Chronology of Religion in Japan
Explanatory Notes
Caveats, and Acknowledgements
ca. (circa, "about") is placed before dates that may be inexact or that are based on scholarly conjecture.
? ("questionable") is placed after dates, proper names, and events that might not have existed, that are
subject to dispute, or that supposedly occurred prior to 680 but for which the only evidence is later
Japanese texts, such as Kojiki  (712), Nihon shoki  (720), Gangji engi 
(747), Fus ryakki  (ca. 1180), etcetera.
Asterisks identify events primarily associated with places beyond the Japanese archipelago, such as the Asian
mainland or China (*), with the Korean peninsula (**), or elsewhere (***).
This chronology originated as private notes compiled as an aid for my own memory. It is biased, therefore,
toward subjects of interest to me. It largely reproduces without modification or critical analysis the format and
structure of conventional chronologies produced in Japan. It is a chronology of events, not of processes.
Nonetheless, many of the events listed herein might be more accurately regarded as being representative of
complex processes that actually spanned many years or decades. Moreover, many other events (usually those
with question marks, such as the instatement of Jinmu in 660 BCE) should not be accepted as historical facts,
but regarded as historically influential fictions that tell us more about the concerns of the later chroniclers who
wrote of them than about the times when they supposedly occurred. Be forewarned: it is not the purpose of
this chronology to determine which of these events might be more or less plausible. Entries for these events
frequently use the same anachronistic terminology (e.g., tenn  for "sovereign") as found in the later texts
cited therein. The use of this terminology does not imply its acceptance, but is meant to draw attention to its
influence.
I never recorded bibliographic information regarding the original sources and secondary scholarship on which
I based my original notes and dates. In the process of preparing this revised edition, I have endeavored to
confirm its accuracy by consulting the standard reference works, including (but not limited to) the following:
Asao Naohiro  et al., eds. 1996. Kadokawa Nihonshi jiten   (The Kadokawa
Dictionary of Japanese History). New edition. Tokyo: Kadokawa Shoten.
Hiraoka Jkai  et al., eds. 1999. Nihon Bukkyshi nenpy  (Historical
Chronology of Japanese Buddhism). Tokyo: Yzankaku.
Kasahara Kazuo  and Yamazaki Hiroshi , eds. 1979. Bukkyshi nenpy 
(Historical Chronology of Buddhism). Kyoto: Hzkan.
Nihon Gakugei Daigaku Nihonshi Kenkyshitsu , ed. 1984. Nihonshi
nenpy  (Historical Chronology of Japan). Tokyo: Tkyd Shuppan.
no Tatsunosuke , ed. 1979. Nihon Bukkyshi jiten  (Dictionary of Japanese
Buddhist History). Tokyo: Tkyd Shuppan.
During the process of revision this chronology also benefited from numerous suggestions, comments,
additions, and corrections provided by many friends and colleagues, including (but not limited to): Karl F.
Friday (Univ. of Georgia), Jacqueline I. Stone (Princeton Univ.), John B. Duncan and Donald F. McCallum
(Univ. of Calif., Los Angeles). I am very much indebted to each of them.
I alone am responsible for any errors of fact or interpretation.
Chronology of Religion in Japan
William M. Bodiford
Dates Events
BCE Paleolithic period (prior to ca. 8,000 BCE): no archeological evidence for religious activity
ca. 8,000 ~ Jmon  (Mesolithic and Neolithic) period: sophisticated cord-patterned (jmon) pottery developed
among hunter-gatherers inhabiting Japanese archipelago
ca. 5,000 ~ Agriculture developed as people began to dwell in villages and towns; development of pottery figurines
in shapes of animals (and humans?) suggest possible religious symbolism
ca. 1,000 ~ Archeological evidence for circles outside villages suggest possible sites (shrines?) for religious rituals;
pottery figurines in shapes of heavy-set females suggest possible goddess worship or shamanism
660 ? Jinmu  (?) became first sovereign (tenn ) of Japan (according to Nihon shoki , 720)
ca. 400 ~
~ 250 CE
Yayoi  period: Immigrants from northern Asia swept into archipelago, introduced new culture, new
language (which evolved into Japanese), and new technology, especially bronze and iron work; musical
instruments, such as bronze bells (dtaku ) suggest possibility of sophisticated religious rites; wide
regional variations, however, preclude the existence of any uniform cultural or religious milieu
ca. 300s Irrigated rice paddy cultivation began in Kyushu (southern island of Japan)
221 *Qin  empire (221­206 BCE), having conquered other Chinese kingdoms, ruled all of China
206 *Han  dynasty (206 BCE­220 CE) replaced Qin, established Confucian Imperial State
CE 57 Chinese Han emperor awarded official seal of investiture to unnamed "king"  (chieftain?) of Nu
Kingdom  somewhere (Kyushu?) in Wa  (Japanese islands) (according to Hou Hanshu )
220 *Han dynasty fell, Chinese continent became divided among many competing kingdoms
ca. 239 Wei  Kingdom in China awarded official seal of investiture to queen "Himiko"  (a.k.a. Pimiko)
of Yamatai  (somewhere in Japanese islands), who supposedly conquered many warring states
and who ruled by gid : the Way (or Dao) of Ghosts (according to Weizhi ); many Chinese
mirrors came to Japan around this time
ca. 250­600 Kofun  period: Emergence of powerful local rulers who were commemorated with massive burial
mounds (kofun), especially in Miyazaki  (Kyushu) and in Okayama , Gunma , and central
(Nara , saka , Kyoto ) areas of Honshu; goods from continent (Korean & Chinese states)
became more widespread; bows and arrows used not just for hunting but also for warfare; terra cotta
figurines (haniwa ) and other grave goods from these mounds suggest complex local hierarchies in
which underlings, servants, and slaves represented by haniwa cared for deceased rulers in the afterlife
313 **Luolang  colony (Han Chinese) in northern Korea peninsula overran by Kogury 
367 ? **Korean kingdom of Paekche  sent Confucian scholars (?) to Yamato  court (?) in Japan and
requested soldiers (according to Nihon shoki)
ca. 400s Seaport around saka became more developed than Nara region; burial mounds increased to enormous
size and their grave goods become more militaristic, with more iron swords, arrowheads, amour, and
saddles; Chinese bronze mirrors with images of Buddhas also found; social groups known as uji 
(clans or tribes based on Korean social models) probably fully emerged during this period
421 Chieftain "San"  (somewhere in Japanese islands) sent tribute to China's Liu Song  Kingdom
(according to Songshu )
425 Chieftain "San" (somewhere in Japanese islands) sent tribute to China's Liu Song Kingdom
438 Chieftain "Chin"  (somewhere in Japanese islands) sent tribute to China's Liu Song Kingdom, received
title: "General (shgun ) who commands the 6 lands of Wa , Paekche , Silla , Inna ,
Jinhan , & Mokhan " (of which, all except Wa were located on Korean peninsula)
Chronology of Religion in Japan Page 2
Dates Events
Copyright  2004 William M. Bodiford
443 Chieftain "Sai"  (somewhere in Japanese islands) sent tribute to China's Liu Song Kingdom, received
title: "General who pacifies the East" (ant shgun )
446­452 *First major persecution of Buddhism (by Northern Wei  Kingdom) in China
451 Chieftain "Sai" received title: "General who commands the 6 lands of Wa, Silla, Inna, Kala , Jinhan,
& Mokhan" (according to Songshu)
462 Chieftain "K"  (somewhere in Japanese islands) sent tribute to China's Liu Song Kingdom, received
title: "General who pacifies the East" (according to Songshu)
478 Chieftain "Bu"  (somewhere in Japanese islands) sent tribute to China's Liu Song Kingdom, received
title: "General who commands the 6 lands of Wa, Silla, Inna, Kala, Jinhan, & Mokhan"
502 Chieftain "Bu"  sent tribute to China's Liang  Kingdom, received title of "General" (shgun)
(according to Liangshu )
ca. 500s Large-scale land clearing and irrigation projects greatly expanded agriculture and wealth (of elites);
rulers began to construct residential compounds separate from villages; iron increasingly produced
domestically rather than imported; prestige goods (mirrors, crowns, swords, horse trappings) from
Korean peninsula used to mark social status; Buddha images began to be worshiped by elites; Yamato
hegemony over central region began to be established
507 ? Yamato hegemon (tenn) Buretsu  (?) overthrown for his depravity; new royal line established by
hegemon Keitai  (?; according to Nihon shoki)
513 ? Paekche  (?) sent Confucian scholars & scriptures to Yamato court (according to Nihon shoki)
522 ? Shiba Tatsuto  (?) built Buddhist chapel (according to Fus ryakki , ca. 1180)
538 ? Paekche (?) presented Buddhist statues to Yamato court (according to Gangji engi , 747)
552 ? Paekche (?) presented statue of Śkyamuni Buddha to Yamato court (according to Nihon shoki)
*Year regarded as beginning of Dharma Decline (mapp ) by some Buddhists in China
554 ? Yamato and Paekche (?) armies allied in battle against Silla, and Paekche (?) sent masters of Chinese
learning to Yamato court (according to Nihon shoki, which perhaps attempts to prefigure 588 events?)
