just do what it tells you to do in the book.
9 HOUSES
PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE AND PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS
The present perfect simple (have I has + [not) + past participle) is often used to talk about trends continuing from the past to now. We often use an adverb to say how quickly the change happened, or by how much. We use a time phrase to show the period of time.
has
..have,.
		over the past
		few months.
		over the last
	dramatically	few years.
risen	sharply.	over the past
increased	a lot	ten years.
gone up	steadily	in recent
gone down	gradually	months.
dropped .	slightly......	■ in recent ■
fallen.......	'a bit	years.
	by 15%	since last
		year.
		since the last
		election.
Continuous or simple?
We also use the continuous form [have I has + (not) + been + -mg) to talk about trends continuing from the past to now. The continuous form can be used to emphasise the duration of an activity or the fact that it is regularly repeated. Unemployment has been rising over the last year. House prices have been falling steadily. The situation has been gradually improving over recent months.
We don't use the continuous form when showing quick
changes or to say exactly how much.
The price of oil hes-been-incre&smg has increased
dramatically.
Inflation has boon failing has fallen by 3% this year.
We also use the simple form for finished changes / events that
took place at some point before now.
They have built 6,000 new houses in our city in the last two
years. (= already built)
I've seen one or two places on sale with a discount. (= in the past, before now)
Exercise 1
Decide if both forms are possible in each sentence. If not, choose the correct option.
1 Inflation has been gradually falling I has gradually fallen over the last two years.
2 The population has grown 1 has been growing dramatically in recent years.
3 The government has introduced I has been introducing laws in the last year to prevent foreigners buying property and leaving it empty.
4 More and more people have been leaving I have left the country because of the economic problems.
5 Unemployment has increased I has been increasing by 6% since the crash.
6 Things have improved I have been improving slowly over the last few years.
7 We have moved I have been moving house three times in the last five years.
8 I've been under a bit of stress, because I've moved I I've been moving house recently.
Exercise 2
Complete the sentences with one word in each space. Sometimes more than one answer is possible.
1 The crime rate has_falling steadily over the last
twenty years.
2 Unemployment has risen sharply_the start of the
economic crisis.
3 The birth rate has fallen_from 2.4 to 2.1 over the
last decade.
4 In the last decade, the population has grown_
25% to reach 100 million people.
5 Oil prices have___dramatically in _
months. It was $125 a barrel at the beginning of the year and now it's $80.
6 House prices_more or less stayed the same
„_the_two years.
COMPARING NOW AND THE PAST
Comparisons with nouns
We can use more with any kind of noun.
We use fewer or not as many with plural countable nouns.
We use less or not as much with uncountable nouns.
We often make comparatives between now and the past using
the following patterns.
There are
There aren't
There
There isn't
(far) fewer
(nearly) as many
(far) less
cars on the road	than	before.
bars in the area		in the past.
schools here		there were.
working-class	as	there used
people		to be.
pollution	than	there were when 1 was
car crime		a kid.
investment		there were
news on TV	as	20 years ago.
Note that we more commonly start with the present situation, but we can also start with the past.
There were fewer problems in the past than there are now. Twenty years ago, parents spent more time with their children (than they do now).
Comparisons with adjectives
We also compare the past and present using comparative adjectives.
The area is more popular with young people than it used to be.
That part of town used to be much rougher than it is now. I'm not as fit as I was when I was at university.
Exercise 1
There is one word missing in each sentence. Add the word in the correct place.
1 It's far multicultural than it was ten years ago.
2 It wasn't nice as the last time we went there.
3 There aren't as people living here as when I was a kid.
4 There's less unemployment there used to be.
5 There are more restaurants than were before.
6 The area isn't as working class as used to be.
7 There isn't as pollution round here since the government tightened the laws.
8 There didn't use to be as many shops here as there now.
Using auxiliary verbs in comparisons
Notice that the second auxiliary verb in comparisons might be different to the first.
The area has more cultural events than it did before. It's not as interesting as it was twenty years ago.
