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284, 2 (2001).
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(1994).
10. Complete ﬁgures and primer and siRNA sequences
are available on Science Online at www.sciencemag.
org/cgi/content/full/295/5564/2465/DC1.
11. S. Halachmi et al., Science 264, 1455 (1994).
12. B. D. Lemon, L. P. Freedman, Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev.
9, 499 (1999).
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218 (2001).
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11, 657 (1997).
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103, 843 (2000).
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20. M. Berry, D. Metzger, P. Chambon, EMBO J. 9, 2811
(1990).
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22. T. A. Pham, Y. P. Hwung, D. Santiso, D. P. McDonnell,
B. W. O’Malley, Mol. Endocrinol. 6, 1043 (1992).
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25. A. Tremblay, G. B. Tremblay, F. Labrie, V. Giguere,
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28. P. Schraml et al., Clin. Cancer Res. 5, 1966 (1999).
29. H. Yu, T. Rohan, J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 92, 1472 (2000).
30. We thank D. Livingston and M. Lazar for reagents and
helpful suggestions. Supported by NIH grant
CA57374 (to M.B.) and Department of Defense
Breast Cancer Research Program grant DAMD17-01-
1-0222 (to Y.S.).
29 November 2001; accepted 18 February 2002
Television Viewing and
Aggressive Behavior During
Adolescence and Adulthood
Jeffrey G. Johnson,1
* Patricia Cohen,1
Elizabeth M. Smailes,1
Stephanie Kasen,1
Judith S. Brook2
Television viewing and aggressive behavior were assessed over a 17-year interval
in a community sample of 707 individuals. There was a signiﬁcant
association between the amount of time spent watching television during
adolescence and early adulthood and the likelihood of subsequent aggressive
acts against others. This association remained signiﬁcant after previous aggressive
behavior, childhood neglect, family income, neighborhood violence,
parental education, and psychiatric disorders were controlled statistically.
Three to five violent acts are depicted in an
average hour of prime-time television and
20 to 25 violent acts are depicted in an
average hour of children’s television (1–3).
Research has indicated that viewing television
violence is associated with aggressive
behavior (4–6). However, important questions
regarding the nature and direction of
this association remain unanswered. Several
theories hypothesize that television violence
contributes to the development of
aggressive behavior (7, 8). An alternative
hypothesis is that some or all of the association
is due to a preference for violent
television programs among aggressive individuals
(9). Research has provided support
for both hypotheses (10). It has also
been hypothesized that certain environmental
characteristics, such as living in an unsafe
neighborhood and being raised by neglectful
parents increase the likelihood of
both aggressive behavior and viewing televised
violence. This hypothesis has not
been extensively investigated.
Experimental and longitudinal studies
have provided considerable support for the
hypothesis that children’s viewing of televised
violence is associated with subsequent
increases in aggressive behavior (11).
However, most of these studies have invesFig.
4. (A) The effect of SRC-1
silencing on tamoxifen-stimulated
gene expression in Ishikawa cells.
Ishikawa cells were seeded into
10-cm polystyrene cell-culture
dishes (Becton Dickinson, Franklin
Lakes, NJ) with phenol red–free
DMEM supplemented with 5%
charcoal-dextran-stripped FBS for
24 hours and transfected with 5
␮g/dish of double-stranded, short
interfering RNAs (siRNAs) for SRC-
1, AIB1, or lamin A/C using the
Oligofectamine Reagent (Invitrogen
Corp.). Single-stranded RNAs
were synthesized by Dharmacon
Research, (Lafayette, CO). Before
transfection, single-stranded RNAs
were incubated at 90°C for 1 min,
followed by annealing in annealing
buffer (100 mM potassium acetate,
30 mM Hepes-KOH, pH 7.4,
and 2 mM magnesium acetate) at
37°C for 2 hours. Forty-eight
hours after transfection, cells were
treated with 100 nM of 17␤-estradiol
(E2), 1 ␮M of 4-hydroxytamoxifen
(Tamoxifen), or 1 ␮M of
raloxifene. The TRIzol reagent was
used to extract total RNAs for analyzing
c-Myc and IGF-I mRNA by
real-time RT-PCR. Transfection efﬁciency
was monitored by cotransfection
with an Escherichia
coli lacZ construct. (B) The effect
of SRC-1 silencing on tamoxifenstimulated
cell-cycle entry. Ishikawa
cells grown in phenol red–
free DMEM supplemented with
5% charcoal-dextran–stripped FBS
were cotransfected with 5 ␮g of
SRC-1 siRNAs and a green ﬂuorescent protein construct (pEGFP, Clontech) or cotransfected with
lamin A siRNA and pEGFP. Forty-eight hours after transfection, cells were treated with 100 nM of
17␤-estradiol (E2) or 1 ␮M of 4-hydroxytamoxifen ( T) for another 16 hours. Cells were then
collected and resuspended in PBS with 2% glucose and 3% paraformaldehyde. After permeabilization
with ethanol, cells were stained with propidium iodide solution (69 ␮M propidium iodide and
38 mM sodium citrate). Cell-cycle data were collected with FACScan (Becton Dickinson Immunocytochemistry
System) and analyzed with ModFit LT (Verity Software House, Topsham, ME).
R E P O R T S
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tigated short-term increases in aggression,
and few studies have followed youths for
more than a year. A single study has investigated
the association between childhood
television viewing and aggressive behavior
during adulthood. The findings of that
study indicated that a preference for violent
television programs during childhood predicted
aggression during late adolescence
(12) and early adulthood (13). However,
there was a high attrition rate, and the
amount of time spent watching television
was not assessed.