569 *Zhiyi  (538­597) began teaching Lotus Stra and Mahyna meditation practices; Eventually
established Tiantai  (Tendai) school
574, 577 *2d major persecution of Buddhism (by Northern Zhou  Kingdom) in China
577 ? Paekche (?) sent monks, nuns, meditation masters, and Buddhist artisans to Yamato court in Japan
(according to Nihon shoki)
579 ? Silla  (?) sent Buddhist images to Yamato court in Japan (according to Nihon shoki)
584 ? Soga Umako  (?) obtained two Buddha images from Paekche and erected worship hall for them
where daughter of Shiba Tatsuto served as the "nun" Zenshin  (according to Nihon shoki)
585 ? Mononobe Moriya  (?) blamed outbreak of pestilence on new "buddha-god"  and burned
down Soga's worship hall, disposed of Buddha image in river, and had nuns publicly flogged
(according to Nihon shoki)
587 ? Yamato hegemon performed Niiname sai  (or Daij sai ) for first time (?); Soga  uji (?)
defeated Mononobe  uji, Buddhism now formally accepted by Yamato hegemon (according to
Nihon shoki)
588 ? Soga Umako (?) established Asukadera  (subsequently regarded as origin of the later Hkji 
and of the still later Gangji ) as Japan's first major Buddhist temple, invited craftsmen and
artisans from Paekche to begin construction, sent Zenshin and other women to Paekche for proper
Buddhist ordination as nuns (according to Nihon shoki); hereafter, wealthy elites began to abandon
custom of burial mounds (kofun) and erect Buddhist halls as mausoleums instead
589 *Sui  Dynasty (581­617) united North & South China into new Imperial State
592 ? Soga Umako (?) murdered Yamato hegemon (tenn) Sushun  (?), placed wife of Bidatsu  (?) on
throne as female hegemon Suiko  (?; according to Nihon shoki)
594 ? Shtoku taishi  (?; 574­622) leads court for Suiko (according to Nihon shoki); Shtoku
subsequently worshiped as patron saint of Japanese Buddhism and described as "regent" (sessh )
598 **Sui armies attacked Kogury 
Chronology of Religion in Japan Page 3
Dates Events
Copyright  2004 William M. Bodiford
600 Japanese king  sent embassy to China's Sui court in Chang'an  (according to Suishu )
602 ? Paekche (?) monks introduced books on astronomy, calendar, geography, & military science (according to
Nihon shoki)
604 ? Shtoku taishi (?) issued 17 article "Constitution" (kenp ); Established Japan's first calendar
(according to Nihon shoki)
607 Japanese king sent 2d embassy to Sui court in China (with greetings from "son of heaven in land of rising
sun  to son of heaven in land where the sun sets") (according to Suishu)
608 ? Yamato court received official envoy from Sui court in China; in return they sent 3d embassy to Sui,
including several people who stayed in China and became officially ordained as Buddhist monks
(according to Nihon shoki)
612 **Sui armies attacked Kogury
618 *Tang  dynasty (618­907) replaced Sui and inaugurated new flowering of Chinese civilization
623 ? Yamato court sent embassy (?) to Tang court in China (according to Nihon shoki)
624 ? Ecclesiastical magistrates (?) of Sagha Perfect (sj ), Sagha Provost (szu ), and Dharma
Chief (ht ) appointed for first time to manage 46 temples (ji ) with 1,385 male and female
residents (according to Nihon shoki)
632 ? Japanese Buddhist monks returned from China
639 ? Kudara dera  constructed as the court's first major Buddhist temple (subsequently regarded as
origin of the later Daikan daiji  and of the still later Daianji ) (according to Nihon shoki)
643 ? Soga Iruka  (?) murdered entire family of Shtoku's son Yamashiro no e  (according
to Nihon shoki)
644 ? Daoist (?) religious movement  suppressed by Yamato court (according to Nihon shoki)
645 ? Taika coup d'etat  (?; according to Nihon shoki): Yamato prince Naka no e  murdered
Soga Iruka; Attempted to create "imperial" state based on Tang system: Yamato court supposedly
confiscated all rice lands, abolished uji control over families, outlawed slavery, and imposed taxation
*Xuanzang  (ca. 596­664) returned to China after 15 years in India
ca. 650s First evidence of literacy & written records among some Yamato ruling elites
653 ? Dsh  (629­700) traveled to Chang'an (capital of Tang China) along with other scholar monks and
embassy from Yamato court (according to Nihon shoki); Dsh studied with Xuanzang
660 **Silla (allied with Tang) defeated Paekche;
First Ninn e  (?; chanting ceremony to invoke the protection of 4 heavenly kings) at Yamato court
(according to Nihon shoki)
ca. 660s Kawaradera  Buddhist temple erected by Yamato hegemon (Tenji  or Saimei  ?)
661 Yamato court sent embassy to Tang court in China (according to Xin Tangshu ); Dsh returned
from China (according to Nihon shoki)
662 ? Dsh established Zen'inji  (?) meditation center within Asukadera (according to Genk shakusho
, 1322)
663 Yamato court sent embassy to Tang court in China (according to Xin Tangshu); Japanese forces (?) in
Korea defeated by Silla (& Tang) (according to Nihon shoki)
668 **Silla (& Tang) defeated Kogury = beginning of unified Silla dynasty
669 ? Nakatomi no Kamatari  (?; 614­669) erected Yamashinadera  temple (subsequently
regarded as origin of the later Kfukuji ) (according to Kfukuji engi , 900)
670 Yamato hegemon (Tenji ?) sent embassy to Tang court in China, stated that his kingdom should be called
"Nippon"  (instead of "Wa" ) (according to Xin Tangshu); Thereafter, no diplomatic relations
with China for 30 years (until 701)
672 Jinshin no ran : Tenmu  (d. 686) became Yamato monarch after bloody succession dispute,
established rival royal line, implemented Taika reforms (?)
672 ? Tenmu appointed gji  (celebrant) to Ise  Shrines (?) for first time (according to Nihon shoki)
Chronology of Religion in Japan Page 4
Dates Events
Copyright  2004 William M. Bodiford
673 ? Tenmu ordered Buddhist scriptures copied at Kawaradera and began construction on great temple at
Takechi  (subsequently named Daikan daiji ) (according to Nihon shoki)
674 *Chinese Tang emperor briefly adopted title of "heavenly sovereign" (tenn )
675 ? Tenmu confiscated land holdings of aristocrats and Buddhist temples; first prohibition of hunting &
eating meat (according to Nihon shoki)
676 ? First edict to release all captive animals (hj ); lectures ordered on scriptures of Golden Illumination
(Konkmy ky ) and of Humane Kings (Ninn ky ) ( according to Nihon shoki)
679 ? Tenmu regulated the income and names of all official temples ( according to Nihon shoki)
680 Tenmu vowed to erect Yakushiji  (The Healing Buddha's Temple) to help his consort recover from
an illness (this is the first temple named with a Buddhist term instead of its geographical location)
681 Tenmu ordered compilation of royal history (origin of Kojiki  and Nihon shoki): -- events began
to be recorded, dates in Nihon shoki become somewhat reliable
682 Gygi  (668­749) became Dsh's disciple; draft of Kojiki probably written about this time (?)
684 *Zhou  dynasty (684­704) of empress Wu  briefly took over Tang, used Buddhism to
legitimate female rulership (became model for Japanese story of Suiko?)
685 ? First order that all elite families should construct Buddhist icons and erect Buddhist worship halls; Grand
Shrines of Ise rebuilt (or built?) for first time (according to Nihon shoki)
687 Buddhist memorial services performed for Tenmu, hereafter Buddhist memorial rites for rulers became
established custom
ca. 690s title tenn  began to be used as term for head of royal family (originally a Daoist title for the pole
star, tenn literally means "heavenly sovereign" and today usually is translated as "emperor")
690 In one ceremony at palace the Yamato court presented gifts to 3,363 (?) monks from 7 major monasteries
(according to Nihon shoki)
692 Genkareki  (a luni-solar calendar used in China during 445­509) adopted as official calendar;
Census recorded 545 Buddhist worship sites (ji ) (according to Nihon shoki)
694 Fujiwaraky  laid out as vast capital city with four major Buddhist temples: Yakushiji, Daikan
daiji, Hkji, and Kawaradera = complete adoption of Buddhism as state religion
697 Gihreki  (a luni-solar calendar used in Tang China during 665­727) adopted as official calendar
699 En no Ozunu  (gyja ) of Mt. Katsuragi  banished to Izu peninsula for practicing black
magic (or Daoist rituals?) -- En no gyja later regarded as founder of Shugend 
700 Dsh's corpse cremated (Japan's first Buddhist cremation according to Soku Nihon shoki )
701 Taih Law Code  (not extant) supposedly formally established kingdom called "Nippon" ;
divided government into two halves: Jingikan  & Daijkan , which incorporated monks
and nuns as government workers (kans ) governed by the Sagha Magistrates (sg );
Sniry  (Rules for Monks & Nuns) section of Taih Law Code forbade Buddhist preaching to
commoners, meditation in the mountains, teaching military tactics, etc.
Diplomatic embassy sent to China for first time since 670, included Buddhist monk Dji  (d. 744)
710 Nara Period: Nara  (Heijky ) established as new capital city for Kingdom of Nippon
712 Kojiki  completed (written in Chinese mixed together with Japanese transliterated by Chinese
glyphs) as official history of royal house -- [this text later used to rediscover "ancient Shint" ]
713 Gygi (Buddhist preacher) began missions among rural Japanese
714 Vimalakrti Ceremony (Yuima e ) performed at Kfukuji  monastery in Nara for first time
717 Gygi repressed by government; Genb  (d. 746) traveled to China
718 Dji (Buddhist monk) returned to Japan, aided in compilation of Nihon shoki (to replace defective Kojiki)
and new Yr Law Code  promulgated (to more closely approximate Chinese model); Buddhist
monks again forbidden from living in mountains
720 Nihon shoki  completed (written in proper Chinese) as official history of royal family &
government -- [this text used as basis for subsequent "histories" of ancient Japan, BCE 660­697 CE]
729 Court issued new edicts prohibiting Buddhists from training in mountains
Chronology of Religion in Japan Page 5
Dates Events
Copyright  2004 William M. Bodiford
733 Government sent 2 monks to China to bring back a vinaya master
735 Genb returned from China with handwritten copy of entire Chinese Buddhist Canon (5,000+ fascicles)
736 Daoxuan  (Dsen, 702­760) arrived in Japan, taught vinaya and Chan  (Zen)
737 Major Smallpox epidemic (threatened court); Genb appointed Official Court Meditation Master (zenji
), cared for sick queen (i.e., empress)
740 Revolt by Fujiwara Hirotsugu  in Kyushu directed against Genb's politics
741 Court established provincial temple (Kokubunji ) system with Tdaiji  monastery as head;
Court officially designated six areas of specialization for Buddhist studies (i.e., Ritsu , Kusha ,
Jjitsu , Sanron , Hoss , & Kegon )
743 Gygi used as fund raiser for Tdaiji monastery
747 Gangji engi  compiled as private history of early Japanese Buddhism
749 Gold discovered in Japan; Hachiman  (Yahata) enshrined at Tamukeyama  in Nara
ca. 751 Kaifs  collection of Chinese verse by Japanese aristocrats compiled
752 Tdaiji Dedication: Completion of colossal Buddha (daibutsu ) image
754 Ganjin  (Jianzhen, 687­763) established Ritsu (Vinaya) in Japan; Conducted first proper Buddhist
ordinations on special platform at Tdaiji; Government now controlled ordinations
755 *Revolt of An Lushan  (d. 757) severely weakened Tang government
758 Court ordered mountain priests (zenji) of 10+ years "pure practice" to be recognized as ordained
759 Tshdaiji  monastery established for Ganjin as headquarters of vinaya studies
ca. 760 Man'ysh  (10,000 Leaves) collection of Japanese verse and song (written in Japanese