Exercise 2
Complete the sentences below with these verbs.
used to be
can      do        did were
1 It's not as difficult to get round the city as it__
2 There are so many more cars on the street than there _a few years ago.
3 I used to work a lot harder than i_now.
4 We spend less money at the supermarket than we _in the past.
5 Before they changed the laws, we could work more hours per week than we_now.
6 It never used to be as multicultural as it_now.
176
Grammar reference 177
11 THE NATURAL WORLD
10 GOING OUT
QUANTIFIERS
We use quantifiers when we want to give information about the number or amount of something.
not any
hardly any almost no
There are no anemos nearby. There aren't any cinemas nearby.
Few I Hardly any locals can afford (very) few   to go to the top restaurants.
i lot of
almost all
almost
every
aií i every
(very) little
a few a little . not much not many
(so) many (so) much
/ heard it can be dangerous, but we saw almost no I very little
trouble.
A lot of us went home, but some/ a few people went on to a club. I don't drink much, but I may have some i a little wine at dinner. There weren't many people there. Some, but I expected more.-. There isn't much nightlife here. There are a few piaces, but there could be more.
A lot of I many people are living in poverty.
Apparently, things are expensive '. because there's a lot of/ so much corruption.
Almost all7 Most clubs charge '. you to get in. Hardly any have free entry.
Almost every place we went to had a TV with a fashion channel on.
The DJ plays all kinds of music. Every time I go out someone hassles me!.
few and many, little and much
(A) few and many go with plural countable nouns, e.g. people, cinemas, locals, etc.
(A) little and much go with uncountable nouns, e.g. money, corruption, poverty, etc.
We often use these quantifiers with so. They often link a cause and result.
We have so much daylight in the summer that it's difficult to sleep sometimes.
There was no real atmosphere in the place because there were so few people.
a few and few, a little and little
A few and a little generally have a more positive meaning than few and little.
I had a little break and took a few days off work.
I have little time to myself, so I know few people here.
no and not
We cannot use not directly before a noun - we have to use no or not any.
I h&von't have no I don't have any idea where it is. There aren't are no I aren't any clubs round here.
178
all and every
We can use all with singular and plural nouns. We usually use a determiner such as the. my, your or these with plural nouns. We use every only with singular nouns.
The party lasted all day and all night (= the whole day / night)
We saw all the sites while we were there.
We visited every museum and gallery in the city!
DID YOU KNOW?
In spoken language, we usually use a lot in positive sentences. We generally use much and many in negative sentences or with so (see above). However, in formal or academic writing, much and many are often used in positive sentences.
Exercise 1
Complete the text with one word in each space.
I live in a fairly small place in Chile, so there's 1_
entertainment at night. There are a 2_bars, but only
one is open late and they don't play3_._music that I like.
So 4_weekends, i travel to Santiago where there are a
_of clubs playing6
. kinds of music, such as
Salsa, Reggaeton, Pop stuff. Personally, I'm a big fan of electronic dance music and there's a growing scene in Santiago. It's
mainly Chilean DJs playing in the clubs, but we get7_
international DJs coming over and there's also a big festival
- Sensation - 8_year. I'd like to move to Santiago
soon, because I spend so 9_time there, but there are
10_jobs available at the moment so I'll have to see.
DID YOU KNOW?
When we use nouns with the or pronouns after some
quantifiers, we add of after the quantifier.
some of us, (a) few of them,
most of the time, many of the best restaurants
Exercise 2
Complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first sentence using the word given. Do not change the word given. You must use between three and four words, including the word given.
1 I went to the cinema with several friends last night. US
A_to the cinema last night.
2 We could hardly move because the place was packed. PEOPLE
There_there, we could hardly move.
3 There won't be anything to eat at the party. FOOD
There'll_at the party.
4 Crime is almost non-existent, so you can walk safely at night. VERY
You can walk safely at night as there_crime.
5 A lot of restaurants in town have discounts for students. MANY
If you're a student, you can get a discount at_
town's restaurants.
THE FUTURE IN THE PAST
Plans and intentions
We often use the structure was I were going to + infinitive (without fo) to talk about things that were planned or intended, but then didn't happen, To explain why, we often add a clause starting with our.
