AKKADIAN GRAMMAR History § 1. Akkadian Akkadian is a Semitic language related to for instance Arabic, Hebrew, and Ethiopian. "Akkadian" includes the following dialects: Old-Akkadian (OAkk) and Eblaite (3rd millennium); Old-, Middle- and Neo-Babylonian (OB, MB, NB) (2nd and 1st millennia); Old-, Middle- and Neo-As Syrian (OA, MA, NA) (2nd and 1st millennia). There is also an official literary dialect, which is used from ca 1500 BC onwards for royal inscriptions, literary, and scientific texts (Standard Babylonian or SB). The Root §2 The Three-Consonantal Root All originally Akkadian nouns, adjectives and verbs are formed from a three consonantal root (radix); the root consonants are called radicals. The so-called weak radicals (y, w, 'a and 'e ) are often hard to detect, but always leave a trace: a short vowel, a lengthened vowel, or a doubled consonant. In nouns, adjectives, and verbal forms the radicals appear in fixed schemes, often in combination with prefixes, infixes, and suffixes, for instance: noun-schemes CiiC2C3- maCiC2aC3 verbal scheme - Ci C2 u C3 Root š i k n u m "sediment" k i n k u m "sealing" r i k s u m- "binding" maš kanum "settlement" maknakum "sealed container" i š k u n "he placed" i k n u k "he sealed" i r k u s "he bound" SKN KNK RKS P i RS m a P R a S P R u S As appears from the examples the basic meaning of a word depends on the consonatal root, while its specific meaning or function depends on the scheme and the affixes. The two expressions of the scheme (with C1C2C3 or PRS) are completely equivalent. The roots here are ŠKN "to place", KNK "to seal", and RKS "to bind". Normally the roots are expressed with the help of the infinitive (scheme CiadaCs- or PaRaS-): šakánum, kanákum, and rakásum. 1 Since specific nouns and adjectives are simply listed in the dictionary, it is not necessary to understand the way in which each was derived from a three consonantal root. Verbal forms (iskun, irkus, iknuk) must be analyzed, however, since in the dictionary the word is cited in the infinitive (sakdnum "to place", kandkum "to seal", rakdsum "to bind"). Phonemes, Phonology, and Syllabary §3. Phonemes and Phonology The consonants are listed in the left colum of the syllabary chart (Sign List). Note the emphatic consonants / (called Thet), q (called Qoph), and s (called Tsade); the velar h (called Khet), the laryngal ' (called Ayin), the Stimmabsatz ' (called Aleph), and finally the s (called Shin). The vowels are u, a, i; u, d, i; e/e is secondary, and must be derived either from a/a (normal) or from i/i (rare) in an underlying form. §4. Changes due to contact and vowel contractions In certain combinations consonants and vowels may undergo changes: Consonants: - n is assimilated to a following consonant: nidittum "gift" (< nidintum, from naddnum "to give"); - the -mof the dative and the ventive is assimilated to the consonant of a following pronominal suffix (-am-ni > -anni, -am-ka > -akka, -am-su > -assu etc.); - b at the end of a word can be assimilated to a following -m (wasib-ma > wasimmd). - final dentals and sibilants of a root can be assimilated to the following -t- of the perfect (or -t/tan-infix), -t- of the feminine, or s of a pronominal suffix: + t perfect or infix +1 feminine + s of pronominal suffix -dt- > -dd- -dt- > -tt- -as- > -ss- -tt- > -tt- -tt- > -tt- -ts- > -ss- -tt- > -tt- -tt- > -tt- -ts > -ss- -zt- > -zz- -zt- -zt- -zs- > -ss- -st- > -ss- -st- -st- -55- > -SS- -st- > -ss- -st- -st(/-st-) -55- > -SS- -st- -st- -st- -st- -55- > -SS- Examples: imittum "support" (< imid-t-um), ^amuttam "immediately" (< hamu/-t-am), idduk "he has killed" (perfect < idtuk), izzakkar "he says" (presens Gt < iztakkar), i55abat "he has taken" (< istabat), iktasassu "he has overpowered him" (< iktasad-su), bissu "his house" (< bit-su) Semivowels: ajC- > e (see vetitive); awC- and iwC- > uC, iwa- and awa- > u- (see verbs I w). 2 Vowels: The second short vowel in an open syllable is elided: damiq "good" (scheme PaRiS) plus nominative ending -um (*damiqum) results in damqum; iptaras "he cut off plus plural ending -u results in iptarsu "they cut off. Before an r the second short vowel may remain: nakirum "enemy", labirum"old", zikarum"man". — — 3-5 3-5 — a/a changes to e/e under the influence of an original '" or y in the root:* '" ataqum > — — — 1-2 'etequm, *yanaqum > 'enequm. Original '" does not have this effect on the vowel: 1-2 — — * '" zhazum > 'ahazum. The resulting ' is not expressed in writing; the cited words for instance are spelled e-te-qu-um, e-ne-qu-um, a-^a-zu-um. a/a (and i/T) can change to e/ě under the influence of a neighbouring r-: šeběrum "to break" (instead of šabárum), qeběrum "to bury" (instead of qabárum), laberum "old" (instead of labirum), utěr "he brought back" (instead of utir). Some roots have a "hard aleph"; this ' is spelled with the sign AH (values 'a, 'u; i', a',u'). Vowel contractions Where a weak consonant has disappeared two vowels may come into contact; two vowels in contact are always contracted, except for i+a, which in older Old Babylonian (and mostly CH) remains i+a. When two vowels are contracted at the beginning of a form the first vowel determines the quality of the resulting long vowel (i 'akkal > ikkal), and when two vowels are contracted in the middle or at the end of a form the second vowel determines the quality of the resulting long vowel (duakurn > dakum "to kill", rabium > rabům, ilqiu > ilqu, see the charts of the weak verbs). When in a closed syllable a (short or long) vowel is followed by an ' (v/v'C) the ' disappears and the vowel is lengthened (* 'ikul > Ikul "he ate", *a 'kul > ákul "I ate", e 'puš > ěpuš "I made", see verbs I weak). Orthography §5. Orthography The cuneiform writing system was invented by the Sumerians around 3300 BC. Sumerian basically spells lexical elements (nouns, adjectives, verbs) with logograms, and grammatical elements with phonetic signs (syllables) developped out of the logograms. Later on in the third millennium the syllabary is expanded to write the Akkadian language. Old Bablonian Akkadian has 4 vowels (short and long), 19 consonants, and syllables of the type V, VC, CV, and CVC (each with a short and a long V), which adds up to some 3200 different syllables. In fact, however, the number of signs used to write the language is much smaller, ca 80, mainly because the large number of possible CVC signs is reduced by a 3 trick: syllables of this type are not normally spelled by individual signs, but by sign combinations, that is CVXC is spelled by the sign combination CVX-VXC: kalbum"dog" (syllables kal+bum) is spelled ka-al-bu-um sarrum "king" (syllables sar+rum) is spelled so-ar-ru-um riksum "binding" (syllables rik+sum) is spelled ri-ik-su-um For certain combinations of consonants and vowels CVC-signs happen to exist, for instance for the syllables sar and rum, so that the word sarrum "king" can also be spelled sar-vum (or so-ar-rum, or sor-ru-um). The syllabary basically consists of signs with the values Cu, uC, Ca, aC, and Ci, iC; syllables of the type Ce and eC are mostly spelled with the signs for Ci and iC. For a limited number of combinations CVC signs are available, especially for those of the type CVm. Vocalic length is usually ignored, except where it is the result of a contraction (ikkal spelled i-ik-ka-al, ilqü spelled il-qü-ü, see the charts of the verbs I and III weak). Double consonants may be spelled single: sassarum (syllables sas+sä+rum) "saw"is spelled rä-a^a-ru-um or ^-^fl-ru-um sarrum "king" is spelled so-ar-ru-umetc., or rä-ru-um särum "wind" (syllables sa+rum) is spelled so-ru-um, or rarely (with vocalic length expressed) rä-a-ru-um The resulting ambiguities (so-ru-um for sarrum or särum etc.) must be solved by the meaning of the sentence in which the sign group occurs. A number of signs in the syllabary (see list) have two (or more) unrelated values, for instance the sign that can be read is can also be read mil. The grammatical and semantic contexts must decide which value is the correct one; forms like is-]d "my testicle" (iskf) and mil-ki "my advice" (milkf) are not easily confused, however.. In some cases the syllabary offers two signs for one syllable, for instance the signs pi and pi, or as and as for the syllables