GRAMMAR REFERENCE
1 ENTERTAINMENT
HABITS
Past
To talk about past habits, we can use the past simple, used to +
infinitive (without to), or would + infinitive (without to).
I listened to music all the time when I was younger.
I used to listen to music all the time when i was younger.
I'd listen to music oil the time when i was younger.
Present
To talk about current habits we can use the present simple,
tend to + infinitive (without to), and will + infinitive (without to).
I listen to music ail the time.
I tend to watch films on demand through my TV.
I don't follow football much, but I wilt watch the big gomes.
Will is not as common as the other forms.
Adverbs and adverbial phrases of frequency always I all the time I constantly
normally i usually i as a rule I on the whole ( by and large
sometimes I now and again I once in a while
almost never I very rarely i hardly ever f once in a biue moon
We also use phrases with not as much as.
not as much as... I'd like to / / want /1 used to / / did before.
Making negatives
We can make negatives with tend to and used to in different ways.
/ didn't use to like It very much.
I never used to listen to music at home.
I tend not to go out during the week,
I don't tend to go to the cinema that much.
Exercise 1
Complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first sentence using the word given. Do not change the word given. You must use between four and five words, including the word given.
1 I only go to the cinema once in a blue moon. HARDLY
I_cinema.
2 We used to fight constantly when we were kids. TIME
We used_when we were kids.
3 As a rule people don't read on public transport here. TEND
People here_public transport.
4 3 don't like classical music much but \ sometimes go to a
concert with my dad. , ......... .................
WILL
I don't like classical music much but now and _to a concert with my dad.
5 He was fitter before because he cycled 50 km every day. WOULD
He used to_cycle 50 km every day.
6 I did it all the time when I was younger, but I'm not so keen on it now.
AS
I don't do it_to.
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COMMON MISTAKES
• / ueo to usually I tend to go out with friends on a Friday. Don't say use to or used to to talk about habits in the present.
• / wes-going went I used to go swimming a lot when I was younger.
Don't use the past continuous to talk about past habits.
• / would-ha-ve had I used to have long hair when I was younger.
Don't use would to talk about character and other kinds of states.
• I don't go as much hew as I'd like to. Don't use how instead of os in comparatives.
Exercise 2
Rewrite the sentences, correcting the mistake in each.
1 I used to go and see films when they come out at the cinema because I prefer to see them on the big screen.
2 I'm tend to stay in on Friday nights, as I'm generally too tired to do anything much.
3 I don't see her as much how I used to, because we're both so busy.
4 My parents never used to go out late at night because we would live in quite a rough area.
5 I was making my own comics and films when I was younger.
6 By and large I don't use to watch TV much. There are too many ads, which annoys me.
DID YOU KNOW?
Would is actually far more common than used to to talk about
past habits. That's because while we often introduce a topic
with used to, we tend to give the details with would.
I used to make my own aims when I was younger. I'd watch
famous films and get ideas and then my brother and I would
try to make our own versions. We'd then do screenings for our
family.
ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS
Adjectives
Adjectives tend to go before a noun. The film had a really uplifting ending. It's quite dull music, if you ask me. Adjectives go after 'linking' verbs. The painting looks very realistic. She went red with embarrassment.
These verbs can be followed by an adjective on its own; be, become, get, go, feel, grow, keep, look, remain, seem, smell, stay, sound, taste and turn.
In these cases, the adjective describes the subject of the verb. Adverbs
Adverbs go before adjectives. His writing is absolutely impossible to read. It was a strangely moving film. Adverbs can come before other adverbs. The traffic was moving really slowly.
Adverbs at the start of sentences or clauses show an opinion
about the whole sentence or clause.
Fortunately, no-one was injured in the accident.
I meant to be here earlier, but, stupidly, I got halfway here
before J realised I'd left your address at home.
Mi
Most adverbs are formed by adding -ly to the adjective, but some adverbs have the same form as the adjective: alive, fast, hard, late, later.
When we use an adverb with the verbs be, look, become, seem, get, taste, etc., they do not describe the subject of the verb, they describe how something is done.
Exercise 1
Choose the correct option in these sentences about the paintings on page 11.