transliterated by Chinese glyphs) compiled
764 Retired female sovereign Kken  (r. 749­758) resumed control under new name  (Shtoku, r.
764­770), attempted to found Buddhist theocracy like that of Chinese Empress Wu (d. 704); 1 million+
copies of Buddhist dhra printed in Japan (world's oldest extant printed text?) and distributed
throughout the land (now known as hyakumant darani ); Dky  (d. 772) appointed
"Prime Minister Zen Master" (daijin zenji ); Taienreki  (a luni-solar calendar designed
by the Buddhist monk Yixing , 673­727; used in China during 728­761) adopted as court calendar
765 Dky appointed "Chancellor Zen Master" (daij daijin zenji ), indicating that he exercised
full control over the court
766 Dky assumed title of Dharma King (h ), indicating that he exercised full control over the clergy;
Major Buddhist temples built at (future?) site of Ise shrines
769 Dky revealed Hachiman oracle that he should be "Heavenly Sovereign" (tenn); subsequent oracle
from Hachiman temple in Usa  (Kyushu) contradicted Dky
770 Dky banished; Knin  tenn established new royal line (which claimed descent from Tenji); court
lifted all restrictions on mountain training
772 Court established group of j zenji  (10 Meditation Masters) to pray for health of ruler
774­811 Repeated military campaigns to defeat Emishi  kingdoms in northern Japan bring fame to warrior
leaders such as tomo Otomaro  and Sakanoue Tamuramaro  (758­811)
779 Court attempted to defrock all unauthorized (i.e., self-ordained) monks and nuns
ca. 780s Sovereign (tenn) first referred to as aki tsu mi kami (manifest god): idea of "divine king"
781 Hachiman awarded status of bodhisattva (bosatsu )
785 Saich  (767­822) ordained in Nara, retired to Mt. Hiei  (future site of Enryakuji )
791 Kkai  (774­835) learned gumonjih  and dropped out of state college
794 Heian Period: Kyoto  (Heianky ) established as new capital
797 Saich appointed court meditation master (zenji)
799 Court ordered provincial governors to purge provincial temples (Kokubunji) of corrupt monks
Chronology of Religion in Japan Page 6
Dates Events
Copyright  2004 William M. Bodiford
804.7 Saich & Kkai traveled to China: Saich studied at Mt. Tiantai ; Kkai studied at Tang capital of
Chang'an 
805.7 Saich returned to Japan: Claimed 4 lineages of En Mitsu Zen Kai  (i.e., Tiantai, esoteric, Chan,
& bodhisattva precepts); Performed esoteric rituals for court
806.10 Kkai returned to Japan
815 Saich began mission in eastern Japan
ca. 817 Tokuichi  (Hoss monk) and Saich began polemical debate
822 Saich died; Court authorized a Tendai "Mahyna Ordination Platform" on Mt. Hiei
ca. 823 Kykai  wrote Nihon ryiki , recorded early Buddhist folktales and faith in karma; Mt.
Hiei awarded name Enryakuji ; Tendai now an independent sect
830 Kkai wrote Jjshinron , systematized Shingon
834 Kkai established Shingon'in  esoteric training hall inside royal palace, began performing Latter
Seven-Days Rite (go shichinichi mishiho ) as annual Buddhist consecration of ruler
838 Ennin  (794­864) accompanied the 12th (& last) official trade embassy to Tang China, wrote detailed
diary of his travels in China and the Huichang Chinese persecution of Buddhism
845 *Huichang  persecution of Buddhism in China: beginning of the end of Tang-style Buddhism
847 Ennin returned from China, established superiority of Tendai esoteric rites (mikky ) over Shingon
lineage, and introduced new rituals for worship of Amitbha (Amida ) Buddha
850 Ennin established Mt. Hiei as protector of the sovereign (tenn goji )
853 Enchin  (814­891) journeyed to China
855 Head of colossal Buddha image at Tdaiji in Nara fell during earthquake; Head subsequently reattached
858 Enchin returned to Japan; Founded new Tendai center Onjji  (a.k.a. Miidera ); Gokireki 
 (a luni-solar calendar used in Tang China during 762­821) adopted as court's official calendar
860 Hachiman enshrined in Buddhist temple at Iwashimizu  near Kyoto
862 Senmyreki  (a luni-solar calendar used in Tang China during 822­895) adopted as court's official
calendar; in Japan the Senmyreki remained the official court calendar until 1684
862­867 Shuei  (808­884) journeyed to Tang China (was last renowned Japanese monk to visit Tang)
878 Emishi revolted in northern Japan
ca. 901 Annen  (n.d.) advocated changing name of his own Tendai tradition to "Shingon" since its esoteric
rites constitute its most important practices; Annen taught unity of Shingon, Tendai and Zen
907 *Tang state collapsed: China entered period of civil warfare that destroyed Buddhist monasteries
918 **Kory dynasty  (918­1392) established in Korean peninsula
927 Engishiki  (Engi-period Regulations) compiled, regulated court support for religious rituals
938 Kya  (Kya, 903­972) began to teach Pure Land dancing in the marketplace
939 Emishi revolted in northern Japan
939­940 Taira Masakado  (d. 940) seized control of 8 provincial governments in eastern Japan
947 Tenjin Shrine  to appease Sugawara Michizane  (845­903) erected at Kitano 
949 Tdaiji sent monastic militia (shei ) to demonstrate in Kyoto (this tactic subsequently adopted by
other wealthy temples and shrines)
960 *Song  dynasty (960­1279) established: Chan and Tiantai became mainstream Buddhism
967 Fujiwara Saneyori  (900­970) became regent (kanpaku ): thereafter the head of Fujiwara
family ruled court as regent continuously until 1068
968 Open conflict erupted between Tdaiji and Kfukuji (2 main Nara monasteries)
971­983 *Song Government printed entire Chinese Buddhist Canon  (5,586 fascicles)
983 Chnen  (d. 1016) traveled to Song China
984 Minamoto Tamenori  wrote Sanb e kotoba , recorded annual Buddhist rituals
985 Genshin  (942­1017) wrote j ysh , Popularized Pure Land meditation within Tendai
Chronology of Religion in Japan Page 7
Dates Events
Copyright  2004 William M. Bodiford
986 Ise Shrines sent militia (jinin ) to demonstrate in Kyoto; Yoshishige Yasutane  (Jakushin 
; d. 1002) founded fraternity (called Nenbutsu zanmai e ) on Mt. Hiei dedicated to
deliverance in Amitbha's Pure Land; Yasutane subsequently compiled Nihon j gokuraku ki 
 hagiography of people delivered to Pure Land
987 Chnen returned to Japan with entire Song Edition of Chinese Buddhist Canon and statue of Buddha
containing inner organs
993 Open conflict erupted between Enryakuji & Onjji (both major Tendai monasteries)
1003 Genshin corresponded with Zhili  (960­1028) on points of Tiantai doctrine (final installment in
Tendai correspondence with Chinese teachers dated 805, 840, 845)
1004 *Zhili began campaign to eliminate heretical interpretations of Chinese Tiantai, initiated great
controversy between "mountain house"  and "outside the mountain"  forms of Tiantai
ca. 1005 Chinese merchants begin introducing Song dynasty wares to Japan
ca. 1008 ? Murasaki Shikibu  wrote Genji monogatari  (Tale of Genji)
1010s **Kory state began printing Chinese Buddhist Canon  based on 983 Song edition
Armed conflict between Tdaiji and Kfukuji (2 main Nara monasteries), conflicts last until 16th century
1013 Armed conflict between Enryakuji (Tendai) and Kfukuji (Nara)
1028 Taira Tadatsune  (d. 1031) seized control of 3 provincial governments in eastern Japan; campaign
to capture him devastated the provinces of the Bs  peninsula
ca. 1044 Chingen  wrote Hokke genki , recorded "Lotus Stra Miracles"
1049 Buddha relics (shari ) distributed as offering to all important regional shrines
1051 Former Nine-Years War  started in northern Japan (lasted until 1063)
1052 Year regarded as the beginning of Dharma Decline (mapp ) by some Japanese
1072 Jjin  (1011­1081) traveled to Song China, wrote diary of visits to Mt. Tiantai & Mt. Wutai 
1073 **Japanese merchants establish trade agreements with Kory court in Korea
1074 *Song court permitted export of coins to Japan, thereafter Chinese coins become main currency in Japan
1075 Enryakuji attacked Onjji to prevent the latter from establishing its own ordination platform
1081 Monastic militia from Enryakuji burned Onjji (conflicts last until 16th century); Monastic militia from
Kfukuji attacked Buddhist monastery at Tnomine 
1083 Later Three-Years War  started in northern Japan (lasted until 1087)
1086 Shirakawa  (1053­1129; r. 1072­1086) retired from office of tenn and became Buddhist monk, but
still ruled from his temple (in ); began rule by cloistered sovereign (insei ), a practice that
continued until 1180; all retired sovereigns continued to become Buddhist monks until 1840
1090 Shirakawa completed religious pilgrimage to Kumano , marked growing popularity of pilgrimages
1094 Fujiwara Kiyohira  (d. 1128) established Hiraizumi  as new Fujiwara capital city to rule over