pi and as. Here and elsewhere the accents on these syllables have nothing to do with pronounciation, but serve only to distinguish the signs pi or as from the different signs pi or as in a modern transliteration: pi = pi-one pi = pi-two, also written pi2 pi = pi-three, also written pi3 pi4 = pi-four etc. as = as-one äs = as-two, also written a$2 äs = as-three, also written asi, a$4 = as-four etc. Many common nouns (specifically concrete primary nouns) are also spelled logographically (one sign LUGAL for "king", for instance); a logogram is always the same, 4 and thus on principle does not express the precise grammatical form of the word in a specific context; the logogram LUGAL then can stand for (among other) šarrum (nominative), šarrim (genitive), šarram (accusative), or šar (status constructus); the scribe may express the different endings by adding a phonetic complement: LUGAL-um or LUGAL-ru-um, LUGAL-imor LUGAL-ri-im, LUGAL-ar, etc. Logograms can be preceded or followed by a determinative (see Sign List), for instance (Sumerian) gods' names are preceded by the sign DINGIR "god", and geographical names are followed by the sign KI "place" (see Sign List). The plural of a logogram is expressed by the sign MES: DINGIR.MES = ilu or /7ž"gods" (nominative or genti ve/accu s ative). A cuneiform text can be transliterated (ša-ar-ru-um) or transcribed (šarrum, interpretation). The noun (nomen): substantives, adjectives, declension §6. Nomina Akkadian substantives of Semitic descent are either derived from verbal roots (šiknum, maškanum), or primary (kalbum "dog", ummum "mother"); besides substantives of Semitic descent there are many Sumerian loanwords (ikkarum "farmer", malaMum "skipper", ekallum "palace"). Adjectives are distinguished from substantives by the use of specific derivational schemes, especially PaRiS (besides PaRuS, PaRaS and others); all adjectives can be used as substantives: damqum "good", or "the good one" (< damiqum). Substantives and adjectives have gender (masculine or feminine), number (singular or plural, rarely dual), and case (nominative, genitive, or accusative); there is no article. For nominal suffixes and adverbial endings see glossary p. 14 Some important derivational schemes for nouns PaRiS verbal adjective: dam(i)qum "good"; also passive participle of transitive verbs: sab(i)tum "caught"; rare variants: PaRaS ( rap(a)sum "wide") and PaRuS (mar(u)*um"sick, evil") PaRiS active participle of transitive verbs and action verbs: subitum "catching", wášíbuva "inhabitant", lásimum "runner" PaRaS- infinitive damaqum "to be good", rapášum "to be wide", marásam "to be sick" sabatům "to catch" etc. gender The feminine is formed by adding -t- to the masculine base; if the addition of -t- leads to a cluster of three consonants at the end of the base, the feminine ending can be realized as -at- (or-et-): awilum "(gentle)man", awiltum "lady", but kalbum "dog", kalbatum "bitch". The final dental (d, t, /) of a base is assimilated to the -t- of the feminine: -dt-, -tt-, and -tt- > -tt- (*imid+t+um> imittum "support", *hamu/+t+am> ^amuttam "immediately"). Some feminine words do not have the -t- in the singular: ummum "mother", eqlum "field"; the plural of these words is the regular feminine plural (urnmaft/m, eqlětum). 5 The second short vowel elided in the masculine forms of PaRiS adjectives (damqum < da+mi+qum) returns in the feminine sigular forms, because the syllable is no longer open (da+miq+tum). Declension of substantives and adjectives: gender, number and case The declension of substantives and adjectives is the same, except in the masculine plural. Adjectives agree in gender, number, and case with the word they qualify (the -i- between brackets is elided): masculine feminine sg. nominative genitive accusative ilum dam(i)qum ilim dam(i)qim ilam dam(i)qam iltum damiqtum iltim damiqtim iltam damiqtam pi. nominative gen./acc. ilti dam(i)qütum Hi dam(i)qütim ilätum dam(i)qätum ilätim dam(i)qätim du. nominative gen./acc. ilän dam(i)qän Hin dam(i)qin iltän damiqtän Htm damiqtin De nominative is used for the subject of transitive and intransitive verbs, the accusative for the object of transitive verbs. The genitive ("of) is placed after the word to which it belongs; the word to which the genitive belongs (on which it is construed) stands in the status constructus, basically the word without the endings -urn, -am, -im. All prepositions are construed with the genitive. The genitive relation can also be expressed by sa "(he/she/it/they)" followed by a noun in the genitive; the word to which the genitive with sa belongs does not stand in the status constructus: kalab awilim the dog of the man (status constructus kalab with noun in the genitive) kalbum sa awilim the dog (nominative), (he) of the man = the dog of the man ana kalbim sa awilim to the dog (gentive), (he) of the man = to the dog of the man Nominal derivational suffixes -I- derives adjectives from substantives (often geographical names): assurum (< assur-i-um), f. assuritum "assyrian"; warkum"back side", warkum (< wark-z-um) "what belongs to the backside, future", warkitum: subst. "future"; saggdsum "murderous". -tit- derives abstracts (f.) from substantivized adjectives and nouns: qardtitum "heroism", qarrddtitum "heroism", sarrtitum "kingship". -an- individualizing suffix: sarrdqum "thief, sarrdqdnum "this particular thief. Other usages are less easily defined: qaqqadum "head", qaqqaddnum (-dn-i-um) "someone having a head, prominent", mnballitdnum "someone who keeps alive, maintainer". 6 The Pronoun §7. Chart of suffixed and independend Pronouns nominative nominative genitive accusative gen./acc dative dative suffix independent suffix suffix independent suffix independent sg 1 -äku anäku -i, -ya* -ni yäti -am, -m, -nim yášim 2m -äta attä -ka -ka kati -kum kášim 2f -äti atti -M -ki kati -kim kášim 3m -0 sü -su -su šuäti -šum šuäšim 3f -at ši -si -si šiäti -šim šiäšim pll -änu ninu -ni -niäti niäti -niašim niäšim 2m -ätunu attunu -kunu -kunüti kunwň' -kunušim kunušim 2f -ätina attina -Mna -kinäti kinäti -kinašim kinäšim 3m -ü šunu -sunu -sunüti sunuti -šunušim šunušim 3f -ä šina -sina -sinäti šinäti -šinašim šinäšim *The form -ya is used after the -i of the genitive status constructus, and after the -u and —/ of the masc. plural status constructus. The genitive suffixes are hung on nouns (bit+I> biti "the house of me = my house"), the dative and accusative suffixes are hung on verbs (iddin+sw > idissu "he gave it (acc.)", i&dm+sum > iddissum "he gave (it) to him"). Before genitive suffixes the noun on which the genitive is construed stands in the status constructus (see §9). The s of the 3rd person suffixes assimilates with a preceding dental (d, t, /) or sibilant (z, s, s; s) of the root to-ss-: isbat+su > isbassu "he took him", bit+su > bissu "his house". §8. Independent possessive pronoun (adjective) The endings of the adjective are suffixed to a pronominal base (yä-, kuä- etc.). The scheme as given here is strongly systematized sg- pl. masc. fem. masc. fem. sg. 1 *yä-um *yä-t-um *yä-üt-um *yä-ät-um > yům >yätum > yütum > yätum 2c *kuä-um *kuä-t-um *kuä-üt-um *kuä-ät-um > kům > katum > *kütum >katum 3c *šuä-um *šuä-t-um *suä-üt-um *šuä-ät-um >šátum > šum > šätum > šůtum pi. 1 *niä-um *niä-t-um *niä-üt-um *niä-ät-um > nům > nätum > nůtum > nätum 2c *kunü-um *kunü-t-um *kunü-üt-um *kunü-ät-um 7 > *kunům > kunutum > kunutum > kunátum 3c *šunu-um *šunu-t-um *šunu-ut-um *šunu-at-um > šunům > šunútum > šunůtum > sunátum §9. Formation of the status constructus before nominal and pronominal genitves Word Type Before Noun Before Pronoun nom./gen./acc. nominative accusative genitive ending on -C ilum nak(i)rum ;7 mátim nakir mátim il-ka nakir-ka ili-ka nakri-ka PvRS kalbum siprum lubsum kalab awilim sipir awilim tubus awilim kalab-ka sipir-ka lubuš-kzL kalbi-ka šipri-ka lubši-ksL ending on -CC libbum sarrum kunukkum libbi awilim sar mátim kunuk awilim libba-ka sarra-ka kunukka-ka libbi-ka šarri-ka kunukki-ka ending on -Ct šákittum napištum martum sákinat bitim napisti mátim (napsat mátim) marat awilim (marti awilim) šákitta-kzL napista-ka marat-ka šákitti-kzL napišti-ka marti-ka ending on -a kalům kal(a) mátim (kali mátim) kalů-ka kalá-ka kali-ka ending on -i rabům