1 Initial I Initially, they may strike you as fairly traditional I traditionally portraits.
2 The young man sitting in the chair looks calm/calmly and is obvious / obviously thinking hard/ hardly about what to write.
3 The two pieces were painted short I shortly before the artist's death.
4 Gabriel Metsu was both wide / widely admired and reasonable/reasonably successful during his lifetime.
5 Unfortunate / Unfortunately, he died at the height of his fame.
6 A strange tension and feeling of danger seems apparent/ apparently in the two paintings.
7 Dogs in paintings were a frequent / frequently symbol of loyalty and trust.
Exercise 2
Complete the sentences with the adjectives in the box, changing them into adverbs if necessary.
beautiful   disturbing   funny   interesting occasional catchy     frequent     hard    later recent
1 You can buy a season ticket for the museum if you're going to be a_visitor. It works out a lot cheaper.
2 I don't do much exercise, except for_L going
swimming.
3 I've been working really _
_to improve my English
and I feel I'm making progress at last.
4 Seven is a bit early. Can't we get a_train?
5 _enough, I was just thinking about calling you
when you rang.
6 If we want the book to sell, we need a_title to
ensure that people remember it.
7 A_report has found that kids are being exposed
to_high levels of violence in video games.
8 _, this is one of only two portraits he ever
painted, but as you can see it's_done - a real
masterpiece.
Adverb position
To show frequency, we usually add adverbs before the main verb.
They're always shouting at each other. I hardly ever go out these days.
To show how we did something or when the action happens,
we usually place adverbs after a verb.
He was looking at me strangely.
I went to this great exhibition yesterday.
Exercise 3
Rewrite the sentences with the adverbs in brackets in the correct place.
1 I download films from the internet, (never)
2 I've seen him all day. (hardly)
3 He reacted badly to the news, (fairly)
4 I'm going fishing in the week, (later)
5 To be honest, I haven't even picked up a book, (lately)
6 The car was completely destroyed, but he escaped without a scratch, (amazingly)
7 The special effects are amazing - just realistic, (incredibly)
8 They got married in 2005, but he died after, (sadly, soon)
Exercise 4
Make collocations by matching 1-9 to a-i. Use a dictionary if you need help.
1
2 loosely b
3 a symbolic c
4 ended d
5
6
7
a heated loosely a symbolic ended shortly an uplifting almost
8 badly
9 totally
after meaning treated
exactly the same discussion ending out of control tragically
based on a true story
2 SIGHTSEEING
RELATIVE CLAUSES
Clauses with no commas
Sometimes when we use general words like man, place or thing, we need a relative clause to make clear which man, place or thing we are referring to. When the relative clause explains this, there's no comma. These are sometimes called defining relative clauses.
He's the man.       He's the man that I who led our country during the war.
He's the man I spoke to earlier. Highgate is the     Highgate is the place where Marx is place. buried.
Highgate is the place where I met my wife.
These kinds of sentences don't always need a relative pronoun, but if you're unsure, use one!
Clauses with commas
In other sentences, the sentence is clear and complete, but we want to add some extra information. These are called non-defining relative clauses and always need a relative pronoun. Vaclav Havel was the first Czech president. Vaclav Havel, who was also a famous writer, was the first Czech president. 1 met my wife in Highgate.
I met my wife in Highgate, which is where I lived as a student. DID YOU KNOW?
. We often use which is where instead of where when adding
extra information. That's the local registry office, which is where we got married.
Exercise 1
Underline the relative pronouns and add a comma where it is necessary.
That was the home of Abe and Betty Zimmerman whose son is a famous singer, Bob Dylan.
Tnot was the home of Abe and Betty Zimmerman, whose son is a famous singer. Bob Dylan.
1 We're meeting Jaime later. You know, the guy whose brother got us the tickets for the match.
2 People lived in houses carved out of the rock most of which have been destroyed.
3 Apparently, the hotel where we're staying in Vienna overlooks the river.
4 The 19th of July celebrates the day that we gained independence.
Grammar reference 167
5 It took us ages to get there by which time we were starving.
6 The first place we will stop at is the Cavern Club which is where the Beatles started out
7 The monument honours those who died during the war many of whom came from this city.
Modifying which and whom
Look at the ways we can show the quantity or time by adding to which or whom.