northern Japan
1095 Monastic militia from Enryakuji blackmailed government by bringing portable shrine of the mountain
god (i.e., Hie ) into the capital (this tactic used repeatedly)
1098 Great fires destroyed much of Kyoto
1102 Monastic militia from Tdaiji blackmailed government by bringing portable shrine of the bodhisattva
Hachiman into the capital (this tactic used repeatedly)
1107 ? Konjaku monogatari  compiled about this time, recorded popular Buddhist literature
1116 Nara monk Jippan  (d. 1144) restored Tshdaiji, advocated ordinations based on vinaya
ca. 1117 Rynin  (1073­1232) attained vision of Amitbha Buddha, initiated practice of yz nenbutsu 
 (interpenetration of all things through recalling Amitbha Buddha)
1127 *Northern China fell to Mongols ; Southern Song  dynasty (1127­1279) began
1134 Major famine in Japan
Chronology of Religion in Japan Page 8
Dates Events
Copyright  2004 William M. Bodiford
ca. 1141 Kakuban  (1095­1143) wrote Gorin kujimy himitsu shaku , advocated unity of
Shingon and nenbutsu  (recalling Amitbha Buddha)
1150 ? Hnen  (Genk ; 1133­1212) left Mt. Hiei to live among the hijiri  (i.e., ascetics)
1151 Famine in Kyoto
1156 Hogen Incident : warrior bands fought in support of rival candidates for royal (tenn) succession
and for the Fujiwara  headship
1159­61 Heiji Incident : Taira Kiyomori  (1118­1181) defeated Minamoto  warrior bands
1163 Famine in Kyoto
1167 Chgen  (1121­1206) visited China; Studied Tiantai (returned with Eisai)
1168 Eisai  (1141­1215) visited China for 5 months; Studied Tiantai
1172 Hnen read writings of Shandao  (Zend, 613­681), began teaching exclusive Pure Land faith
1177 Major earthquake & fire destroyed much of Kyoto again
1180
ca. 1180
Genpei War : Minamoto Yoritomo  (1147­1199) gained supremacy in revolt against
Taira Kiyomori; during course of this conflict Taira Shigehira  (1156­1185) torched Nara,
destroying the great temple complexes of Tdaiji, Kfukuji, & Gangji; Tdaiji's colossal Buddha
image melted, priests slaughtered
Hachiman enshrined in Kamakura (origin of Tsurugaoka  Buddhist temple complex); Fus ryakki 
 (30 vols.) compiled as documentary history of Japan
1181 Famine in Kyoto; Court dismissed Tdaiji & Kfukuji prelates from offices, confiscated all temple lands;
Land holdings restored 2 months later
1181 Chgen began fund-raising campaign to rebuild Tdaiji; Chgen invited team of artisans from China to
recast colossal Buddha
1185 Kamakura Period: Minamoto Yoritomo established Kamakura Bakufu  (military
administration): immediately donated lands to Grand Shrines of Ise and funds for Tdaiji; Taira
Shigehira executed in Nara
1186 Chgen led large group of Buddhist monks to Grand Shrines of Ise to pray for restoration of Tdaiji;
monk-poet Saigy  (1118­1190) led Tdaiji fund-raising campaign to northern Japan
1187 Eisai again went to China & studied Rinzai  Zen at Mt. Tiantai
1189 Nnin began teaching "Darumash"  Zen at Sanbji  temple in Settsu ; Minamoto
Yoritomo defeated the Northern Fujiwara
1191 Eisai returned to Japan, taught Zen in Kyushu, advocated observing vinaya precepts
1192 Court granted Minamoto Yoritomo official title of shgun 
1194 Exclusive Zen of Eisai & Nnin banned by royal court in Kyoto
1195 Tdaiji's Main Buddha Hall restored and dedicated
1198 Hnen wrote Senchakush ; Eisai wrote Kzen gokokuron  to defend Zen
1199 Shunj  (1166­1227) went to China, studied Vinaya, Tiantai, Zen and Pure Land
1200 Eisai invited to Kamakura as Kamakura Bakufu began to patronize Zen teachers
1201 Shinran  (1173­1263) became Hnen's disciple
1202 Eisai allowed to build Kenninji  temple in Kyoto with backing of Kamakura bakufu
1203 Kben  (Mye , 1173­1232) abandoned plan to visit India because oracle of Kasuga  shrine
identified Nara as being the Pure Land of the Buddha Śkyamuni; Kben taught Mantra of Radiant
Wisdom (kmy shingon )
1205 Jkei  (1155­1213) denounced Hnen in his Kfukuji Petition 
1206 Eisai appointed head of Tdaiji fund-raising campaign
1207 Exclusive Pure Land banned by royal court, Hnen and Shinran sent into exile outside of Kyoto
1211 Ban on Pure Land teachings lifted; Jkei vowed to restore vinaya; Shunj returned from China, built
Sennyji  temple as Chinese-style center for Tendai, Vinaya, Zen and Pure Land
Chronology of Religion in Japan Page 9
Dates Events
Copyright  2004 William M. Bodiford
1212 Hjki  written by Kamo no Chmei  (ca. 1155­1216), lamented Dharma Decline (mapp);
Kben (Mye) denounced Hnen in his Saijarin 
ca. 1219 Kitano tenjin engi  (history of Kitano Shrine) composed about this time, other shrines and
temples also begin compiling own legendary histories (jisha engi )
1221 Jky Disturbance : 3 ex-tenn (sovereigns) sent into exile, Royal lands seized by Bakufu,
Power balance shifted to Kamakura
ca. 1224 Shinran wrote Kygyshinsh , his major statement of Pure Land doctrine
1227 Militia from Enryakuji attempt to suppress Hnen's followers, destroyed Hnen's grave site
1231 Major famine
1233 Dgen  (1200­1253) founded exclusive Zen temple (Kshji ) = event regarded as founding of
Japan's St  Zen lineage
1234 Eison  (1201­1290) vowed to restore vinaya, founded Saidaiji  temple to propagate vinaya,
eventually administered full (gusokukai ) ordinations to 800+ monks & nuns, and lay precepts to
tens of thousands of people
1244 Eison & disciple Ninsh  (1217­1303) began ministry to outcasts (hinin ), beggars, & lepers
1249 Kenchji  in Kamakura built as first Song-dynasty-style Zen temple by Hj  Regents
1251 **Kory state reprinted Chinese Buddhist Canon  (6,558 fascicles) based on 1011 Kory edition
plus supplements [This is earliest complete printed edition still extant]
1252 *Siqi Fabaosi temple printed a new edition of Chinese Buddhist Canon  (5,740 fascicles)
1253 Nichiren  (1222­1282) began lecturing on Lotus Stra, subsequently founds Nichiren school
1259 Famine widespread
1260 Nichiren wrote Rissh ankokuron  to admonish the warrior administration (denounced
Hnen's Pure Land teachings), later arrested and exiled to Izu 
1264 Colossal Buddha (daibutsu) image of Amitbha constructed at Kamakura
1268 Mongol envoys visited Japan, demanded tribute
1271 *Yüan  dynasty (1206­1368): All of China conquered by Mongols
Sever drought throughout Japan; Court asked Ninsh to pray for rain; Nichiren exiled again in wake of
his mounting criticisms of other forms of Buddhism
1273 Court asked Eison to pray at Grand Shrines of Ise to repel Mongol threat
1274 Mongol armies attempted to invade Japan  (); Nichiren released from exile;
Ninsh organized campaign to feed starving masses; Ippen  (Chishin ; 1239­1289) began his
travels to popularize practice of nenbutsu (recalling Amitbha), subsequently founds Jish  school
1276 Gynen  (1240­1321) began teaching at Tdaiji, lectured on all aspects of Buddhist doctrines and
history, wrote 1,200+ volumes = basis of subsequent Japanese Buddhist scholarship
1281 Mongol armies again attempted to invade Japan  () & lost 70-thousand men
1283 Muj Dgy  (1226­1312) wrote Shasekish , recorded popular religious beliefs
1287 Ninsh founded public hospital to care for sick, said to have healed tens of thousands of people
1291 Nanzenji  in Kyoto built as first Chinese-style Zen monastery sponsored by southern royal family
1293 Earthquake in Kamakura killed over 20,000 people
ca. 1296 Outer Shrine at Ise assumed "Imperial" (ktai ) title (= emergence of "Watarai Shint" )
1299 "Five-Mountain" (Gozan ) system of prestigious Zen temples established by Bakufu
1301 Bakufu implemented policy of alternate succession among 2 branches (northern-southern) of royal family
ca. 1321 Keizan Jkin  (1264­1365) founded Sjiji  monastery on the Noto  peninsula, thereby
laid foundation for the subsequent propagation of St Zen throughout rural areas
1322 Kokan Shiren  (1278­1346) wrote Genk shakusho , the first comprehensive history of
Japanese religion
ca. 1331 Kakunyo  (1270­1351) established Honganji  temple at Shinran's grave (by ) in tani 
Chronology of Religion in Japan Page 10
Dates Events
Copyright  2004 William M. Bodiford
1332 Go Daigo  (1288­1339) sovereign exiled to Oki  (Oki no shima) for refusing policy of
alternate succession
1333 Go Daigo escaped from Oki, his forces overthrew Kamakura Bakufu
1334 Go Daigo proclaimed "Kenmu Restoration"  (= direct rule by tenn); Nichiz  (1269­
1342) finally received permission to teach Nichiren's Lotus Buddhism in Kyoto
1336 Ashikaga Takauji  (1305­1358) disposed Go Daigo and established Ashikaga Bakufu ;
Go Daigo established rival court at Zad  temple in Yoshino  (south of Nara): beginning of