rab (i) mátim rabů-ka rabá-ka rabi-ka The status constructus is fomed by removing the endings -um, -im, -am from the noun in singular and plural; the endings -u and —z of he masculine plural remain unchanged. If the resulting form ends on two identical or two different consonants (a syllable type that the language does not allow), then the two identical consonants are reduced to a single one, or the two different consonants are seperated from each other by a vowel, or a vowel is added after the two consonants, which before a noun in the genitive is always -i, and before a pronoun in the genitive is either -a (nominative and accusative) or -i (genitive). Before nouns in the genitive the status constructus does not distinguish between the three cases; before pronouns in the genitive the status constructus distinguishes the genitive (always ending on -i) from the nomin./acc. (never ending on -i, sometimes ending on -a). §10. Various pronouns in various functions su, si annum ullum annánum anniš annišam annik/aw he, she; that (apposition); gen./acc masc. sudti, gen./acc fern, siati awilum su awilim/awilam sudti "that man" awiltum si awiltim/awiltam siati "that woman" "this" (adjective), < annium, fern, annitum "that there, distant (in time)" (adjective), < ullium, fern, ullitum "(from) here" ullanum "(from) there" "(to) here" ullis "later (in time), afterwards" "(to) here" ullisam "(to) there, yonder" "(to) here" ullikiam "(t°) there, yonder" mannum "who?" (substantive) 8 minum ana minim assum minim ayyum (ina) mati adi mati istu mati ki kimasi ali ayyanum istu ayyanum ayyis, es ayyisam ayyikiam 'what?" (substantive) 'for what, why?", also amminim (< an(a) minim) 'why?" 'which?" (adjective), < ayyium, fern, ayyitum 'when?" 'till when, how long?" 'since when?" 'how?" 'how much?" 'where?", older: alum 'where?" 'from where?" 'to where?" "to where?" 'where?" mamman "somebody, whoever", indeclinable, older: manman; with negation "nobody" mamma "somebody, whoever", < man-ma, indeclinable; with negation "nobody" mimma "something, whatever, anything, everything", < min-ma, indeclinable; with negation "nothing" ayyumma "whichever, whatever, whoever" (adjective), fern, ayyitumma; with negation 'nothing" ayyisamma, esamma "to wherever, anywhere"; with negation "to nowhere" matima "ever, always"; with negation "never" Prepositions, subjunctions, adverbial endings, adverbs, and particles §11. Prepositions All prepositions and composite prepositions are construed with the genitive. Some prepositions cannot be combined with genitive pronouns (ina, ana, ela); in those cases composite prepositions are used. Some prepositions serve as subjunctions; the clause dependening on a subjunction has its predicate in the subjunctive. Composite prepositions consist of a preposition followed by a noun in the status constructus of the genitive, which is followed by a further noun or pronoun in the genitive (ana libbi alim "into the heart of the city = "into the city", ana libbisu "into the heart of him/it" = "into him/it"). adi "till, within, during, in the course of; up to, as far as"; adini (lit. "up to us") "hitherto, till now, plus negation "not yet" ana "to, for", not construed with genitive pronouns, but can be combined with independent dative pronoun {ana kdsim > akkdsim "to you"); also an (the -n assimilates to the first consonant of the following word 9 ana libbi/libbi- "into" ana kima "in accordance with" (ana) ma^ar/ma^ri- "before, into the presence of ana muhhi "in addition to, towards, onto" ana pi "in accordance with, with respect to" ana ser/seri- "towards, in addition to", also asser assum "because of, for the sake of (< an(a) sum) balu(m) "without"; the -m assimilates to a following suffix, e.g. balussu "without him" ela "apart from, in the absence of; not construed with genitive pronouns el(i) "on (top of), over, against, more than" em (a) "in whatever/every part of ina "in, on", not construed with genitive pronouns; also in (the -n assimilates to the first consonant of the following word: in warMm > iwwarMm "in the month" (ina) birit/biriti- "between, among" ina libbi/libbi- "inside of (ina) ma^ar/ma^ri- "before, in the presence of ina muMi/muMi- "on, in, on top of ina pdn/pdni- "in presence of, in front of ina qereb/qerbi- "in, in the midst of, inside" ina ser/seri- "on(to), over, towards" ina sapal/sapli- "under" istu "out of, from" itti "together with", rarely isti ki "like, according to, on account of, rarely construed with a genitive pronoun kipi "with respect to, in accordance with" kimu "instead of, with suffix e. g. kimusu kima "like, as, that" lama "before, in front of mala "as much as, equivalent to" qadum "together with, including" summa la "without, in the absence of warki, warka "after, behind, after the death of §12. Subjunctions Subjunctions (in fact prepositions functioning as subjunctions) introduce subordinate clauses, which have their predicate in the subjunctive. adi "until" (with presens) ali "where(ever)" asar "(on the place) where" assum "because, with a view to, in order to" em(a) "wherever, whenever" (im)mati "when" 10 inuma "on the day that, when" (< in umi); older also inu(m) istu "since, after, as soon as, because" ki "when, if kima "when, because, that (after verb of saying)" lama "before" wark/warki "after" sa "who, which, that, what"; introduces relative clauses (predicate in subjunctive); originally not a prepostion (see below, syntax) summa "if (introduces conditional clauses); predicate in the indicative (not the subjunctive), but negation la (as in subordinate clauses) instead of ul (as in main clauses). §13. Adverbial Endings -um Locative-Adverbial, not identical with the nom. ending. Old postposition, later replaced by ina. Can be combined with genit. suffix pronouns, whereby the m of the ending is assimilated to the consonant of the suffix: qerbum "in the centre", qerbuyya (< qerbum-ya) "in my centre", qerbukka (< qerbum-ka) "in your centre", qerbussu (< qerbum-™) "in his centre").. -anum (-an+um). Used for adverbs: warkanum "later, afterwards", saplanum "beneath". -is Terminative-Adverbial, old postposition, later replaced by ana: daris "for ever". Sometimes combined with ina or other prep.: ana/ina daris umi "for ever", istu labiris "for a long time". Can be combined with suffix pronouns: rigmiska "on your call", puhrissunu "in their assembly". -(an)is (-dn+is) "in the manner of, like": His "like a god", rimdnis "like a wild bull". -is(am) annis(am) "hither", ullis(am) "thither", ayyis(am) "whither?". Distribitives: umisam "daily", warhisam "monthly", sattisam "yearly". -am sometimes the acc. ending -am is used for adverbs: sumelam "left", imittam "right". The adverbs (-um, -anum, -is) that are combined with nouns or pronouns in the genitive function as prepositions §14. Adverbs and related ahTtam an(n)umma appüna assurri asarsani asränum istu asränum dannis elenum el/5 Aamutta(m) imittam inanna adi inanna istu inanna arka inanna "aside, on one side" "now, herewith" "moreover" "if perchange, hopefully not" "elsewhere" "there" "from there" "very, severely" "above, over, in addition" "above, upwards" "at once, soon" "at the right" "now" "until now" "from now" "afterwards, later" 11 inusu, inumisu "at that time, then" istenis "together" kalis "totally" kayydnis "constantly" kisam(m)a "forgive me" (polite interjection) ina laberis "of old" istu laberis "for a long time" madis "greatly, very" magal "very (much), greatly" (ina) ma/?ra "in front, before" malmalis "correspondingly, equally" minde, midde "perhaps" (< rriina ide "what do I know") mitharis "in the same manner, equally, simultaneously, in equal shares" pdndnum "previously, before" plqat "perhaps" qabla "in the middle" qerbenum "inside" ana ser(um)ma, asser "on top (of that), moreover" saplis "below, downwards" sumelam "at the left" tusd(ma) "it could have been that, it was as though" umma "(saying) as follows" (introduces direct speech) (prs 3rd p of wama 'urn) (ina) warka "afterwards, later" (w)aihis "quickly, hastily" warkdnum "afterwards, later" wuddi "certainly, probably, apparently" (imp. D of idum "to know") zamar "quickly, immediately" §15. Negations ul(a) "not"; wr. u-ul, u-la; negation in main clauses la "not"; negation of single words {la awilum, awdtum la tdbtum), in subordinate clauses, in main clauses with summa "if, in main clauses with interrogative pronoun, in prohibitive clauses (la plus presens: "may/should/must not"), and in the oath, ay-, e- plus preterit: vetitive ("may not") balu(m) "without", preposition §16. Enclitic particles -ma stresses single words, and connects clauses: "and (then) ..." -mi optional suffix in citation of direct speech; can be suffixed on any word of the cited direct speech -man suffix indicating unreality after stressed word, especially in conditional clauses §17. Conjunctions asyndetic: clauses on the same level can be connected without marker u "and, but, also" (spelled u); conjunction of single words and sentences on the same level u "or" (spelled u); disjunction of single words and sentences on the same level 12 (u) lu....