/ was going to go swimming after work yesterday, but in the end I was too tired.
Some friends were going to come for dinner, but they rang to say they couldn't make it .
/ u/as just going to go out for a walk when it started pouring with rain.
Promises and predictions
We often use would(n't) + infinitive (without fo) to talk about promises and predictions in the past - especially ones that didn't then happen or come true. We also usually use another verb in the past simple in the same sentence. He promised he wouldn't be late, (but he was late / but he is late now)
(His actual words were probably 'I won't be late.') / said I'd go with her. (but you didn't!) (Your actual words were probably 'I'll go with you.') The play was better than I thought it would be. (My actual thought was 'I don't think it'll be very good.') / didn't think it'dbe anything special, (but it was) (My actual thought was 'I don't think it will be anything special.' / 'It won't be anything special.')
Exercise 1
Complete the exchanges with one word in each space.
1 A: So did you go and see that film last night?
B: No, I was going 1__, but I had an essay to hand
in and it took longer than I thought it2_, so by
the time I'd finished, it s_
„ too late.
2 A: What did you do at the weekend?
B: Nothing much. We 1_going to go to the beach,
but the weather was so awful, we just stayed at home.
A: I know. It was terrible, wasn't it? It was so annoying, because the forecast said it2_be sunny!
3 A: So how was your holiday? Did you go away anywhere? B: Bad question, I'm afraid! You see, me and my brother
1_going to go to visit our uncle in Spain. He'd
promised he 2_pay for the flights, but in the end
he said he couldn't afford it, so we just had to3_
at home instead.
Exercise 2
Complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first sentence using the word given. You must use between three and five words, including the word given.
1 A friend rang and said he had tickets for the Slayer concert, which is why I didn't stay in.
OUT
I was_, but a friend gave me a ticket for the
Slayer concert,
2 I expected him to be rubbish, but he was actually quite
THOUGHT
His performance was much better _
.be.
3 It's so sunny! The forecast was for rain. IT
They said_, but it's turned out really nice.
4 My dad promised to help me later. SAID
He_me later.
5 The government has broken their promise not to raise taxes. INCREASE
At the election, the government said_, but they
have.
6 I feel a bit guilty about not going to the party because I promised to be there.
DEFINITELY
I told her_at the party, so I feel guilty that I haven't
gone.
PAST ABILITY / OBLIGATION
could
With sense verbs (see, hear, feel smell, taste), we usually use
could(n't) + infinitive (without to) rather than managed to.
We managed to could hear these little cries coming from
somewhere, but we couldn't see her anywhere.
When i walked in, I managed to could immediately smell gas.
We also use could to talk about general abilities in the past.
I could ride a horse by the time I was five.
He could make these crazy noises like a dog! It was really
funny.
couldn'tI could hardly
We use couldn't or could hardly to show it wasn't possible to do something in a specific situation.
We couldn't see her anywhere. (= It wasn't possible for us to see her.)
/ chased it for ages, but I just couldn't catch it. (= It wasn't possible.)
/ was so nervous I could hardly say a word. Note that we can also use didn't manage to or hardly managed to in these situations. However, these structures are less commonly used than could/ could hardly.
managed to
We use managed to + infinitive (without to) - not could - to show an ability to do something difficult in a specific situation. When it came down, I could managed to catch it and put it into a box.
The fire service took ages trying to get the cat out of the tree, but they could managed to do it in the end. I screamed and screamed and eventually I eeuld managed to attract someone's attention.
Note how managed to often goes with words and phrases such as finally, in the end and eventually.
DID YOU KNOW?
We often use managed to when talking about stupid mistakes.
/ managed to lose my passport somehow.
We managed to get ripped off everywhere we went.
had to
We use had to + infinitive (without to) - not must - to show we felt there was no other choice. We had to call the fire services.
I had to put some fruit and seeds on the ground to tempt it down.
I couldn't see the monkeys so I had to sit on my boyfriend's shoulders.