People lived in houses        most of which have been carved out of the rock, destroyed.
some of which still survive today.
a few of which are still iived in.
There were ten of us on the  none of whom I knew before, boat trip, many of whom had been before.
We had a look around the during which time it poured with old town for two hours, rain.
at which point we decided to
have lunch.
We wiil check in around 11,   by which time we hope the
rooms will be ready. (= before 11) öfter which we will have a mid-morning snack.
DID YOU KNOW?
Many native speakers use who instead of whom.
There were ten of us on the boat trip, most of who had been
before.
Exercise 2
Complete the sentences with these words and phrases.
at which point by which time during which time
most of whom none of which some of which
where which who
1 The statue was erected by Sukarno,_was
our first president after we gained independence.
2 Next stop for us is Yekaterinburg,_______the last
tsar was executed.
3 There must have been 20 people waiting to check in, , _were shouting at the receptionist!
4 We didn't get into town until after ten,_all
the hotels were already booked for the night.
5 The museum houses a remarkable collection of books, _date back as far as the tenth century,
6 Margie and the kids spent a few hours shopping, _I stayed in and updated our travel blog.
7 After lunch, we went to checkout the castle, _was very grand.
8 We looked in seven different shops and none of them had it in stock,_we just gave up.
9 The guidebooks,_I actually bothered to
read at all, were soon conveniently 'lost'!
We often use a relative clause to add an opinion to the
sentence wejust said. ...............
We spent a week hiking in the which was amazing, jungle, which was quite hard.
which was my idea of hell.
Exercise 3
Rewrite each of the pairs of sentences below as one sentence.
1 We saw Big Ben, Buckingham Palace, Tower Bridge and the London Eye. They were all amazing.
2 There were loads of recommendations on the internet. Most of them were really helpful.
3 We stayed out dancing until two in the morning. I was completely exhausted by then!
4 We spent a week in Bolivia. The election was on while we were there.
5 We spent two days in Bergen and then drove down to Stavanger. My girlfriend has family in Bergen.
6 Chen's grandfather still lives at home with the rest of the family His grandfather is 97.
COMMON MISTAKES
• We went on the guided tour round the old town, tk&t which was nice.
My mum's uncle, ibet who I didn't really know, to be honest,
used to work in the paface.
You can't use that to add extra information.
• This is the stadium that # holds the Cup Final.
The tour guide who he showed us round the castle was really funny.
When that or who is the subject of the relative clause (the stadium holds... 1 the tour guide showed...), don't add another pronoun (it J he, etc.)
• Bailioi is the oldest college in Oxford, many ofttoeif whose students go into politics.
Whose replaces their I his I Mary's, etc., in a relative clause.
TALKING ABOUT THE FUTURE
Timetables
We prefer the present simple to talk about timetables, but the present continuous is also possible and doesn't change the meaning.
My train leaves at nine.   My train is leaving at nine. Offers
We use will to offer to do something for someone.
/'// help you with that   I'll lend you some money, if you want.
Decisions about the future
To talk about a decision about the future that you've already made on your own, we prefer be going to. The present continuous is also often possible, and doesn't change the meaning.
I'm going to study for my exams tonight. I'm studying for my exams tonight
To talk about a decision (or a promise or a threat) made at the
time of speaking, use will.
Thanks, f'ilpayyou back tomorrow.
I'll call her now and see what she says.
Predictions
For predictions based on what we can see, hear, feel or on what we already know, we prefer be going to, but will is also possible.
I'm sure they're going to lose the next election. OR
I'm sure they'll lose the next election.
For predictions made at the moment of speaking, we prefer
will, but be going to is also possible.
You'll break that in a minute!
OR
You're going to break that in a minute!
You'll regret it! OR
You're going to regret it! Arrangements
To talk about activities we have arranged with other people in the (near or foreseeable) future, we prefer the present continuous, but can also use be going to. I'm meeting a friend later. OR
I'm going to meet a friend later. We're returning to the UK next year. OR
We're going to return to the UK next year. Exercise 1
Complete the sentences with the word in brackets using one of the forms given in each space.