(u) lu "either....or" -ma enclitic; stresses single words, and connects clauses: "and (consequently) The Verb §18. The Stative or Predicative The stative makes a predicate out of a noun (substantive or adjective). The stative is formed by adding the endings of the suffix nominative pronoun (§7) on the base of the noun, that is the noun without its nominal endings (-um, -im etc.) and without the feminine (-t-). The translation typically uses forms of the verb to be. Some examples (the third is a PaRiS form of the verb sabdtum, the final two are PaRiS forms of verbs with a third weak consonant: rabum — — 3-5 < rabayum, and lequm < laqa'" um): Stative šarrumlšarratum belum/beltum sab(i)tum rabům leqům king/queen lord/lady caught big taken sg. I am šarráku bělěku sabtáku rabiáku leq/oku you (masc.) are šarráta bělěta sabtata rabiáta leq/ata you (fern.) are šarráti bělěti sabtáti rabiáti leq/ati he is šar běl sabit rabi leqi she is šarrat bělet sabtat rabiat leqiat pi. we are šarránu bělenu sabtánu rabiánu leq/anu you (masc.) are šarrátunu bělětunu sabtátunu rabiátunu leq/atunu you (fern.) are šarrátina bělětina sabtátina rabiátina leq/atina they (masc.) are šarrú bělu sabtú rabů leqů they (fern.) are šarrá bělá sabtá rabiá leq/a §19. Personal affixes on the finite verb and the ventive G and N Stems -c- D and S Stems Imperative Ventive (§ 23) a-Verbs e-Verbs sg. 3c i—0 i—0 u—0 -am* 2m ta—0 te—0 tu—0 —0 -am 2f ta—i te—i tu—l —I -m 1 a—0 e—0 u—0 -am pi. 3m i—u i—u u—u -nim 3f i—á i—á u—á -nim 2c ta—á te—a tu—á —á -nim 1 ni—0 ni—0 nu—0- -am 13 * The -m of the ventive assimilates to the consonants of the pronominal suffixes In the scheme below (§20) a sg 3 functions as example {isakkan etc. "he places"); the sg 2m would be tasakkan "you place", the sg 2f tasakkarii etc. §20. Chart of the strong verb (all three consonants visible) Finite Forms Nominal Forms Verbal presens perfect preterit imperative participle Adjective Infinitive G -PaRRvS- -PtaR(v)S- -PRvS- PvR(v)S- PäRiS- PaR(i)S- PaRäS- isakkan istakkan iskun sukun säkinum saknum sakänum Gt -PtaRRvS- -PtatRvS- -PtaR(v)S- PitRvS- muPtaR(i)S- PiTRuS- istakkan istatkan istakan sitkan mustakinum sitkunum Gtn -PtanaRRvS- -PtatanRvS- -PtanRvS- PitanRvS- muPtanRiS- PitanRuS- istanakkan istatakkan istakkan sitakkan mustakkinum sitakkunum Prefixes N -nPaRRvS- -ntaPRvS- -nPaR(i)S- naPRiS munPaR(i)S- naPRuS- 1-, a-, ta- issakkan ittaskan issakin naskin mussaknum naskunum Ntn -ntanaPRvS- -ntataPRvS- -ntaPRvS- nitaPRvS- muntaPRiS- nitaPRuS- ittanaskan ittataskan ittaskan /toikan muttaskinum itaskunum D -PaRRaS- -PtaRRiS- -PaRRiS- PuRRiS- muPaRRiS- PuRRuS- usakkan ustakkin usakkin sukkin musakkinum sukkunum Dt -PtaRRaS- ustakkan -PtataRRiS- -PtaRRiS- PutaRRiS- muPtaRRiS- PutaRRuS- ustatakkin ustakkin sutakkin mustakkinum sutakkunum Dtn -PtanaRRaS-ustanakkan Prefixes u-, tu- S -saPRaS- -staPRiS- -saPRiS- suPRiS- musaPRiS- suPRuS- usaskan ustaskin usaskin suskin musaskinum suskunum St -staPRaS- ustaskan -stataPRiS- -staPRiS- sutaPRiS- mustaPRiS- sutaPRuS- ustataskin ustaskin sutaskin mustaskinum sutaskunum Stn -stanaPRaS-ustanaskan *The second short vowel in a potentially open syllable is put between brackets The scheme is divided into two parts, left the finite forms, and right the nominal forms (participle, verbal adjective, infinitive). 14 Every finite verbal form has three characteristics: person (sg/pl, masc./fem. §19), stem (the rows: G, N, D, S with their -ta- and -tan- infixes), and what we will call tense (the columns: presens, perfect, preterit, and imperative, the latter not properly a tense). §21. Stems G, N, D, S and infixes - G(round)-Stem: the simple stem (PRS) without any additional marker. - N-Stem: the forms are marked by a prefixed -n- (nPRS), which is assimlated to a following consonant. With transitive verbs the N-Stem expresses the passive: iskun "he placed", issakin (< insakin) "he was placed". With intransitive verbs the N-Stem may express ingressivity. - D(ouble)-Stem: the forms are marked by the reduplication (doubling) of the second radical (PRRS). The D-Stem forms factitives of intransitive verbs (wasarum "to be free", wussurum "to make free"), or intensifies the meaning of the G-Stem ("intensively, very much, all over"). - S-Stem: the forms are marked by a prefixed s (sPRS). With transitive verbs the S-Stem expresses the causative: iskun "he placed (something)", usaskin "he made (someone) place (something)". The infixes -ta- and -tan- modify the basic meaning of the stem in question: -ta-infix: sometimes separative (G illik "he went", Gt ittalak, "he went away"), sometimes reflexive (imhusii they hitted (something/someone), imtahsu "they hitted each other"). With the factitive D-Stem and the causative S-Stem the -ta- infix must often be translated as a passive (or medium): Dt iitassar "he is made free" or "he makes himself free". In individual cases the meaning of -ta- must be looked up in the dictionary. -tan-infix: to be translated as "again and again", "all the time". Classes of the verb in G and N-stems In the finite foms of the G and N Stems the final syllable (between R and S) sometimes has a unspecified v(owel); the nature of this v depends on the specific verb. There are four types, or classes of verbs: the a/u (or Ablaut) class, the a/a (for short a) class, the i/i (for short i) class, and the u/u (for short u) class. The a/u class has an a in presens and perfect G, but an u in preterit and imperative G, the other classes have a, i, or u in all finite forms (presens, perfect, preterit, and imperative). The a/u verbs have the Ablaut only in the G-stem; in Gt, Gtn, N, and Ntn they merge with the a verbs. In the N and Ntn-stems the behaviour of the vowel is somewhat unpredictable: -PaRRvS- -PtaR(v)S- -PRvS- PvR(v)S- Vowel Class of Specific Verb isakkan istak(a)n iskun suk(u)n a/u or Ablaut class ikkal JtakaX ik\x\ akul a/u or Ablaut class I 'a ippes Itepes ipxxs epus a/u or Ablaut class I 'e (e < a) imahhas imtah(a)s imhas mah(a)s a/a or a-class ipaqqid iptaq(i)d ipqid piq(i)d i/i or i-class irappud irtap(u)d irpud rup(u)d 15 u/u or u-class -PtaRRvS- -PtatRvS- -PtaR(v)S- PitRaS- istakkan istatkan istak(a)n sitkan a/u merged with a/a or a-class imtahhas imtathas imtah(a)s rmthas a/a or a-class iptaqqid iptatqid iptaq(i)d pitqid i/i or i-class irtaggum irtatgum irtag(u)m ritgum u/u or u-class §22. The Tenses Presens: to be translated as presens or future: isakkan "he places; he will place" Preterit: to be translated as past (or perfect): iskun "he placed(; he has placed)" Perfect: to be translated as perfect (or past): istakan "he has placed(; he placed)". §23. The Ventive The ventive is formally identical with the 1st p dative pronominal suffix (§7), and is suffixed on the verb after the endings for person (§19). The sg 1st p accusative suffix (-ni) is always preceded by a ventive, the dative pronominal suffixes are often preceded by a ventive; the final -m assimilates to the consonants of the pronominal suffixes. The ventive expresses a movement towards the speaker, but is often left untranslated: illik "he went", illikam "he came", ublu "they brought away", ublunim "they brought here"; ispuranni (< ispur+am+ni) "he sent me (accusative)", aspurakkum "I sent to you (dative)" (< aspur+am+kum). §24. The Subjunctive The subjunctive is formed by adding -u after the form, unless it already has a personal or a ventive ending, in which cases the subjunctive remains unmarked. The subjunctive is used in subordinate clauses (introduced by a subjunction, the relative pronoun sa, or a noun in the status constructus): awilum illik "the man went" (main clause), awilum sa illihx tab "the man who went (subordinate claues) is good"; awilum illkam "the man came", awilum sa illikam (subordinate claues: ventive, subjunctive unmarked) tab. The subjunctive is also used in the oath: la alputu "(I swear) I did not touch (it)" §25.Phonology Verb The second short vowel in an open syllable is elided (between brackets in chart). -t- of the -ta-infix (perfect and t/tn-Stems) assimilates to a preceding dental (d, t, /) or sibilant (z, s, s) to dd-, -tt-, -ft, -zz-, -ss-, -ss-: *iztakkar > izzakkar, *istabat > issabat etc. In the form PitRuS- the -t- assimilates to a following sibilant (*Mtsas < Mssas). s- of the pronominal suffixes assimilates with a preceding dental (d, t, /) or sibilant (z, s, s, s) to -ss- (*iksud+su > iksussu, *isbat+su > isbassu etc.). n: with few exceptions (see chart) a -n- assimilates to a following consonant (*indin > iddin, indin+sum > iddissum "he gave to him"). 