Grammar reference   179
Exercise 1
Complete the sentences with could, couldn't, managed to or had to. 1
1 I was cycling afong and this dog suddenly chased after me, but I just ______ cycle fast enough to escape,
2 We went on a whale watching trip, but we_see
anything because the weather was terrible.
3 It was a bit scary camping at night, because you_
actually hear wolves howling in the distance!
4 It got so dark we_hardly see anything. I'm amazed
we_get down the mountain without falling.
5 My dog was making such a dreadful noise I_lock
him inside a room so the neighbours_hear.
6 There were cockroaches in the house and I_get
rid of them, so in the end we_call a specialist to
deal with the problem.
7 There were so many people on the train, you_
really move, but I actually_get a seat in the end. I
was really lucky.
S The car broke down in the middle of nowhere and I
_get it to start, then we_wait for ages
for the breakdown service to come.
PASSIVES
Passives allow us to emphasise the person or thing an action is done to. We make passive sentences with a form of the verb be + past participle. Passives can be used in different tenses.
Present simple
Most of the coal is exported.
Over 3,000 people are employed in the mine.
Present continuous
More gas than ever is being exported from the country. Many people believe that prices are being controlled by the major suppliers.
Past simple
A lot of money was stolen by corrupt politicians. During the civil war thousands of people were killed.
Past continuous
About 80% of the oil was being sold, the rest was being kept The government was worried that diamonds were being exported illegally.
Present perfect simple
The profits from oil have been invested in health care. Oil has been discovered in the north of the country.
DID YOU KNOW?
We don't usually make passives in the present perfect continuous.
Modal verbs
To make passives after a modal verb, use be + past participle. The resources there can now be extracted more easily. Most natural resources will be used up in the next 50 years. More should be done to help developing countries.
by
You can introduce who or what did the action using the word by after the verb.
The phrase 'the resource curse' was first used by the writer Richard Auty.
However, we often don't mention who or what did an action because;
1 it is not clear or not known.
Oil has been discovered in the north. (= We don't know who by.)
2 it is obvious.
Most of the coal is exported, (by the companies who mine it) Taxes are not being spent wisely, (by the government)
Exercise 1
Choose the correct option.
I recently 'attended I was attended a conference on how profits from the sale of natural resources can best 2t/se / be used for human development. It's an important question because oil and gas have recently discovered I been discovered in many African countries, including Ghana, Ugands and Kenya. In manysub-Saharan countries, natural resources have ^managed I been managed very badly for too many years, and people in many resource-rich countries often still 'receive I are received worse educations and health care than people in countries without resources. Interestingly, I teamed that in many countries with lots of natural resources, people ^aren't taxed I don't tax very much. As a result, they 'aren't expected I don't expect much from their governments in return. They pay less and so they have less reason to worry about how their money "spends I is spent. This leaves politicians free to keep the money that has ^earned I been earned by selling the natural resources. Sadly, if people do complain, the government often uses oil or gas money to mpay I be paid the army to stop any protests.
Exercise 2
Complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first sentence using the word given. Do not change the word given. You must use between three and four words, including the word given.
1 They discovered oil there back in the 1970s. WAS
_back in the 1970s.
2 The government subsidises petrol prices, which is why they are so low.
_the
Petrol is so cheap there because_
government.
3 There's a lot of pollution in the rivers because of the mining. BADLY
The rivers have_because of the mining.
4 The government could do more to stop corruption if it wanted to.
DONE
More_stop corruption if the government wanted
to.
5 They are building a new motorway which will destroy the area.
BUILT
The area will be destroyed by this new motorway__
6 They should do more to prevent people cutting down trees Illegally'. BEING
More should be done to prevent_illegally.
180
12 PEOPLE I KNOW
USED TO, WOULD AND PAST SIMPLE
Habits and regular events
We can use all three forms: used to + infinitive (without to), would + infinitive (without to) and the past simple to talk about habits or regular events in the past. Often these habits / events no longer happen now.
Would is more common than used to. We often start with used to and then give extra details using would. He smoked a pipe. I used to love the smell of the fresh tobacco. I'd sometimes even open the tin when he wasn't there to smell it
J '  5 We used to live next door to my cousins so we'd spend a lot I of time together. We'd play together most days in the street in \ front of our block of flats.