1 will I present simple
A; What time_you_work? (finish)
B: About five, most days.
A: OK. Well, I_you outside your office around
quarter past, then, (meet)
2 present continuous/ be going to
A: I_Mary later. Do you want to come? (meet)
B: No. I've got an exam tomorrow, so I_some
revision tonight, (do)
3 present simple / will i present continuous
A: I_some friends after the cinema. Why don't
you join us? (meet) B: I might do. What time _
(end) A: Half eight. B: Right. Well, look. I _
_the film _
_ you later to confirm one
way or the other, OK? (text)
4 be going to i wiil I present continuous
A: I'm so excited about this trip. 1 can't wait. Paris_
amazing, (be)
B: When_you_? (leave)
A: Thursday. That reminds me, actually. 1 need to book a cab
to the airport before I forget B; I_you there, if you want It's not a problem.
(drive)
5 will I be going to
A: I'm quite tired now, so I_exhausted by the end
of the day! (be) B: You_, I'm sure. A bit of hard work never killed
anyone, (survive)
Things we don't think will happen
To talk about things we don't think will happen, use be not
likely to or be (highly) unlikely to.
She's not likely to change her mind.
It's highly unlikely to make any difference.
Things we see as (almost) inevitable
To talk about things we see as (almost) inevitable, use be
bound to - or be likely to.
It's bound to be sunny in July.
We're quite likely to lose. Half our side is injured.
Things that we expect to happen
Use be due to talk about the times that things should happen. The bus is due (to arrive) in five minutes. When is the baby due?
Exercise 2
In each sentence, decide if both options are possible. If not, choose the correct option.
1 I'm working I I'm quite likely to work late tonight, but I'll call / I'm calling you when I'm done.
2 I'm going to go I Til go and do the Maracana stadium tour tomorrow. I booked it online.
3 Turn the gas down. The food burns I is going to bum]
4 it's going to / it's bound to cause problems if they go ahead with the redevelopment plan.
5 / don't think he'll I He's highly unlikely to accept the offer, but I guess it's worth asking.
6 I'll give I I'm due to give you a lift to the airport, if you like.
7 He's going to I bound to fail. He just hasn't done enough work this term to pass.
8 We have I are having a little get-together at our place on Sunday, if you fancy coming.
9 I'm due to fly I I'm flying to Rome on March the 6th to attend a conference.
3 THINGS YOU NEED
EXPLAINING PURPOSE USING SO, IF AND TO
Use so to show that the second part of the sentence is a potential result of the first. The word that can be added after so, but doesn't have to be.
DID YOU KNOW?
So (that) is often followed by can.
Do you want to borrow a torch so (that) you can see where you're going outside?
Pass me a cloth so (that) I can grip the lid of this jar better. We use //-clauses {//+ noun + verb in present tense) to talk about possible situations in which certain things might be necessary.
77?/s is useful stuff to have if you need to remove stains. Hang it up with a nail if you can't find anything else. We use to + infinitive (without to) to explain the purpose of doing things, why we need something or what something is for.
DID YOU KNOW?
You can aiso say in order to + infinitive (without to). This is more common in formal writing.
I'm just going out to buy a few things for the house.
A cable is required (in order) to connect the device to the
computer.
Exercise 1
Complete the sentences by adding so, if or to.
1 Have you got a dustpan and brush_E can clean
up this mess I've made?
2 I must buy some wire_hang this up with.
3 _you want to put those shelves up properly,
you'll need a drill.
4 You'll need an adaptor_
your laptop in the States.
5 Put some cream on_
the sun.
6 What are those things you wear on your knees_
you do skateboarding or something like that?
7 You should put a plaster on your foot_stop
your shoes cutting into your skin.
8 Can I borrow your stepladder_I can change
the light bulb in the hall?
.you're going to use
_ protect yourself from
9 Have you got a clip or something _ papers together?
_ keep these
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Grammar reference 169
5 SPORTS AND INTERESTS
Exercise 2
Complete the sentences using so, if or to and the ideas in brackets. You may need to add some extra words.