16 In the Ntn-Stem the syllable ni- is reduced to i-: *nitaskan (imperative) > itaskan, *nitaskunum (infinitive/verbal adjective) > itaskunum (sakdnum a/u). In forms of the verba I n that start with the syllable ni- (imperative and infinitive/verbal adjective Gt and Gtn) the n- disappears: *nitakkis > itakkis (imperative Gtn nakdsum i), *nitakkusum > itakkusum (infinitive Gtn nakdsum i). In the imperative G of the verba I n the n- disappears: *nikis (imperative nakdsum i) > ikis "give", *nuqur (imperative naqdrum a/u) > uqur. The -m of the ventive (and of the dative suffixes) assimilates to the consonant of a following pronominal suffix (*ispur+am+kum > ispurakkum "he wrote to you", *ispuru+nim+kum > ispurunikkum "they wrote to you", atrud+am+kum+su > atrudakkussu "I sent him/it (-su) to you (-kum). The final -b of a root may assimilate to a following m- (erub+ma > erumma "I entered"). §26. The Precative (wish form) The particle lu- followed by a stative or a preterit expresses a wish ("may"): lu balit "may he be alive (stative)", lu awil "may he be a man (stative)"; when followed by a preterit the u of lu- merges with the vowel of the personal prefixes: *lii+iblut > liblu/ "may he stay alive", lu+ablut > lublu/ "may I stay alive". In some forms lu is replaced by another particle (i), but the distribution of the two is not exactly clear. Provisionally: GandN Dand S sg 3c 11- liprus liparris lisapris 2m i i taprus i tuparris i tusapris 2f i i taprusi i tuparrisi i tusaprisi 1 lu- hlprus luparris lusapris pi 3m 11- Itprusu Itparrisu lisaprisu 3f 11- liprusa liparrisa lisaprisa 2c i i taprusa i tuparrisa i tusaprisa 1 i i niprus i nuparris i nusapris §27. The Vetitive (negative wish) The particle ay- (before vowel) or e- (before consonant) followed by a preterit expresses a negative wish ("may not"): ay-iddin "may he not give", e-taddin "may you not give". §28. The Affirmative The particle lu also expresses the affirmative ("certainly"); it occurs especially in royal inscriptions. The -u of lu in this usage does not merge with the vowel of the personal prefixes: lu ^abit "he is certainly caught (stative)", lu mdrum andku "I am certainly the son", lu epus "I certainly made". 17 §29. The Prohibitive (negative imperative) In main clauses the negation la followed by a presens (or rarely a stative) expresses the negative imperative (the imperative itself cannot be negated): la tanaddin "do not give", or "you must not give", la wasbdti "do not stay" or "you must not stay (stative)". §30. Infinitive constructions The infinitive can be construed nominally and verbally. In the nominal construction the infinitive is (like a noun) construed with a genitive. The genitive can express the subject or the object of the state or action expressed by the infinitive (genitivus objectivus and genitivus subjectivus): aldk awilim "the going of the man" (genitivus subjectivus); akdl aklim "the eating of bread" (genitivus objectivus); nasdk kalbim "the biting of the dog" (normally genitivus subjectivus, but can also be understood as a genitivus objectivus reporting the news item "man bites dog") In the verbal construction the infinitive is (like a verb) construed with the nominative and/or the accusative: dannum ensam ana la habdlim, literally "for (ana) the strong one (nominative) not to hurt the weak one (accusative)"; kaspam ana saqdlim "for paying the silver (accusative)". A variant of the latter construction is ana *kaspam saqdlim, which changes into ana kaspim saqdlim. Common turns of phrase are for instance awdtam ina semisu "at his hearing the word" ("when he heard the word"), or tuppi ina amdrika "at your reading my tablet"("when you read my tablet"). 18 The Verb: I, II, and III Weak Verbs The weak verb has one or more weak consonants on the place of the P/Ci (I weak), R/C2 (II weak), or S/C3 (III weak) of the strong verb. There is a sizable number of double weak verbs, which are listed below. The weak consonants are y, w, and '; of the ' there are two varieties, one which leaves — 1-2 — the a/ďs of the verbal forms intact (original ' " ), and one which changes the a/ďs of the — 3-5 verbal forms into e/e's (original ' " ). The verbs I weak and III weak closely follow the scheme of the strong verb; the verbs II weak deviate from the strong verb on a few points. §31.1 Weak Verbs I' All verbs I' belong to a vowel class (like the strong verb: a/u or e/u; a/a or e/e; i/i, u/u); the chart gives examples for a/u and i/i only. The basic rules for deriving the I' forms from those of the strong verb are as follows: - any sequence V1V2 is contracted, whereby the resulting long vowel has the quality of vi; - any sequence v'C is reduced to vC (or rarely to vCC or vnC): The ' at the beginning of certain forms (for instance the infinitive) is not expressed in writing, and therefore not in modern transliterations. Note the difference between the imperative of the strong verb, and that of the I' verbs. Forms of the presens G and the presens and preterit D beginning with 1-, á-, or u- are usually spelled long (i-ik-ka-al, u-u^-M-iz etc.). Some examples: presens perfect preterit imperative infinitive iPaRRvS iPtaRvS iPRvS PvRvS PaRaS 'a *i 'akkal *i 'takal *i 'kul akul instead of > akálum instead of a/u > ikkal > Ttakal > Tkul * 'ukul * 'akálum 'e *i 'eppeš *i 'tepeš *i 'puš epuš instead of > epěšum instead of e/u > íppeš > ítepeš > ípuš *upuš * 'epěšum I j The verbs I j are always of the i/i-class, and formally follow the verbs I 'e of the i/i-class. I w(a) Only in the G-Stem there is a distinction between stative verbs (designated I w) and action verbs (designated I wa); the verbs I w are always of the i/i-class, and formally follow the verbs I 'a of the i/i-class, with the exception of the verbal adjective (was(i)mum vs ar(i)mum) and the infinitive (wasámum vs aramům). In the other Stems the verbs I w and I wa coalesc. The verbs I wa always have an a in the last syllable in presens and perfect G, and an i in that syllable in preterit and imperative G. The personal prefixes in presens and preterit G are ú/u-, tu/u-, and nů/w- (I, he/she, you, we). The -i- of the preterit G can be elided when a vocalic element is suffixed {ubil+am > ublam, ubil-u > ublu). 19 Chart I Weak Verbs (without -t- and -tn- stems) Nature presens perfect preterit imperative participle verbal infinitive of Ci and adjective vowel class G 'a - a/u ikkal itak(a)l tkul ak(u)l äkilum ak(i)lum akälum i/i irrim itar(i)m Mm ar(i)m ärimum ar(i)mum arämum w i/i issim itas(i)m Tsim (as(i)m) - was(i)mum wasämum 'e - a/u tppes itep(e)s Tpus ep(u)5 episum ep(i)sum epesum i/i ittiq ffe/(i)q itiq et(i)q etiqum et(i)qum etequm y — i/i inniq ffe«(i)q iniq en(i)q eniqum en(i)qum enequm wa - a/i übbal ittab(a)l übil bil wäbilum wab(i)lum wabälum N 'a - a/u innakkal ittanmar innak(i)l nanmer munnak(i)lum nanmurum i/i innabbit ittäbit innab(i)t ( ) munnab(i)tum näbutum 'e - a/u mneppes ittenpes innep(i)5 - munnep(i)sum (nenpusum) i/i innemmid ittenmid innem(i)d - munnem(i)dum nenmudum y innesser ( ) innes(e)r ( ) munnes(i)rum nesurum w(a) iwwallad ( ) iwwal(i)d ( ) muwwal(i)dum ( ) D 'a üMaz ütahhvz üAAiz uAAiz muAAizum uMuzum 'e üppas üteppis üppis uppis muppisum uppusum y üssaq ütessiq üssiq ussiq mussiqum ussuqum w(a) uwassar ütasser uwasser wusser muwassirum wussurum S 'a usahhaz ustdhvz usähxL sühxL musähimm sw/mzum 'e useppes ustepis usepis süpis musepisum süpusum y usenneq usteniq useniq süniq museniqum sünuqum w(a) usabball ustdbill usäbill subtil musäbiluml sübuluml usebbel ustebil usebil sübil musebilum sübulum abatum G a/u, N i/i "to flee", ahazum a/u "to take", akalum a/u "to eat", amarum a/u "to see", aramum i "to cover", emedum i "to lean against", enequm i "to suck", epesum e/u "to make", esequm i "incise", etequm i "to pass by", wabdlum a/i "to carry", waladum a/i "to give birth, beget", wasdmum i "to be fitting", wasdrum D "to release". 