split between northern and southern lines of royal family  (divided courts persisted until 1392)
1338 Ashikaga Takauji officially awarded title of shgun, located his military government (bakufu) in Kyoto;
trade relations established with Yüan (Mongol) China
1342 "Five-Mountain" (Gozan) Zen temples in Kyoto under patronage of Ashikaga Bakufu and of Northern
Court assumed higher rank than "Five-Mountain" temples in Kamakura
1343 Kitabatake Chikafusa  (1293­1354) completed Jinn sht ki  (Chronicle of
Legitimate Gods and Sovereigns), argued for legitimacy of Go Daigo's southern line
ca. 1348 Ksh  (1276­1350) compiled Keiran jysh , recorded Tendai initiations
ca. 1350s Takuga  (1285­1354) wrote Kibokuron , systematized Jish  Pure Land doctrines
1368 *Ming  dynasty (1368­1644) established in China
1369 Trade relations established with Ming China
1379 Sagha Registrar (sroku ) established by Ashikaga Bakufu to regulate Gozan Zen temples
1386 Nanzenji in Kyoto designated #1 Gozan Zen temple by Bakufu
1392 Southern Court (Go Daigo's line) defeated by Ashikaga Bakufu
**Chosn  dynasty (1392­1910) established in Korea
1397 Trade relations established with Chosn Korea
ca. 1400 Ykai  (1345­1416) wrote Hkysh , in which he denounced as unorthodox the sexual rituals
taught in the Shingon lineages that he identified as "Tachikawary" 
1404 Official tally trade  began with Ming China
ca. 1418 Tally trade conducted with Chosn Korea
1423 Trade relations established with Ryky  Kingdom (Okinawa)
1431 Major famine
1434 Outer (Watarai) Shrine of Ise rebuilt for last time (until 1563)
1440s Series of epidemics
1450s Series of famines; Thievery and disorder became increasingly common
1461 Major famine
1463 Inner (Imperial) Shrine of Ise rebuilt for last time (until 1585)
1465 Monastic militia from Enryakuji destroyed the original Honganji temple (site of Shinran's tomb)
1466 Daij sai  (spiritual-king food offering) conducted by royal court for last time (Note: abbreviated
version will be recreated in 1738 & 1847; and revised 1871 version was performed as state ceremony in
1915, 1928, & 1990)
1467 nin war  began: Kyoto left in ruins, beginning of period of regional power struggles
1474 Pure Land peasant leagues (Ikk ikki ) formed in Kaga Province
1478 Rennyo  (1415­1499) founded a new Honganji temple at Yamashina 
1479 Pure Land peasant leagues formed in Etch Province
1480s Dk  (1465­1501) began to affiliate organizations of mountain guides (sendatsu ) with Kumano
 to form Honzanha  school of Shugend; other schools of Shugend also began to organize
1484 Yoshida Kanetomo  (1435­1511) erected Daigeng  temple at Yoshida Shrine: marked
founding of Yuiitsu  Shint (a.k.a. "Yoshida Shint" )
1486 Outer (Watarai) Shrine of Ise destroyed by fire (not rebuilt until 1563)
Chronology of Religion in Japan Page 11
Dates Events
Copyright  2004 William M. Bodiford
1488 Pure Land peasant leagues began to control part of Kaga Province
1489 Inner (Imperial) Shrine of Ise destroyed by fire (not rebuilt until 1585)
1490s Famines and epidemics widespread
1491 Major fires in Kyoto
1495 Tsunami destroyed the wooden buildings surrounding the colossal Buddha image at Kamakura
1500 Gion matsuri  staged in Kyoto for first time since nin war
1505 Bon odori  prohibited in Kyoto
1506 Pure Land peasant leagues take control of parts of Kaga, Noto, and Etch
1531 Fighting and more revolts by Pure Land peasant leagues in Kaga
1532 Nichiren leagues (Hokke ikki ) seized all of Kyoto; Pure Land leaders moved to Ishiyama 
1536 Kyoto burned when forces of Mt. Hiei (Tendai) defeat Nichiren leagues 
1540 Severe nationwide famine
1543 Firearms re-introduced to Japan by Portuguese traders
1546 Kanazawa Gob  established by local Pure Land leagues to govern Kaga province
1549 Francisco de Xavier (1506­1552) led Portuguese Jesuit missionaries to Kyushu (southern Japan)
1560 Jesuit missionaries permitted to proselytize in Kyoto
1563 Outer (Watarai) Shrine of Ise rebuilt through fund-raising efforts of Buddhist nun Seijun  (d. 1566)
1567 Colossal Buddha Hall at Tdaiji burned down, 2d colossal Buddha image also melted
1568 mura Sumitada  (1533­1587) became first regional war lord (daimy ) baptized by Jesuits;
Tdaiji Fund-raising campaign launched
1569 Oda Nobunaga  (1534­1582) provided protection to Jesuit missionaries in Kyoto
1570 Oda Nobunaga began campaign to destroy military power of Buddhist institutions: Launched first attack
on Pure Land strongholds at Ishiyama
1571 Oda Nobunaga destroyed Tendai center on Mt. Hiei , burned all buildings, killed everyone
1572 Oda Nobunaga attacked on Pure Land strongholds at Nagashima  in Ise
1573 Oda Nobunaga expelled Shgun Ashikaga Yoshiaki  (1537­1597) from Kyoto
1574 Pure Land leagues seized control of Echizen; Oda Nobunaga suppressed Pure Land leagues in Ise
1575 Oda Nobunaga destroyed all Pure Land opposition in Echizen
1578 Oda Nobunaga sponsored building of Christian church (Nanbanji ) in Kyoto
1580 Oda Nobunaga eliminated Pure Land opposition in Kaga, defeated Pure Land stronghold at Ishiyama;
first English ships visited Japan
1581 Oda Nobunaga killed more than 1,000 monks on Mt. Koya ; Jesuits established Christian academy
1582­1590 ***Japanese Christians traveled to Europe and visited pope at Vatican in Rome
1585 Toyotomi Hideyoshi  (1536­1598) appointed court regent (kanpaku ): thereby became de
facto ruler of Japan; Inner and Outer Shrines of Ise rebuilt with funds provided by Hideyoshi
1587 Toyotomi Hideyoshi confronted Gaspar Coelho (1530­1590) and ordered all Christian padres (batenren
) missionaries out of Japan
1588 Ashikaga Bakufu officially dissolved; Toyotomi Hideyoshi expelled Christians from Nagasaki ;
Hideyoshi initiated "sword hunt" (katanagari ) to prevent peasants from becoming warriors
1589 Toyotomi Hideyoshi destroyed Christian church in Kyoto; Hideyoshi erected colossal Buddha (daibutsu)
image at Hkji  temple in Kyoto; work began to rebuild temples on Mt. Hiei
1592 Toyotomi Hideyoshi tried to open trade with Spanish
1592 **Toyotomi Hideyoshi sent troops to invade Korea  ()
1593 **Toyotomi Hideyoshi entered negotiations with Ming Chinese court over war in Korea;
Franciscan (Spanish) missionaries came to Japan, Jesuit (Portuguese) mission monopoly broken
1595 Nichi  (1565­1630) refused to participate in joint Buddhist services in honor of Hideyoshi at
Hkji: marked beginning of Fuju-Fuse  (not accepting, not contributing) branch of Nichiren
Chronology of Religion in Japan Page 12
Dates Events
Copyright  2004 William M. Bodiford
1596 Colossal Buddha at Hkji temple toppled in earthquake; "San Felipe Incident" -- Franciscans crucified
1597 **Toyotomi Hideyoshi sent more troops to invade Korea  () after negotiations with
Ming Chinese broke down
1598 Toyotomi Hideyoshi died, Japanese troops abandoned Korean campaign
1599 Toyotomi Hideyoshi deified as Toyokuni dai myjin 
1600 Battle of Sekigahara : Tokugawa Ieyasu  (1542­1616) defeated supporters of
Toyotomi family and thereby became unrivaled war lord; first Dutch merchant ships arrived in Japan
(with Englishman William Adams, 1564­1620)
1601 Jesuits established seminary in Nagasaki;
*Matteo Ricci (1552­1610) established first Jesuit mission in Peking
1602 Tokugawa Ieyasu sponsored the building of two new Honganji temples-- Higashi  (east) & Nishi 
(west)-- in Kyoto, thereby splitting the Pure Land Shin denomination in two; Hkji destroyed by fire;
Mynin  (1576­1610) advocated vinaya, founded as new "Shingon Ritsu School" 
1603 Edo  Period: Tokugawa Ieyasu granted official title of shgun, established Tokugawa military
administration (bakufu) in Edo (Tokyo)
1605 Sweet potatoes introduced to Japan: population increased; Zjji  (Pure Land) temple built in Edo
for Tokugawa family
1607 Hayashi Razan  (1583­1657) appointed first Confucian advisor to the Bakufu, advocated the
rational (kyri ) Confucianism of Zhu Xi  (Shu Ki, 1130­1200)
1608­18 Bakufu issued regulations (hatto ) to major Buddhist temples, established strict lines of command,
limited conversions, demanded strict discipline and academic study of their own doctrinal lineages;
1608 = regulations (hatto) issued for Mt. Hiei and Jbodaiin  (both Tendai)
1609 Dutch allowed to establish trading factory at Hirado  (near Nagasaki); Regulations (hatto) issued for
Onjji, Shugend, and for various Shingon temples (e.g., Tji, Mt. Kya, etc.)
ca. 1610 Hasegawa Kakugy  (1541­1646) organized Fujik  (Mt. Fuji worship) groups in Edo
1612 Christianity banned (this ban re-issued repeatedly); Christian churches throughout the land destroyed;
Regulations (hatto) issued for Kfukuji, Hasedera , etc.