Negatives
All of the following are commonly used by native speakers, though some people say the last form is incorrect. In exams, it's best to avoid it, but don't be surprised if you hear or see it used. My grandparents never used to visit us. We'd always go to their house.
My grandparents didn't use to visit us. We'd always go to their house.
My grandparents didn't used to visit us. We'd always go to their house.
Past state
We talk about past states with the past simple or used to - not would.
I loved I used to love the smell of fresh tobacco. He had i used to have long white hair. I belonged I used to belong to a gym, but I never went, so I stopped paying in the end.
Single events
We only use the past simple for single events. When he used to die died, Gran wouid move moved to a town by the seaside.
They used to get got married and would-have had their first child a year later.
Exercise 1
Decide if both forms are possible in each sentence. If not, choose the correct option,
A: Arnedo's a lovely place, isn't it? How do you know it? B: Well, my parents 'usee/ to have I would have a little house near there. We 2would go i went there every summer for a month. A: Really? Whereabouts?
B: The house 3 was I would be just outside the town. A: Lovely. Did you "■use to go I go walking round there? B: Not really. In fact, we 5would never I never used to do much while we were there. We 6would go I went swimming in the river, we 7went I used to go for bike rides, but to be honest, none of us were into walking. A: Oh, OK. So how come your parents zused to sell / sold the house?
B: Well, as we 9would get I got older, we used to complain so much about going they ™would decide / decided to sell it.
EXPRESSING REGRET USING WISH
We use the past perfect simple {had + past participle) after.w/sr) to express regret about things in the past. To express regret about things that didn't happen, but that we wanted to happen, we use wish +■ had + past participle.
/ wish I'd been a bit stricter with my children. (= I was quite
indulgent with them and they became spoilt.)
To express regret about things that did happen, but that we
didn't want to happen, use wish + hadn't + past participle.
/ wish I hadn't eaten so much. (= I ate a lot and now I feel sick.)
Exercise 1
Choose the correct option.
1 I often wish I had! hadn't travelled more when I had the chance, but it's impossible with the children.
2 I wish I had I hadn't gone. It was such a waste of time.
3 Ail the flights are really expensive. I wish I had I hadn't left it till the last minute to book them.
4 i wish I had I hadn't brought up my children in the country. It's healthier and they wouldVe had more freedom.
5 I wish I had/ hadn't ignored him. He was right.
6 Than ks. YouVe been really helpful. I wish I had I hadn t spoken to you earlier.
7 I really shouted at her and I wish I had I hadn't now.
8 I never really pushed my children very hard, but I sometimes wish I had I hadn't. They would've thanked me for it.
DID YOU KNOW?
There are other common ways of expressing regret.
/ really regret not asking for her phone number. (= I wish I'd
asked her for her phone number.)
It's a shame I didn't think of that. (= I wish I'd thought of that.) Exercise 2
Complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first sentence.
1 I really regret starting smoking. I really wish_.
2 I really regret not asking her. I wish_.
3 It's a shame you didn't tell me. I wish_.
4 I regret being so hard on my children. I wish__
5 It's a shame I lost touch with them. I really wish_.
6 It's a shame I didn't move when I had the chance. I wish_.
13 JOURNEYS
THIRD CONDITIONALS
We use third conditionals to talk about imagined past situations. To form third conditionals, use the past perfect in the /T-clause. The other clause shows the possible results or consequences of the //-clause. We use would + have + past participle if the consequence seems definite. We use could (or might) + have + past participle if the consequence seems only possible.
Either clause can come first. When the /f-clause comes first, add a comma after it.
Compare these examples with the real situations given in brackets.
If he hadn't been so determined, Hussain could easily have given up and returned home.
(= He was really determined and so he didn't give up and go home. He continued with his journey.) If I'd stayed in Afghanistan, none of this would've happened. (= He didn't stay in Afghanistan. He moved to Australia, where he set up his own business.)
Grammar reference 181