1 We need some matches or something_the
stove, (light)
2 Maybe you should wrap some tape round where there's a crack__(it / not / leak)
3 You'll need wire cutters_that-not
scissors, (you / want / cut)
4 Have you got something I can stand on_
this light bulb? (I / can / change)
5 Can't you just use some string _
. it? (tie it
together / and / make / a handle / you / carry)
SHOULD AND SHOULD HAVE {SHOULD'VE)
We use should (not I never) * verb to give general advice.
suggestions or criticism about a present situation.
You should see complaints as an opportunity to improve.
We should never give terrorists what they want.
We should go and try that new pizzeria that's just opened
round the corner.
We use should (not/ never) + have + past participle to show a criticism or regret about a past action.
He should have I should've checked the shoes at the point of sale.
They shouldn't have oarked here. They've blocked me In. Exercise 1
Complete the two dialogues with the correct form of should and the verbs in brackets.
A: You '_bowling with us. We had a great
time, (come) B: Well, you 5_
. me so fate. I couldn't
rearrange things, (tell)
A: I know. Sorry. Maybe we 3_next week
sometime, (go)
A: The neighbours kept me awake last night again.
B: Really? Maybe you 4_them next time.
(report)
A: I have already, but the police didn't want to do anything.
B: They5_them at least, (come and warn)
A: I guess they felt they had more important things to do. B: Did you tell them how often it's happening?
A: Not really. Maybe 16_so calm when I spoke
to them, (be)
Yeah, maybe.
I don't know. Maybe we 7 _
Yeah, but you 8_
. (just move)
. It's just wrong! (have to)
DID YOU KNOW?
Use should be -ing to refer to a current unfinished situation. Stop distracting me. We should be working not chatting. Use should have been -ing to refer to an unfinished / interrupted action in the past.
It was his own fault he crashed. He shouldn't have been driving so fast!
Exercise 2
Choose the correct option after should.
1 The new system has been a disaster. We should /rove tested I have been testing it properly before we introduced it.
2 With so much unemployment, the government shouldn't cut I be cutting jobs like it is.
3 Apparently, she was sacked because she was seen in a shopping mall when she should nove worked I have been working.
4 It's his own fault he got into trouble. He shouldn't have texted / been texting while the teacher was talking to the class.
COMMON MISTAKES
We should to go. We're lote.
I should travelling be travelling there now, but I missed my bus. He should teek have taken it back to the shop sooner. They should of have had it fixed by a professional. Always follow should with a form of the infinitive (without to).
Exercise 3
Rewrite the sentences, correcting the mistake in each.
1 I'm sorry it's a bit late. I should rang you earlier, but I forgot.
2 They should of try to sort it out instead of blaming me.
3 When you take it back, you should to ask for some kind of compensation.
4 I sometimes think I should never go to university because I didn't enjoy it much and I have a huge debt now.
5 It's terrible I have to work tonight. I should celebrating my birthday with my friends!
4 SOCIETY
SO AND SUCH
In the part of the sentence describing the cause, use so before an adjective or an adverb or before words like few, little, much or many. Use such before a noun, an adjective + noun and before a lot of + noun. Remember that you don't have to start the result clause with that - especially in spoken English. It was so expensive in Moscow, we couldn't stay there long. There's so much traffic, it's quicker to walk sometimes! So few people had bought tickets that they decided to cancel the event
They did so badly in the elections that their leader resigned. It was such a surprise that t just didn't know what to say! The ride was such a laugh that we went on it six times. There's such a lot of rubbish on the streets, it makes me angry.
DID YOU KNOW?
Few and many go before plural, countable nouns {people / families, etc.) and much and little go before uncountable nouns {crime I damage, etc.).
There's far too much crime and too fewpeopie doing anything to change things.
Exercise 1
Choose the correct option in sentences i-8. Then match them with a-h at the top of page 171.
1 Our situation sometimes looks so / such bleak,
2 He was involved in so / such a terrible public scandal,
3 The government have lied so / such many times,
4 Food prices have gone up so / such quickly,
5 The earthquake caused so I such widespread damage,
6 So / Such few women are having babies these days,
7 They've got so /such poor hospitals,
8 There's so I such little crime now,
W
life/
a there have been riots in the street markets,
b that most kids can't even get basic health care,
c they're actually making police officers redundant!
d I've just lost faith in them.
e the government's introduced tax breaks for big families to
boost the birth rate,
f that it's hard not to feel pessimistic about the future,
g that tens of thousands are feared dead,
h that in the end he was forced to resign.