1613 Regulations (hatto) issued for Tendai temples in eastern Japan, for Shugend, and for Shingon temples
1614­1615 saka campaign : Tokugawa forces destroyed supporters of Toyotomi family
1615 Regulations (hatto) issued for royal family and aristocrats, for Five Mountain Zen temples, for St Zen,
and for Jdo (Pure Land) temples
1616 Dutch, Portuguese, and European trade restricted to Hirado; Regulations (hatto) issued for Kuonji 
Nichiren school temple
1617 Tshg  mausoleum constructed at Nikk ; Tokugawa Ieyasu deified as bodhisattva: Tsh
dai gongen  (subsequently called the divine ruler, shinkun )
1619 Christians burned at the stake in Kyoto (52 died)
1620 *Lengyansi  temple printed corrected version of Ming edition  of the Chinese Buddhist
Canon  (6,361 fascicles)
Fabian Fucan  (1565­1621) wrote Deus Destroyed (Ha Daiusu ) to refute
Christianity; Fabian's treatise became model for subsequent anti-Christian tracts
1621 Overseas travel forbidden
1622 Construction of new Buddhist temples forbidden; Persecution of Christians entered most extreme phase
1624 Spanish trade cut off; Spanish ships forbidden to come to Japan
1625 Tenkai  (1536­1643) constructed Kan'eiji  (T Eizan ) temple in Edo as new
administrative head for Tendai school
1629 Takuan Sh  (1573­1645) exiled to Dewa  for protesting bakufu restrictions on the court's
ability to award purple robes (shie ) to the abbots of Nanzenji and Daitokuji  Zen temples
1630 Leaders of Fuju-Fuse  (not accepting, not contributing) branch of Nichiren exiled
1632 Senseiden  Confucian Temple erected at Hayashi's Academy
Chronology of Religion in Japan Page 13
Dates Events
Copyright  2004 William M. Bodiford
1633­1639 Closing of the Country (sakoku ): orders issued repeatedly to arrest Christians, to restrict foreign
trade, to prevent foreign travel, and to prohibit return of Japanese who went overseas
1635 Regulations (hatto) issued to Grand Shrines of Ise (and other shrines); Office of Temples & Shrines (Jisha
bugy ) established; Temple registration (tera uke ) initiated
1637 Tenkai started printing Chinese Buddhist Canon  () in Japan with movable type
(completed 1648; total 6,323 fascicles) based on 1252 Siqi Fabaosi temple edition plus supplements;
Shimabara  revolt : Christian peasants seize control of Shimabara fortress
1638 Japanese Christians at Shimabara defeated with help of Dutch warships
1639 Portuguese trade cut off; Portuguese ships forbidden to come to Japan
1640 Office of Religious Inspection (Shmon aratame yaku ) established; 61 Christians executed
1641 Dutch trading factory transferred from Hirado to Deshima  island (in Nagasaki harbor)
1642 Severe famine
1644 *Qing  dynasty (1644­1912) established in China
Hayashi Razan wrote Shint denju , explained local Japanese gods (shint) in terms of Confucian
principle (ri )
1654 Yinyuan Longqi  (Ingen Ryki, 1592­1673) and disciples arrived with supporters of defeated
Ming dynasty, taught Chinese-style Zen (with vinaya precepts and Pure Land chanting), eventually
established baku  Zen lineage
1657 Edo fires: 10s of thousands of people killed
1658 Yamaga Sok  (1632­1685) wrote Buky shgaku , justified warrior rule in Confucian
terms; Kumazawa Banzan  (1619­1691) opened academy in Kyoto, advocated the idealistic
Confucianism of Wang Yangming  ( Ymei, 1472­1528)
1660s It Jinsai  (1627­1705) began advocating return to ancient meaning  of Confucian texts
1662­1671 Temple registration system fully established so that all families affiliated with local Buddhist temples
(dannadera ) that record census, births, deaths, marriages, tax obligations, etc.
1668 Establishment of new Buddhist temples prohibited (but they continued to appear until ca. 1700)
1669 Fuju Fuse (not accepting, not contributing) branch of Nichiren sh outlawed by Tokugawa Bakufu
1670s Kaibara Ekiken  (1630­1714) explained Confucian moral teachings in simple terms accessible to
ordinary people, his Wazoku dji kun  (from which the extremely popular Onna daigaku 
 later would be extracted) defined the goals of popular education for decades to come
1671 Yamazaki Ansai  (1618­1682) proclaimed Suika Shint  as Japanese version of
Confucianism that teaches mental concentration (kei ) and self-control
1681 Tetsugen Dk  (1630­1682) and other baku monks printed Chinese Buddhist Canon 
(6,771 fascicles) based on 1620 Lengyansi temple Ming edition plus supplements
1684 Jkyreki  adopted by Tokugawa Bakufu as official calendar, thereby depriving court of its control
over the calendar; Jkyreki designed by Shibukawa Harumi  (1639­1715) based on 
luni-solar calendar used in China during 1281­1368
1687 Daij sai (spiritual-king food offering) performed by sovereign (tenn) for first time since 1466
1689 Tendai secret doctrines of Genshi kimydan  declared heretical = rejection of Tendai traditions
of Original Awakening (hongaku hmon ) in favor of Zhili's "mountain house" orthodoxy
1690 Hayashi family head given hereditary title of College Rector (daigaku no kami ), gave Confucian
scholars institutional independence of from Buddhism: Confucians no longer had to shave their heads
1691 Colossal Buddha image at Tdaiji completed (temple buildings not completed until 1705)
1703 Manzan Dhaku  (1636­1714) successfully petitioned Tokugawa Bakufu to reform St Zen
lineages, marked beginning of "restoration movement" (fukko und  ) to return to Dgen
1705 First major o'kage mairi  to Ise; Other major Ise pilgrimages in: 1771, 1803, 1830, 1855
1716 Ogy Sorai  (1666­1728) began advocating Ancient Learning  and the pragmatic application
of Confucian teachings to matters of social policy
Chronology of Religion in Japan Page 14
Dates Events
Copyright  2004 William M. Bodiford
1729 Ishida Baigan  (1685­1744) began teaching "Learning of the Heart Mind" (shingaku ) and
conventional morality (tszoku dtoku ) to ordinary farmers and townsmen; It Jikigy
Miroku  (1671­1733) wrote sacred texts of Fujik (Mt. Fuji worship) = started first of
Japan's "New Religions"?
1745 Tominaga Nakamoto  (1715­1746) published Shutsujgo go  (Conversations After
Emerging From Meditation), a critical study of Buddhism in which he argued that Mahyna could not
have been preached by the historical Buddha (daij hi Bussetsu )
1755 Hrekireki  adopted by Tokugawa Bakufu as official calendar, but it proved to be plagued by errors
1760s Kamo Mabuchi  (1697­1769) began detailed study of ancient Japanese literature and place
names, helped start Nativist (kokugaku ) Movement
1767 Secret (kakure) Nenbutsu  groups suppressed in Edo
1787 ***William Jones (1736­1794) introduced Sanskrit language studies to Europeans
1789 Motoori Norinaga  (1730­1801) completed Kojiki den , his deciphering of the Kojiki
1792 Russians attempted to open trade relations
1795 Russians occupied Kuril Islands north of Hokkaid
1798 Kanseireki  adopted by Tokugawa Bakufu as official calendar: first Japanese luni-solar calendar
designed with calculations based on Western astronomy, it used Kyoto as its earthly reference point
1803 First American ship visited Japan
1804 Jiun Onk  (1718­1804) completed 1,000 vol. encyclopedia of Sanskrit studies (grammar,
glossary, texts); Russian warship of Admiral N. P. Rezanov (1776­1807) visited Nagasaki
1808 English warship Phaeton visited Nagasaki
1814 Kurozumi Munetada  (1780­1850) attained unity with the morning sun, founded Kurozumi ky
 -- first of the so-called "New Religions" 
1826 ***Eugene Burnouf (1801­1852) published his Essai sur le Pali -- marked beginning of academic
Buddhist Studies in Europe
1838 Nakayama Miki  (1798­1887) possessed by deity, began teaching Tenriky 
1840­1842 *Opium War : British forces won treaty concessions, European powers began to carve out
own spheres of influence in China
1841 Hirata Atsutane  (1776­1843) exiled to Akita  for anti-Tokugawa religious teachings
1843 Inoue Masakane  (1790­1849) exiled to Miyake Island  for teaching Misogiky 
1844 Dutch warship Palembang visited Nagasaki, presented news of China's defeat in Opium War; Tenpreki
 adopted by Tokugawa Bakufu as official calendar: last Japanese luni-solar calendar
1846 Warships from America and France toured Japanese ports
1847 Tokugawa Bakufu suppressed Fuke  Zen, restricted movements of shakuhachi Zen priests
1849 Hirata Atsutane published Shutsuj shgo  (Laughs After Emerging From Meditation), a critical
attack on all aspects of Buddhism; Tokugawa Bakufu banned Fujik worshipers of Mt. Fuji
1849­1852 Warships from England, Rumania, Russia, Holland (etc.) toured Japanese ports
1853 Commodore Matthew Perry (1794­1858) arrived in Japan, demanded open ports, forced Tokugawa
regime to sign trade treaty
1853­1855 Russia, Holland, France, & England all demand and received trade rights equal to the U.S.
1856­1860 *Arrow (2d Opium) War: British & French forces won additional treaty concessions in China
1858 Ii Naosuke  (1815­1860) signed trade treaties between Tokugawa bakufu and 5 western powers
(U.S.A., Holland, Russia, England, France), ordered purge  of all anti-bakufu groups
1859 Kawate Bunjir  (1814­1883) possessed by deity, began teaching Konkky 
1859 Christian missionaries returned to Japan
1860 Ii Naosuke assassinated outside of Sakurada Gate , marked beginning of wave of terrorism
as men of determination (shishi ) assassinated opponents in name of "revere the king, expel the
barbarians" (sonn ji ); **Ch'oe Che-u  (1824­1864) began teaching "Eastern
Learning" (Tonghak ), the first of Korea's "New Religions"
Chronology of Religion in Japan Page 15
Dates Events
Copyright  2004 William M. Bodiford
1862 Chsh Domain  ordered shore batteries to fire on American, French, and Dutch ships in
Shimonoseki  Straights
1863 British naval fleet bombarded port town of Kagoshima 
1864 British and allied fleets bombarded Chsh shore batteries, reopened Shimonoseki Straights; Tokugawa
Bakufu sent troops to chastise Chsh but military battles were avoided
1865 British fleet threatened Hygo  Bay, forced sovereign (tenn) to sign trade treaties; Japanese
"hidden" (kakure) Christians in Urakami Village  revealed themselves to Western missionary
1866 Satsuma Domain  and Chsh Domain reached secret agreement  to oppose Tokugawa
Bakufu (and received assistance in secret from the British); Bakufu's second attempt to chastise
Chsh resulted in major military defeat that exposed bakufu weakness; Satsuma Domain began
systematic destruction of all Buddhist temples
1867 Major "Ee ja nai ka?"  riots spread from Nagoya to all major urban areas; Tokugawa
Bakufu reached agreement with French for aid against Satsuma and Chsh
1868 Meiji Restoration  proclaimed after armed forces from domains of Satsuma, Echizen, Owari,
Tosa, and Aki seized Kyoto; Court moved to Edo (Tokyo); Mutsuhito  (1852­1912) enthroned as
Emperor Meiji ;
New Meiji government ordered separation of Gods & Buddhas (shinbutsu bunri ); thousands
and thousands of Buddhist temples destroyed, monks defrocked (haibutsu kishaku ); deprived
of ritual and doctrinal context, newly independent "shint"  shrines forced adopt new identities;
prohibition of Christianity reconfirmed
1869 Department of Shint Affairs (Jigikan ) established as highest unit within central government in
effort to Unify Religion & Government (saisei itchi ); Military forces loyal to Tokugawa
Bakufu defeated (= end of anti-restoration civil war ); Emperor Meiji visited Ise Shrines = first
time Japanese tenn ever visited Ise; Yasukuni Shrine  established to enshrine "heroic spirits"
(eirei ) of army soldiers who died fighting for tenn in civil war
1870 "Great Teaching Promulgation Campaign" (taiky senpu und ) launched to create new
national ideology; 3,000+ Hidden Christians sentenced to banishment
1871 Department of Shint Affairs demoted to ministry status (Jingish ) with its policies in disarray;
Government rescinded anti-Buddhist policy; Outcast Emancipation Edict  ended legal
segregation of outcasts; Government abolished Fukesh branch of Zen; Revised Daij sai (spiritualking
food offering) performed by Meiji tenn as state ceremony (financed by taxes); Ministry of
Education (Monbush ) established, implemented nationwide system of compulsory education
1872 Ministry of Shint Affairs (Jingish) reformulated as Ministry of [Religious] Instruction (Kybush 
); Status of Buddhist monks reduced to that of ordinary "imperial subjects" (kmin ): Laws
forbidding women at religious institutions rescinded; Laws forbidding Buddhist monks from marriage
& eating meat (saitai nikujiki ) rescinded; Private funerals forbidden; Government ordered all
independent Shugend orders merged with Tendai or Shingon temples
1872­1876 Buddhist temples declined from 89,914 to 71,962, and Monks from 75,925 to 19,490
1873 Christianity permitted; Government prohibited shamanistic practices of exorcisms, faith healing, and
other folk religious rituals (e.g., , , , , etc.); Gregorian solar calendar adopted with
national holidays based on tenn mythology (e.g., Jinmu's Founding of Japan, Jinmu's Death, etc.)