20 §32. II Weak Verbs There are two types of II Weak verbs, one with in the middle a long vowel (u, i, a) instead of a consonant (also called "hollow roots"), and one with in the middle an 'a or an 'e. The two types are often conjugated in the same way, whereby II 'a verbs coalesc with II a verbs, and II 'e verbs forms a further hollow root type II e. Sometimes the ' in the middle is preserved (then called a "hard aleph"), in which case the verb is conjugated as a strong verb. The forms of the N-stem are based on those of the G-Stem (with the addition of a prefixed -n-), and those of the S-Stem are based on those of the D-stem (with the addition of a prefixed -s-). In the G- and N-Stems the root vowel (u, i, a, e) appears in all forms except the participle and the verbal adjective; if the root vowel comes into contact with a following vowel the two (except -ia-) are contracted into a long vowel with the quality of the second one. In the D- and S-Stems the vowels are those of the strong verb, which neutralizes the difference between the vowel classes; only the II e group stands out where it has a's changed into e's. In the presens G and N, and in all forms of the D and S, the final consonant is doubled (instead of the second one) when a vocalic element is suffixed. The dictionaries cite the verbs IIT differently: AHw as sidmum (uncontracted OB form as in CH), CAD as sdmu (contracted SB form). 21 Chart II Weak Verbs (without -t- and -tn- stems) presens perfectum preterit imperative participle verbal infinitive adjective G -PvaS PvSSv -PtvS- -PvS- PvS- Pa'iS- PIS- PvaS- i islam isimmu ištím islm slm šá 'imum šimum, also šidmum > isarn tábum > šámum u ikúan ikunnu iktún ikún kun dá 'ikum kinům kuánum > ikan > kán um a i báaš ibassu ibtáš ibás báš bá 'išum bášum baášum > ibás > bášum e iběel ibellu ibtěl iběl běl tě 'imxm bělum beělum > ibél > bělum N -nPvS -nPvSSv (-ntaPvS-) -nPvS- - - - i iqqiap iqqippu (íttaqip) iqqíp - - - > iqqap u idduak iddukku (ittaduk) iddúk - - - > iddák a išsáal iššallú - iššál - - - > issáí e ibběel ibbellú - ibběl - - - > ibbél D -PaS -PtiS -PIS PIS muPlS PuS -PaSSv -PtiSSv -PiSSv PiSSv muPiSSv PuSSv ukán uktín ukín kin mukin kun ukannú uktinnú ukinnú kinná mukinnum kunnum e urěq urtíq uríq ríq muríq ruq ureqqú urtiqqú uriqqú riqqá muriqqum ruqqum S -šPaS -štaPlS -SPIS šuPIS mušPlS šuPuS -šPaSSv -štaPiSSv -šPiSSv šuPiSSv mušPiSSv šuPuSSv usmát uštamít ušmít šumít vsmšmít šumut ušmattú uštamittú ušmittú šumittá mušmittum šumuttum e usnes ušteríq usníš šuríq mušněš šutun *ušneššú ušteriqqú ušniššú šuriqqá mušněššum rá/unnum bášum a "to be ashamed", bélům e "to rule", dákum u "to kill", kanum u "to be permanent", matům u "to die", néšum e "to live", qápum i "to trust", réqum e "to be distant", šálům a "to ask", šámum i "to decree", /ábum i "to be good" (verbal adjective tábum), /énume "to grind". 22 §33. Ill Weak Verbs The original III weak consonants^, w, 'a and 'e leave only vowels, which in the finite forms (and the verbal adjective) of the G and N are i, u, a, and e respectively, while in the D and S they correspond to the vowels of the strong verb. Verbs III y/i and III 'e/e are common, III w/u and 'a/a are rare. When the final vowel is followed by another vowel the two (except -ia-) are contracted into a long vowel with the quality of the second: ibanni+u > ibannu, ubanna+u > ubannu, ilqiu > ilqii. The contracted forms are usually spelled long: i-ba-(an-)nu-u, u-ba-(an-)nu-u, il-qu-u. 23 Chart III Weak Verbs (withou -t- and -tn- stems) presens perfect preterit imperative participle verbal infinitive adjective G i ibanni ibtani ibni bini bánium banium banáyum > bánům > banům > banům a ikalla iktala ikla kala kalium kalaum/kalium kalá 'um > kalům > kalům > kalům e ileqqe ilteqe ilqe leqe lěqium leqeum/leqium leqě 'um > lěqům > leqům > leqům u iAaddu iAtadu iAdu haáa hádium h a duum//? a dium hadáwum > hadům > /zadům > //adíini N i ibbanni ittabni ibbani nabni mubbanium nabnuum > mubbanům > nabnům a ikkalla ittakla ikkali nabni mukkalium nakluum > mukkalům > náklům e ippette ittepte ippete nepti muppetium neptuum > muppetům > neptům u immannu ittamnu immani namni mummanium namnuum > mummanům > namnům D ubanna ubtanni ubanni bunni mubannium bunnuum >mub annum > bunnům e upe/atte upte/atti upe/atti putti mupe/attium puttuum > mupe/attům > puttům S usabna ustabni ušabni šubni mušabnium subnuum > musabnům > subnům e uše/apte ušte/apú uše/apti šupti muše/aptium suptuum > muše/aptům > suptům banům i "to make", /zadům u "to rejoice", kalům a "to hold (back)", leqům e "to take", manům u "to count", petůme "to open". Subordinate clauses, relative clauses Verbal and nominal clauses can function as main clause or as subordinate clause. The subordinate clause can depend on a subjunction (in which case it is like an adverbial complement to the main sentence), or on the relative pronoun ša (in which case it is like an adjectival complement to a noun of the main sentence). In either case the predicate of the main sentence is in the subjunctive (§24). §34. The realtive clause The relative clause is introduced by the indeclinable relative pronoun ša; gender, number, and case of ša can be made explicit by the use of a pronoun in the relative clause: - awátum ša šarrum iqbti krnat "the word which (accusative) the king spoke is true"; the function of ša could have been made explicit by an accusative feminine 3p pronoun (iqbtiši, referring to awatarn) on the verb of the relative clause; 24 - awTlum ša šarrum awátam iqbůšum ^adu "the man to whom the king spoke a word is happy": the suffix -šum "to him" on the verb explains the function of ša ("to whom") in the relative sentence. - awilum ša elišu kišpú nadů "the man on whom (acts of) sorcery have been put (< nadiu stative 3rd p pi)" (i. e. who has been accused of sorcery): elišu "on him" in the relative clause explains the function of ša ("on whom"). A relative clause can also be based on a noun in the status constructus: awátum ša (awilum) iqbu or awát (awilum) iqbu both for "the word which (the man)/he said". 25 Verbs with four radicals The S-Group Pres. Perf. Pret. Imp. Part. Inf. a G usqallal ustaqallil usqallil suqallil musqallilum suqallulum Gt ustaqlal ustataqlil ustaqlil - - - b G usken usteken usken - muskenum sukenum Gt ustepel - ustepel - The N-Group Pres. Perf. Pret. Imp. Part. Inf. a N ibbalakkat ittabalkat ibbalkit nabalkit mubbalkitum nabalkutum Ntn ittanablakkat ittatablakkat ittabalakkat - muttablakkitum itablakkutum S usbalakkat ustabalkit usbalkit subalkit musbalkitum subalkutum St ustabalkat ustatabalkit ustabalkit - mustabalkitum sutabalkutum Stn ustanablakkat - ustablakkit - mustablakkitum sutablakkutum b N Ntn ipparakku iMelesse ittanaqlappu itteneklemmi ittaparku ittekelme ipparku ikkelme mupparki-muMelsi-muteklemmi- napalku-neAelsu-itekleninni- S uspalakka usqeleppe uspalki ushe\s\ muspalki-musqelpi- supalku-suqelpu- List of verbs with four radicals A. The S-Group The prefix-vowel is usually i-, sometimes u- a. Strong Verbs (third and fourth radical r, 1, m): sugarrurum: to roll (cf. qararum S: to make someone grovel); cf. sugurrum "roll, mat" suharrurum: to be deathly still; stative sahur, sw/jarrur, sw/jar(r); prefix vowel i-, later u-; cf. 5a/jurratum "deathly hush" suparrurum: to spread out suqallulum: to hang down (intrans.); prefix vowel OB i-, later u- suqammumu: to be silent, still; prefix vowel OB i-, later u-; cf. saqummum "silent, secluded" b. Weak Verbs (third radical '3"5): sube"um (sb'I): to