Exercise 2
Complete the sentences by adding many, much, few or little.
1 There's so_
_ poverty in the world that surely
tackling that has to be our main goal.
2 So_people bothered to vote that the election
results are almost meaningless!
3 So_people turned up to vote in the election,
there were long queues at the polls.
4 So_new jobs have been created that there are
actually a lot of posts which are unfilled.
5 So_research has been done into the problem that
it's hard to say what's causing it.
COMPARATIVES WITH THE..., THE...
We show correlations using the following basic patterns:
the + comparative + noun / pronoun (+ verb), the + comparative
+ noun (+ verb).
The more affluent the area is, the nicer the cars are. The bigger you are, the more difficult it is to and nice clothes. The more roads there are, the more people use their cars and the more pollution there is.
Note: we sometimes leave out the nouns and use more I less I fewer as pronouns.
The more I earn, the more I buy. (= more money,... more things)
The less I know, the better. (- less information) Exercise 1
Complete the sentences with one word in each space.
1 _richer the country,_lower the birth
rate.
2 The better educated people_, the_
money they are likely to earn.
3 The stronger_economy, the _
unemployment there is.
4 The hungrier people are, the_
tend to be_the more conflicts
5 The happier people are, the_„
desperate they
_will be.
. illnesses they
Common patterns in conversation
We often use these short patterns, especially in conversation: The sooner, the better      The faster, the better The bigger, the better       The fewer, the better The simpler, the better      The more, the better
Exercise 2
Write a short reply to each question using thethe better.
1 What size boxes do you want?
2 What kind of camera are you thinking of buying?
3 When do you want this done by?
4 How do you want your coffee?
5 How many people should we invite?
SHOULD{N*T) HAVE, COULD{N'T) HAVE, WOULD(N'T) HAVE
Use should have (shoufd've) + past participle to show you think
something in the past was a good idea, but didn't happen.
We should have phoned you. We forgot. Sorry.
Use shouidn't have or should never have + past participle to
show you think something that happened wasn't a good idea.
You shouidn't have hit him. It was wrong of you.
Add a comment using would have (would've) I wouldn't hove I
would never have + past participle to show a certain past
result.
It's your birthday? You should've said. I would have bought you a present.
I shoufd've gone more slowly. I wouldn't have made that mistake.
Add a comment with could have (could've) I couldn't have I could never have (or might have t might never have) ■** past participle to show possible past results. They should've acted sooner. They could have saved his fife. They should've asked for help. They could never have done it on their own.
He shouldn't have substituted the striker. They might have won.
Exercise 1
Choose the correct option.
1 It's his fault. He should have I would have dealt with the problem sooner rather than leaving it so long.
2 The fire was my fault. I shouldn't have / wouldn't have left the gas on while I was out.
3 It's my own fault. I should have I would have warmed up more before I started playing. I wouldn't have I couldn't have strained my back if I had.
4 I blame the players. They got knocked out because they wouldn't have underestimated I underestimated the opposition. They should've / would've taken the game more seriously.
5 He should have I would have talked it through first. He might not have I might've got himself into so much trouble.
6 The game was pretty awful, but I suppose it would have been I might have been worse - we could have I wouldn't have lost.
DID YOU KNOW?
We often follow would have I wouldn't have with a clause starting with but.
We would have won, but we had a goal that wasn't allowed. (= that's why we didn't win)
/ wouldn't have said anything, but he asked me how you were. (= that's why I spoke)
Exercise 2
Complete sentences 1-4 with the correct form of would and the verb in brackets. Then complete 5-8 with the correct form of could.
1 I_;_here earlier, but the traffic was terrible.
(get)
2 She
_ to come, but it was impossible. She
had so much work, (like)
3 I_him forgetting normally, but I'd told him
twice that it was really important. That's why I was so angry, (mind)
4 I_him, but he'd invited me to his party, so
I felt I had to! (invite)
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Grammar reference 171