1875 Bureau of Shint (Shint Jimukyoku ) established; Ise Shrine placed in charge of "Great
Promulgation Campaign"; All shrines ordered to perform rituals in "ancient style"
**Japanese warships tried to open trade ports in Korea (concluded trade treaties in 1876)
1876 Nanj Bun'y  (1849­1927) and Kasahara Kenju  (1852­1883) (both leading Buddhist
scholars) traveled to England to study Sanskrit under Max Müller (1823­1900): marked beginning of
importation of Western methods of academic Buddhist Studies
1877 Ministry of [Religious] Instruction replaced by Bureau of Shrines & Temples (Shajikyoku ) in
Ministry of the Interior;
**Japanese Buddhist missionaries sent to Korea to "revive" Korean Buddhism
1878 Edward S. Morse (1838­1920) lectured in Japan on Evolution, attacked Christianity as "unscientific"
Chronology of Religion in Japan Page 16
Dates Events
Copyright  2004 William M. Bodiford
1880­85 "Small Print" (shukusatsu ) edition of the Chinese Buddhist Canon published (418 vols.; 8,534
fascicles) in Tokyo based on the 1251 Kory edition plus supplements; Government forbade military
men, police officers, teachers, students, and technicians from attending political meetings
1882 "Shint" declared a patriotic duty, not a "religion"; Government ordered shrine priests to stop all
religious instruction; Government officially distinguished between "non-religious vs. religious Shint,"
which it called "shrine" (jinja ) & "sect" (kyha ) Shint; Government suppressed Tenriky,
but Nakayama Miki finished writing Ofudesaki, her record of Tenriky teachings
1886 Tokyo University  established (included first Chair of Indian [i.e., Buddhist] and Sanskrit
Studies)
1888 Emperor's photo enshrined in all schools and government buildings; Following death of Nakayama Miki,
Tenriky permitted to continue, but only under direct police supervision
1889 Meiji Constitution  promulgated: guaranteed "freedom of religious belief within limits
not antagonistic to people's duties as imperial subjects" ,
also recognized "Shint" as foundation of state; granted emperor alone direct control over military;
Interior Ministry issued ordinances allowing Christian organizations to register as religions
1890 Imperial Rescript on Education  issued, exalted loyalty to the emperor; Government began to
inspect all school textbooks; Kokugakuin University  established to study Shint theology
ca. 1890s Meiji social policy characterized by 3 slogans: exalt bureaucrats, despise ordinary people (kanson minpi
), a racial, family-based state (so that any political change violates native culture, kazoku kokka
), and royal considerations decide all issues (banki kron )
1891 Ministry of Education issued guidelines for "moral indoctrination" (shshin ); Uchimura Kanz 
 (1861­1930) denounced for refusing to bow to Imperial Rescript on Education
1892 Prof. Kume Kunitake  (1839­1931) fired from Tokyo Univ. for writing scholarly article linking
"ancient Shint" rites to Chinese influences; Deguchi Nao  (1836­1918) founded moto 
1893 Shaku Sen  (1859­1919) and other Buddhist leaders attended ***World Parliament of Religions
in Chicago, promoted Buddhism as a "scientific" religion; Ministry of Education instituted singing of
"Kimi ga yo"  song in schools
1894 Shint shrine priests made officers in the government, subject to bureaucratic control; Japan defeated
*China in Sino-Japanese War 
1895 *Taiwan  annexed by Japan; Salvation Army  established in Japan
1896 Interior Ministry drafted secret order to suppress New Religions beginning with Tenriky
1897 D.T. Suzuki  (1870­1966) traveled to United States where he would spend eleven years (until
1908) studying "Science of Religion" from German émigré theologian Paul Carus (1852­1919)
1900 Bureau of Religion (Shkykyoku ) created (within Interior Ministry) to administer all Shint
institutions = full-fledged establishment of State Shint
***Nitobe Inaz  (1862­1933), a Quaker living in the U.S., published Bushido, The Soul of
Japan -- introduced concept of bushid  (the warrior's code of honor) to the West, from whence
it was imported into Japan
1902­5 Manji  edition of the Chinese Buddhist Canon published (347 vols.; 7,082 fascicles) in Kyoto
1903 Japanese YMCA  founded
1903­20 "Shine Mergers"  (): Government destroyed more than half of the Shint shrines in Japan,
thereby consolidated power over official Shint ideology; deprived of links to local religious practices
Shint shrines forced adopt new identities as "civic centers"
1904­1905 Russo-Japanese War  fought to extend greater influence over Korean peninsula and Manchuria;
fighting ended, after major Japanese naval victory at Tsushima  Straights, with peace deal brokered
by U.S.
1905 Army adopted policy of relying on fighting spirit (kgeki seishin ) to overcome lack of material
resources, began developing curriculum of "spiritual education" (seishin kyiki ) based on
martial arts; Supplement (Zokuzky ) to the Manji edition of the Chinese Buddhist Canon
published (750 vols.)
1906 Government began direct economic support of all officially recognized Shint shrines
Chronology of Religion in Japan Page 17
Dates Events
Copyright  2004 William M. Bodiford
1907 Ministers of the Army and Navy required to be active duty officers -- effectively handing the general
staffs of these organizations veto power over cabinet formation
1908 Ministry of Education issued new textbooks that interpreted Imperial Rescript on Education as depicting
Japan an organic (ykitai ) "emperor-family state" that must be the supreme entity in the lives of
every imperial subject; Tenriky permitted as a form of "Sect" Shint (the last of the officially
recognized 13 Shint sects)
1910 **Korean peninsula annexed by Japan; Japanese National Shint Shrines established in Korea
1911 Lse Majesté Affair : 12 socialists executed, including Uchiyama Gud  (St Zen
priest); others sentenced to life in prison, including Takagi Kenmy  (Pure Land priest) and
Mineo Setsud  (Rinzai Zen priest) -- government began repressing left-wing thinkers
1912 Yoshihito  (1879­1926) enthroned as the Taish  Emperor; reign of sickly emperor corresponds
to brief period of popular demands for democracy
1912 Dai Nihon Bukky zensho  (premodern Japanese texts on Buddhism) published (151
vols.); Kanada Tokumitsu  (1863­1924) founded Tokumitsuky (beginning of PL Kydan)
1913 nishi Aijir  (1881­1958) split from Tenriky, founded Honmichi ; Bureau of Religious
[Control] (Shkykyoku ) established inside Ministry of Education
1914 Tanaka Chigaku  (1861­1939) established the Kokuchkai  (Pillar of the State Society),
advocated the unity of Nichiren Buddhism and national structure (kokutai , i.e., emperor system)
***Great War in Europe (a.k.a. World War I)
1916 moto changed its name to Kd moto  ("Imperial Way moto")
1917­1918 ***Communists sized control over Russia: started world-wide "red scare" as governments everywhere
became more authoritarian to suppress local communists
1918 Japanese Army sent to Siberia alongside British, French, & American troops to fight against Russian
communist forces
1919 Government began campaign against what it labeled "pseudo religions" (ruiji shky )
1920 Meiji Shrine  established in Tokyo, deification of Meiji tenn complete
1921 D.T. Suzuki founded The Eastern Buddhist magazine; Deguchi Onisabur  (1871­1948),
leader of moto , jailed for treason; prince Hirohito completed his military education & visited
Europe to see first-hand how to suppress anti-monarchy movements
1922 Levelers' Society (Suiheisha ) established to fight discrimination against descendants of outcaste
groups, Levelers organized first strike against Jdo Shinsh (True Pure Land) school to protest Buddhist
prejudices
1923 Great Tokyo earthquake  followed by pogroms against Koreans and leftists; Government
issued declaration on Strengthening the Spirit of Citizenry , which attacked
progressive ideas and encouraged obedience to established social hierarchy
1924 Taish  edition of the Chinese Buddhist Canon Published (100 vols.; 11,970 fascicles) based on the
1251 Kory edition plus supplements including treatises and ritual manuals composed in Japan
1925 Peace Preservation Law  (first legal use of term kokutai  since 1885): empowered police
to arrest advocates of communism, socialism, democracy, or religious freedom as well as anyone
"disrespectful" of the throne; Kubo Kakutar  (1892­1944) founded Reiykai 
1926 Hirohito  (1901­1989) enthroned as the Shwa  Emperor: first modern emperor; Books by
Inoue Tetsujir  (1855­1944) banned for suggesting rational (as opposed to mythological)
basis for kokutai  (emperor system); Ministry of Education introduced new physical education
curriculum in which martial arts (bud ) provide "spiritual education"
1928 Japanese-language translation of Chinese Buddhist Canon (Kokuyaku issaiky ) published
(222 vols.); Okada Mokichi  (1882­1955) founded Sekai Kyseiky ; Government
arrested leaders of Tenri Kenkykai  (a.k.a. Tenri Honmichi ) and 385 followers
1929 Taniguchi Masaharu  (1893­1985) founded Seich no Ie 
1930 Makiguchi Tsunesabur  (1871­1944) founded Ska Kyiku Gakkai (Ska Gakkai );
Jdo Shinsh leaders issued permission for followers to worship at Shint shrines as an expression of
virtuous citizenship (kokumin dtoku ) but not as an act of religious faith