rush upon, prs: usba"i, pret. usbi', perf. ustebV sukenum: to prostrate oneself (cf. muskenum "commoner") supelum: to exchange, overturn B. The N-Group The second radical is 1 or r. The verbs of this group are intransitive, or express an action that is not directed at an object. The N-forms are ingressive, the S forms causative. a. Strong Verbs: n a'arm rum N: to go to assist, bring reinforcements; cf. ne 'rarum/nerarum "aid. help" nabalkutum N: to cross over, revolt, defect S: to cause to cross over, transport 26 St: to be transported nagalmusum N: only as adjective nagalmusum "exalted" S: only as substantive sagalmusum "fear" naharbusum N: to frieze (intr.); derived from hurbasum "frost, terror naharmumum N: to break down, collapse S: to cause to break down, collapse naharmutum N: to dissolve, melt (intrans.) S: to cause to dissolve, melt naharsusum N: to collapse (intr.) S: to cause to collapse napalsuhum N: to fall to the ground, squat, grovel S: to make prostrate naparqudum N: to lie on one's back, flat (against) naparzuhum (N: not attested) S (suparzuhum): to make abundant naparsudum N: to flee, escape nasarbutum N: to flit, chase about nazarbubum N: to (tremble with) rage b. Weak Verbs These verbs have as their fourth radical i(/y) or u(/w), and usually (especially in Babylonian) a shift from a to e. nagaltum/negeltum u N: to wake (up) (intrans.) nagarsum ? N: to run about in confusion S: to confuse, upset nehelsum i N: to slip, slide S: to cause to slip, slide nekelmum i N: to frown at, regard malevolently S: to cause to frown at etc. namarkum/nemerkum i N: to be late, delayed, fall behind, default S: to cause to be late etc. napalkum/nepelkum i N: to be wide (open); cf. palkum"wide, broad" S: to open wide napardum/neperdum u N: to shine brightly S: to lighten, illuminate, make cheerful naparkum/neperkum u N: to cease, stop doing something S: to allow to cease neqelpum u N: to float, glide (along/downstream) S: to sail (a boat/cargo) downstream nersum ('rsu) u: only as adjective ersum "ready, prepared, trained" S: sutersum "to make ready, prepare, train" nesergum (srgu) u: only as adjective sergum "adnorned" 27 List of verbs with two weak radicals (Selection) '/J/W ne'um e G: to turn back (trans, and intrans.); pres. ine', pret. ine Vine, perf. itte' D: to turn back (trans.) N: to be turned back nawum i G: to be desolate, deserted; D: to lay waste cf. nawum "pasturage, steppe" awum u G: to speak (only OA) Gt: to speak, discuss (itti with); pres. Ttawwu, pret. f/awu, imp. atwu, inf. atwum, part. mutawum eloquent St: to reflect on (itti/ina libbi), to debate with; pres. ustawwa, pret. ustdwi,, inf. sutawum, part, mustdwum/mustamu considerate, talkative cf. awdtum "word", atwum "speech, word", mdmltum "oath, curse" (so CAD; AHw. derives from wamd 'urn) ewum i G: to become, turn into (ana, -is) (intrans.); pres. iwwi/immi, pret. Twi/imi, perf. *Ttewi/itemi imp. *ewi/emi, stative *ewi/emi D: to make like/into (-is); pret. uwwi S: to make like/into (kima, -is); pres. *usewwa, pret. *usewi B/P ba'um G: not attested D: to look for (forms have hard aleph); inf. bu' 'urn ba'um a G: to walk along, overtake, enter into (ana); pres. ibd Vibd, pret. iba' S: to cause to move along; pres. usbd', pret. usbi', imp. subi', inf. subu'um/subum ebum G: to be thick; Stative ebi epum i G: to bake (forms as ehlm); cf. epum "baker"(< epi'um) wapum i G: to appear, be visible; pret. ipi D: to make visible; pres. uppa, pret. uppi, part, muppum, inf. uppum S: to make manifest/glorious, to produce, display; pres. usappa/useppe, pret. usdpi/usepi, perf. ustdpi/ustepi, imp. supi, part, musdpum/musepum, inf. supum St: passive of S na'apum u G: to be dry, wither; pres. ina' 'up, pret. i' 'up Dt: to be made to wither; pret. utta' 'ip nabum I i G: to name, call; D: to lament, wail nebum i G: to shine, sparkle napum i G: to sieve, sift D/T7T edum/wadum e G (Bab.: jd', Ass.: wd): defective, only: ide he/I know(s), tide you know (2m. sg.), tide you know (2f. sg.), idu (3m. pi.), Ida (3f. pi.) they know, tided/tidd (2 pi.), nide (1 pi.); precative lu ide may he/I know, lu tide may you know; rarely stative (i-da-ta you know); part, mudum (< muda'um, muPRaS-) D (Bab. and Ass. wd): to make known, identify, allocate; pres. uwadda/udda, pret. uwaddi/uweddi, perf. Mteddi, imp. wuddi, part, muwaddum, inf. wuddum Dt: to be identified, appointed, assigned; pres. Mtadda, pret. utaddi/ute.AA\ S: to cause to know, acquaint with, show; pres. usedde, pret. usedi, perf. ustedi, imp. sudi, part, musedum, inf. sudum cf. mudutum "knowledge", sudutum "announcement, edict" 28 etům i G: to become dark, dim; pret. iň, stative e/u D: to darken Dt: to be darkened cf. e/ům "dark" (< etu'um), e/íitum "darkness" watům a, later u G: to find; pres. utta(/uttu), pret. úta(/útu), stative wati D: to (re)discover, select; pres. utta, pret. utti, imp. utti, part. muttům, inf. uttíim St: to meet one another, to meet with (itti), to combine; pres. uštatta, pret. ustátí, imp. šutáti, inf. šutátům na'adum i G: to pay attention (ana to), to be concerned, worried (ana about); pres. ina' 'id, pret. i' 'id, perf. itta 'id, imp. i 'id, stative na 'id Gt: watch carefully, observe stricktly D: to alert, notify; pres. una' 'ad, pret. una' 'id, perf. utta' 'id, imp. nu' 'id, inf. nu' 'udum nádum a G: to praise, extoll; pres. inád, pret. inád, perf. ittád, imp. nád D: to praise; pres. una' 'ad, pret. una' 'id, perf. utta' 'id, imp, nu' 'id, inf. nu' 'udum Dt: to be praised; pres. utta' 'ad, pret. utta' 'id cf. tanittum "(hymn of) praise" nadům i G: to throw, lay down, cast; Š: caus. to G natům i G: to beat, whip natům u G: to be suitable, proper G/K/Q qu"ům D: to await, wait for (ana), wait on, trust; pres. uqawwa/uqá, pret. uqawwi/uqi, imp. qawwi/qi Partly confused with waqum egům i, sometimes u G: to be lazy, negligent; pres. iggi/u, pret. Tgi/u, perf. itěgi/u cf. egům "negligent", egutum "negligence", měgůtum "negligence" ekiini u G: only adj. attested ekum impoverished, orphaned (< eku'um) D: to deprive of, starve; pret. ukki, inf. ukkum cf. ekutum "impoverishment, orphanhood", měkůtum "want, lack" waqům i G: to wait for (OA only; pres. *uqqa, pret. *uqi, imp. qi) D: wait, await; pres. *uwaqqa/uqqa, pret. uwaqqi/uqqi, perf. wtaqqi Dt: to wait (on someone), to attend to; pres. utaqqa/utcqqe., pret. útaqqi/úteqqi, imp. utaqqi, inf. utaqqům/uteqqům. Partly confused with qu' 'urn naqům i G: to pour, libate, sacrifice; cf. níqum/niqům "offering" nagům u G: to sing joyfully, carol cf. nigutum "joyful song" nákum i G: to fornicate; S: to cause/allow to fornicate náqum I u G: to cry out, wail náqum II u G: to run, go s/z/s se'um i G: to press down; pres. ise''/, verbal adj. se 'urn wasům i G: to go out; with ventive: to come out; pres. ussi, pret. usi, perf. itta^i, imp. si Gt: to go away; pres. ittaííi, pret. itta^i, imp. tail S: to make/let go out, to send/bring out; pres. ušesse, pret. ušěsi, perf. uštěsi, inf. šúsum cf. situm "exit, new growth, issue, (sun-)rise", pi. siátum "distant time, primeval time" wásum i G: to be few, insufficient; cf. wlsum too small, little, few 29 nesum e G: to be distant, far; to distance, depart from; D: to take away, remove nasum a G; to despise S sa'fim i G: to walk around (so AHw; CAD has only a verb sd 'urn, no sa 'urn) sa'um G: not attested Dt: to trifle, treat lightly, be idle; pres. usta' 'a/ustd, pret. usta''/, inf. suta' 'um, part. musta' 'um idle se'um i G: to seek (out); pres. ise"e/ise, pret. ise, perf. iste'e, imp. se 'e Gtn: seek constantly, visit assiduously; pres. istene' 'e, pret. iste' 'e, imp. site' 'e, inf. site' 'um, part, muste' 'um sawum i G: to roast (intr.); pret. iswi, imp. siwi D: to roast (trans.); pret, usawwi, inf. suwwum (sw-u-u) sa'um u G: to fly about, flutter; pres. isd', pret isu' isum u G: to have; defective, only: isu he has, I have, tisu you (m.) have, nTsu we have, isu they have; precative lu tisu may you (m. sg.) have, lu tisd may you (pi.) have nasum i G: to lift, carry; S: to cause to lift, carry nasum u G: to rock, shift, quake; D: to cause to move, quake nesum e G: to live, heal; pres. ine 'as/ines, pret. ines S: to keep alive cf. riisum "life, oath", tenestum "personnel", pi. tenesetum "mankind" H ahum Gt: to fraternize, become brothers cf. atM pi. "companions, partners", atMtum "partnership" nahum u G: to be at rest; D: to calm, appease, placate; S: to soothe cf. we/ztum "calm, peace", tanehtam "pacification" L la'flm G: not attested D: to sully, make dirty; pret. ula' 'i/ule''/, imp. lu''/, part, mula' 'um, inf. lu' 'um Dt: to be sullied, made dirty cf. malum "dirty (body) hair" le'um i G: to be able, powerful; pres. He' 'e/ile, pret. il 'e/ile, perf. lite 'e, part, le 'um cf. litum "power, victory", telitum f. "(the) competent (one)" (Istar) eliini i G: to be hight, go up, rise; pres. illi, pret. Hi, perf. iteli Gt: to go up and away; ina x: to forfeit x D: make high(er), raise S: install, bring foreward, produce; pres. uselle, pret. useli, perf. usteli cf. elum"high"(< eli'um), eli "on", melum "height" e'elum i G: to bind, tie (on to); pres. /' 'il, pret. Til, imp. e 'il, stative e 'il (the "hard aleph" is spelled with a vowel or HI = 'i) cf. / 'lum "contract, bond", e 'iltum "bond, obligation" M ma'flm G: not attested D: to throw/hurl down; to praise7; pret. uma''/, imp. mu' 'i ma'flm a G: to vomit (bile); pres. imd', pret. mid' wama'um G: to swear (OAkk only, later replaced by tamum) cf. mdmitum "oath, curse" (so AHw; CAD derives from awum) N 30 eniiin i G: to change (forms as ehlm) R re'um i G: to pasture, tend; pres. ire' 'e/ire, pret. (ir 'i/)ire, perf. irte 'e part, re 'um shepherd cf. ritum "pasture", meritum "pasture" erum G: to be naked (very rare); D: to strip (naked/bare), to empty cf. urum "pudenda", merenum "nakedness", erasT-Pronoun "in ... nakedness" arum/erum i G: to be pregnant, conceive (forms as ehlm); D: to make pregnant cf. arum/erum pregnant (< ari'um/eri'um) erum G: to be awake (Pret. i 'er, Stative er); D: to wake up (trans.) (Pret. *u' 'ir, Stative uf) cf. erum "awake" warum u G: to lead; pres. urru, pret. uru, imp. ru Gt: lead away Gtn: to guide, steer, administer; pres. ittanarru, pret. ittarru, part, muttarrum S: conduct, direct; pres. usarra, pret. usdri cf. root variant tarum u "to lead away" warum i G: to go (up to); pres. SB i 'dr, pi. i 'irru, pret. OB iwTr D: to instruct, govern; pres. uwa' 'ar/uwar, pret. uwa' 'er/uwer, imp. wu' 'er/wer, inf. wu' 'rum/wurrum cf. muwerrum/mu 'errum "leader", tertum "instruction" wu' 'urtum "commission, command" narum/nerum a G: to kill; pres. inar/iner, pret. indr/iner, perf. ittdr, imp. ner/na 'er, stative ner, part, nd'erum/ne'erum, munerum (f. munertum) na'arum D: to roar, snarl 31 Some irregular verbs izuzzum/uzuzzum to stand Pres. Perf. Pret. Imp. Part. Inf. G izzaz(z) ittaziz(z) izziz(z) iziz(z) muzzazum izuzzum Gt ittazzaz(z) Gtn ittanazzaz(z) S ušzaz(z) uštaziz(z) ušziz(z) šuziz(z) suzuzzum itulum/utulum to lie down, sleep G Mál pi. ittillu ittatil Mil itil itulum S usual usnil sunil sunullum alakum to go G illak ittalak illik alik alikum alákum Gt ittallak ittatlak ittalak atlak atlukum Gtn ittanallak ittatallak ittallak itallak muttallikum atallukum S usallak ušálik sulik sulukum abatum a/u G: to destroy; pres i 'abbat/ibbat, pret. i 'but/ibut, perf. itabat D: to destroy completely; pres. ubbat, pret. u 'abbi\Jx\bb\t, part, mu 'abbitum, inf. ubbutum Dt: to be destroyed completely; pres. utabbat, pret. utabbit, perf. utatabbit N: to be destroyed; pres. i' 'abbat, pret. i' 'abit, perf. ittabat abatum i N: to run away, flee from, abandon; pres. innabbit(t), pret. innabit(t), perf. ittabit(t), part, munnabittum, inf. nabutum 32 Summary Grammar in the form of Q and A; Questions for Test 1. Q: What is the nominal scheme of siknum and from which verb is this noun derived? A: PiRS-, derived from sakdnum. 2. Q; Which are the weak consonants? A: y, w, ' (of which there are two types: 'a, 'e). 3. Q: Which types of syllables are allowed? A: V, VC, CV, and CVC (all with either a short or a long vowel) 4. Q: Where in the grammar is this important? A: In the formation of the feminine and of the status constructus. 5. Q: What is the nominal scheme of the adjective damqum "good"? A: PaRiS-; the second short vowel (here i) is elided in an open syllable. 6. Q: What distinguishes nakirumfrom damqum? A: Both are derived from the nominal scheme PaRiS-, but the second short vowel in an open syllable is not (always) elided when an r follows. 7. Q: What happens to an n when another consonant follows? A: the n is assimilated to the following consonant (*indin+sum > iddissum). 8. Q: To what assimilates the final -m of the ventive endings? A: To the k- (2nd p) and the s- (3rd p) of the pronominal suffixes. 9. Q: What preceding root consonants affect the s- of the 3rd p pronominal suffixes? A: A dental (d, t, /) or a sibilant (s, z, s, s) followed by s- results in -ss- (*iksud+su > iksussu). 10. Q: What preceding consonants affect an infixed -t- (perfect, t and tn infixes)? A: Dentals and sibilants (but not s) followed by an infixed -t- result in -dd-, -tt- etc. (*idtuk > idduk "he has killed", *istabat > issabat, but isfakan). 11. Q: What is the marker of the feminine? A: -t-, or sometimes -at/et-, depending on the consonant configuration at the end of the word to which the marker is affixed (damiqtum fern, to damqum, but kalbatum fern, to kalbum). 12. Q: What do all 2nd p pronouns (except the nominative ones) have in common, and what all 3rd p pronouns (except the nominative ones)? A: All 2nd p pronouns start with k-, and all third p pronouns with s-. 13. Q: What distinguishes all dative pronouns from all accusative pronouns? A: Dative pronouns always end on -m, accusative pronouns never. 14. Q: Do all feminine words have the -t-? A: Certain feminines do not have the -t- (ummum "mother", eqlum "field" etc.). 15. Q: How does the adjective relate to the word which it qualifies? A: The adjective agrees with the word it qualifies in gender, number, and case. 16. Q: What is the difference between the declension of the substantive and the adjective? A: In the pi. the substantive has the endings -u (nominative) and -i (gentive/accusative), while the adjective has the endings -utum and -utim. 17. Q: What are the basic rules for the formation of the status constructus? 33 A: The endings -urn, -am, -im are removed, and if the resulting form ends on two consonants (a syllable type which is not allowed) a vowel is added at the end; in words of the type PvRS- the vowel is added between the R and the S {kalab awilim, kalab status constructus of kalbum). [18. Q: What is the difference between sdbitum and sabtum? A: sdbitum is a PaRiS- form, the participle G of a transitive verb (sabdtum "to catch"), and must be translated active "(the) catching (one)"; sabtumis a PaRiS- form, the verbal adjective G of a transitive verb, and must be translated passive "(the) caught (one)".] 19. Q: What is the scheme for the infinitive G? A: PaRaS- 20. Q: What distinguishes the D-Stem from the G-Stem? A: The D-Stem has a doubled middle radical, and u in the personal prefixes where the G-Stem has i or a. 21. Q: What distinguishes the S-Stem from the G-Stem? A: The S-Stem has a s prefixed to all its forms, and u in the personal prefixes where the G-Stem has i or a. 22. Q: What distinguishes the N-Stem from the G-Stem. A: The N-Stem has a n prefixed to all its forms, which is assimilated to a following consonant. 22. What is the 1st p precative G of pardsu a/u "to cut off, and how must it be translated? A: luprus "may I cut off. 23. Q: How is the subjunctive marked? A: The subjunctive is marked by -u(-) after the last radical (and before dative or accusative suffixes). If the form has personal endings or a ventive the subjunctive remains unmarked. 24. Q: What are the 3rd p sg G presens, perfect, preterit, and imperative of akdlum a/u "to eat", and how are these forms related to the same forms of sakdnu a/u? A: ikkal/isakkan, itakal/istakan, ikul/iskun, akul/sukun. 25 Q: What are the 3rd p sg G presens, perfect, preterite, and imperative of banum i "to build", and how are these forms related to the same forms of paqddum i "to entrust"? A: ibanni/ipaqqid, ibtani/iptaqid, ibni/ipqid, bini/piqid. Enter the forms of sakanum a/u 3rd p sg into the empty scheme (here already done): presens perfect preterite imperative G isakkan istakan iskun sukun N issakkan ittaskan issakin naskin D usakkan ustakkin usakkin sukkin S usaskan ustaskin usaskin suskin 34 35