Chronology of Religion in Japan Page 18
Dates Events
Copyright  2004 William M. Bodiford
1931 *Japanese Kwantung army  seized Mukden (Shenyang ) in Manchuria , marked
start of 15-Years War 
Followers of Fukada Chiyoko  (1887­1925) formed Ennky ; Famines in Thoku and
in Hokkaid
1932 Blood Brotherhood  (radical right-wing organization) assassinated finance minister and prime
minister for appearing too timid in war against China; Ministry of Education issued order requiring all
school children to worship at Shint shrines as expression of patriotism
*Japanese established puppet state of Manchukuo  (Manchuria) with Henry Pu Yi  (1906­
1967; the "Last Emperor") as puppet ruler
1934 Bureau of Thought [Control] (Shiskyoku ) established inside Ministry of Education
1935 Japanese translation of Pli Buddhist Canon (Nanden daizky ) published (70 vols.); Police
cite Peace Preservation Law to launch campaign to eradicate "evil religious cults" (jaky senmetsu 
): Deguchi Onisabur jailed for treason again, moto suppressed
1936.2.26 Junior Army officers attempted coup d'etat (2.26 ), set stage for policy of permanent military
expansion into *China
1937 ***Indiscriminate bombing of Guernica by German airforce introduced new kind of military terror
*Shots fired at Marco Polo Bridge  (Peking/Beijing) marked beginning of Japanese War of
territorial conquest in China 
Ministry of Education issued official textbook on Shint ideology: Kokutai no hongi 
(Cardinal Principles of the National Structure); Government suppressed Hitonomichi Kydan 
(a.k.a. PL Kydan); Campaign for General Mobilization of the Spirit of the Citizens 
 launched to insure blind obedience to government: marked full-scale adoption of Fascism
*Rape of Nan-king (Nanjing) 
1938 Government suppressed Tenri Honmichi; *Indiscriminate fire bombing of Chung-king (Chongqing )
by Japanese airforce; in response, ***U.S.A. imposed first trade embargo against Japan; Niwano
Nikky  (1906­1999) founded Rissh Ksei Kai 
1939 Religious Organizations Law  allowed government control over religious organizations and
authorized government to disband groups deemed incompatible with "The Imperial Way" (kd ):
Government disbanded Hitonomichi Kydan (a.k.a. PL Kydan)
1940 Board of Shint (Jingiin ) established: Government banned Prof. Tsuda Skichi's 
(1873­1961) books on Shint; Jehovah Witnesses  jailed
1941 ***U.S.A. ordered embargo on shipments of oil to Japan
Japan attacked Pearl Harbor , marked beginning of Great Pacific War  (WWII);
All religious denominations (Shint, Buddhist, Christian) ordered to unite in defense of Japan
**More than 2,000 Korean Christians jailed for refusing to participate in obligatory Shint ceremonies,
more than 200 Korean Christian Churches destroyed
1942 Government ordered Buddhist temples to "donate" all metal images, bells, & decorations to war effort
1943 Ska Gakkai leaders jailed for disrespect toward Ise Shrines (Makiguchi subsequently died in prison)
1944 ***Indiscriminate bombing of London by German V1 & V2 rockets
1945
1945.8
***Indiscriminate fire bombing of Dresden by British & U.S. airforces
Japan systematically destroyed: Indiscriminate fire bombing of Tokyo , followed by
indiscriminate fire bombing of 20 other major cities; Japanese leaders decided national suicide is
necessary to preserve kokutai of imperial rule
Atomic bombing  of Hiroshima  & Nagasaki  by U.S. airforce; Soviet Union
declared war on Japan and began hostilities against Japanese forces in *Manchuria and **Korea
1945.8.15 Japan surrendered; SCAP Occupation GHQ ordered land reforms deprived Buddhist temples of major
sources of income; GHQ abolished State Shint : deprived of nationalist and ideological
purpose Shint shrines forced adopt new identities as primitive nature cults
Chronology of Religion in Japan Page 19
Dates Events
Copyright  2004 William M. Bodiford
1946 Hirohito tenn (emperor) publicly declared his humanity ; New "Peace" Constitution 
 promulgated; Constitution guarantees freedom of religion and separation of Church and State;
Western Christian missionaries resumed teaching openly; Japanese Christian organizations formally
expressed regret for war responsibility; Hitonomichi Kydan reformulated as PL Kydan; Ska
Gakkai resumed activities
1947 New National Law Code  abolished legal basis of Meiji-period family (ie ) system; Kitamura Sayo
 (1900­1967) founded Tensh Ktai Jingky 
1948 Imperial Rescript on Education ruled invalid; Eugenic Protection Law  legalized abortions
1950 **Korean War began 
Occupation GHQ in Japan reversed liberal policies, cracked down on leftists
1951 Religious Juridical Persons Law  established; It Shinj  (1906­1989) founded
Shinnyoen 
1952 Allied Occupation ended; Subversive Activities Prevention Law  enacted; Hirohito
visited Ise Shrines for first time since end of War
1950s Rapid urbanization weakened links to traditionally rural-based religious institutions
1954 Yasutani Hakuun  (1885­1973) founded Sanb Kydan , popularized Zen satori for lay
people;
**Moon Sun-Myung  (1920­) founded Unification Church  in South Korea
1955 D.T. Suzuki published Peking edition of Tibetan Buddhist Canon (168 vols.); Goi Masahisa 
(1916­1980) founded Byakk Shinkkai 
1956 19 major temples and shrines in Kyoto stage first major protest against tourism tax
1959 Government established Memorial for War Dead  at Chidorigafuchi ; Okada Ktama
 (1901­1974) founded Mahikari ; Unification Church introduced to Japan from Korea
ca. 1960 For first time more than half (ca. 70%) of Japanese lived in urban areas
1960 Ikeda Daisaku  became 3d president of Ska Gakkai
1961 Higashi Honganji formed Dbkai  (Brotherhood of Faith) Movement
1964 Ska Gakkai sponsored formation of Kmeit  (Clean Government Party)
1965 Ministry of Education attacked by media for proposing draft textbook on ethics (dtoku )
1970 Socialist Party accused Kmeit officials of preventing publication of Fujiwara Ktatsu's  book,
I Denounce Ska Gakkai ; after subsequent scandal, Ska Gakkai agreed to moderate
aggressive proselytizing (shakubuku ) and Kmeit asserted independence; Takahashi Shinji 
 (1927­1976) founded GLA
1971 Okinawa reverted to Japan; Hirohito visited Hiroshima Memorial  for first time
1974 Japanese Islam Federation founded
1975­ Media began reporting growing popularity of temple pilgrimage and rites for aborted fetuses (mizuko
kuy )
1978 Yasukuni Shrine enshrined Class-A war criminals, including Tj Hideki  (1884­1948);
Kiriyama Seiy  (1921­ ) founded Agonsh 
1979 Machida Muneo  proclaimed "social discrimination does not exist in Japan," embroiled All
Buddhist Federation and St Zen in major scandal
1981 Pope John Paul II visited Japan
1985 Prime Minister Nakasone Yasuhiro  and entire government cabinet performed official act of
homage at Yasukuni Shrine = high point in attempt to revive State Shint
1986 kawa Ryh  (1956­ ) founded Kfuku no Kagaku  (IRH); 7 female members of
Shinri no tomo  set themselves on fire; Media began to attack religious "cults" 
1989 Akihito  (1933­ ) ascended throne as new Heisei  Emperor
Asahara Shk  (real name Matsumoto Chizuo , 1955­ ) founded Aum Shinriky 
; Media began reporting about interest in occult and mysticism among young people
Chronology of Religion in Japan Page 20
Dates Events
Copyright  2004 William M. Bodiford
1990 Tdaiji Buddha Hall restored; Daij sai (spiritual-king food offering) performed as state ceremony
(financed by taxpayers) for first time since 1926 despite new 1946 constitution: ritual based on Meijiperiod
imperial ordinance that could not have been legal under new constitution; "church/state"
distinction lost; newspapers filled with speculation on religious mysteries of "ancient" ceremony
(actually created ca. 1871)
1991 Nichiren Shsh  (temple-based denomination) and Ska Gakkai (lay organization) broke apart,
sparked crisis of legitimization;
***Soviet Union dismantled: end of communist challenge to democracy & capitalism
1994 Gas attack on City of Matsumoto , Aum Shinriky blamed U.S. military
1995 Aum Shinriky used poison gas in attack on Tokyo subway system 
1996 Aum Shinriky disbanded by Japanese government; Government proposed invoking for first time in
history Subversive Activities Prevention Law to suppress Aum; Public Security Investigation Agency 
 ordered to provide 24-hour surveillance of all people associated with Aum; Government
proposed changes in Religious Juridical Persons Law (supposedly in response to Aum Shinriky, but
actually designed to limit political influence of Ska Gakkai and Kmeit)
1999 Government enacted 2 laws ( and ) to suppress activity by everyone formerly
associated with Aum and to seize their assets; all religious organizations now subject to supervision
2000 Aum Shinriky's former members reformulated group as "Aleph" , but public hysteria and police
harassment continued unchanged
2001 Prime Minister Kizumi Jun'ichir  worshiped at Yasukuni Shrine to promote "Japanese
values" (8.13); ***World Trade Center and Pentagon attacked (9.11 terrorism): religion increasingly
perceived as threat to public security
2002 Prime Minister Kizumi Jun'ichir made second visit to Yasukuni Shrine (4.21)
2003 Prime Minister Kizumi Jun'ichir made third visit to Yasukuni Shrine (1.14)