To investigate whether television viewing
during adolescence and adulthood is
associated with an increased likelihood of
aggressive behavior, it is necessary to assess
television viewing and aggressive behavior
repeatedly during adolescence and
adulthood, and to assess environmental and
personal characteristics that could underlie
this association in a large, representative,
community-based sample. We report findings
of the Children in the Community
Study, a community-based longitudinal investigation
that meets these methodological
criteria.
Participants were 707 families with a
child (51% male) between the ages of 1 and
10, randomly sampled from two counties in
northern New York State, for whom data
were available through 1991–93 regarding
television viewing, and through 2000 regarding
aggressive behavior. Interviews
were conducted with these families in
1975, 1983, 1985–86, and 1991–93 (14).
The youths in the study, randomly selected
from age-eligible offspring, were administered
questionnaires that assessed a wide
range of aggressive acts in 2000. In 2000,
data were also obtained from New York
State and Federal Bureau of Investigation
records regarding arrests and charges for
adult criminal behavior. The participating
families generally represented families in
the northeastern United States in socioeconomic
status and most demographic variables,
and they reflected the sampled region
with high proportions being Catholic (54%)
and White (91%).
The mean age of the youths was 5.8
(SD ϭ 3) in 1975, 13.8 (SD ϭ 3) in 1983,
16.2 (SD ϭ 3) in 1985–86, 22.1 (SD ϭ 3)
in 1991–93, and 30.0 (SD ϭ 3) in 2000.
Study procedures were approved according
to appropriate institutional guidelines.
Written informed consent was obtained after
the interview procedures were fully explained.
Youths and their mothers were
interviewed separately by extensively
trained and supervised lay interviewers
who were blind to the responses of the
other informant. If the reports of the two
informants differed with regard to television
viewing, the higher of the two reports
was used. Additional information regarding
the study methodology is available from
previous reports (15).
The parent and youth versions of the
Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children
(DISC-I) (16) were administered to assess
offspring psychiatric disorders and aggressive
or criminal behavior in 1983 and
1985–86. An age-appropriate modification
of the DISC-I was administered to the offspring
in 1991–93. Mothers and youths
were both interviewed in 1983 and 1985–
86 because the use of multiple informants
tends to increase the reliability and validity
of psychiatric diagnoses among children
and adolescents (17, 18). Aggressive acts
and psychiatric symptoms were considered
present if reported by either informant. The
reliability and validity of the DISC-I as
used in the present study are comparable to
those of other structured interviews (19).
The prevalence of aggressive behavior in
the present sample is consistent with the
findings of previous community-based
studies (20–22).
Low family income was defined as
mean income below the U.S. Poverty Level.
Low parental education was defined as
less than a high school education for either
parent. Verbal intelligence (IQ) was assessed
in 1983 and 1985–86 by using a
picture-vocabulary test (23). IQ scores
were averaged, and scores below 90 were
considered to be low. Childhood neglect
was assessed from data from a central registry,
from retrospective self-reports obtained
in 1991–93, and from the maternal
interviews (24). Additional items in the
study protocol assessed neighborhood characteristics,
peer aggression, and school violence
(25).
Childhood neglect, growing up in an
unsafe neighborhood, low family income,
low parental education, and psychiatric disorders
were significantly associated with
time spent watching television at mean age
14 and with aggressive behavior reported at
mean age 16 or 22 [Web table 1 (26)]. Age
and sex were significantly associated with
aggressive behavior, but not with time
spent watching television at mean age 14.
There were significant associations between
television viewing during early adolescence
and subsequent aggressive acts
against other persons after the covariates
that were significantly associated with television
viewing and aggressive behavior
were controlled statistically (27) (Table 1).
Television viewing at mean age 14 remained
significantly associated with any
subsequent aggressive act against another
person after controlling for prior (AOR ϭ
1
Columbia University and the New York State Psychiatric
Institute, 1051 Riverside Drive, New York, NY
10032, USA. 2
The Mount Sinai Medical Center, One
Gustav L. Levy Place, 1190 Fifth Avenue, New York,
NY 10029, USA.
*To whom correspondence should be addressed. Email:
jjohnso@pi.cpmc.columbia.edu
Table 1. Television viewing at mean age 14 and aggressive acts reported at mean age 16 or 22 (n ϭ 707).
Aggressive acts reported
at mean age 16 or 22
Study group
Television viewing at mean age 14
Adjusted odds
ratio (95% CI)‡Ͻ1 hour/day
% (n)
1 to 3 hours/day
% (n)
Ն3 hours/day
% (n)
Assault or physical ﬁghts resulting in injury Total sample 5.7 (5 of 88)* 18.4 (71 of 386) 25.3 (59 of 233) 1.57 (1.13–2.16)†
Males 8.9 (4 of 45)* 27.5 (55 of 200) 41.7 (48 of 115) 1.95 (1.30–2.94)†
Females 2.3 (1 of 43) 8.6 (16 of 186) 9.3 (11 of 118) 1.23 (0.72–2.54)
Robbery, threats to injure someone, or
weapon used to commit a crime
Total sample 3.4 (3 of 88)* 9.6 (37 of 386) 14.6 (34 of 233) 1.58 (1.01–2.46)†
Males 6.7 (3 of 45) 14.0 (28 of 200) 20.9 (24 of 115) 1.46 (0.84–2.53)
Females 0 (0 of 43) 4.8 (9 of 186) 8.5 (10 of 118) 2.44 (0.97–6.16)
Any aggressive act against another person Total sample 5.7 (5 of 88)* 22.5 (87 of 386) 28.8 (67 of 233) 1.58 (1.16–2.16)†
Males 8.9 (4 of 45)* 32.5 (65 of 200) 45.2 (52 of 115) 1.92 (1.28–2.88)†
Females 2.3 (1 of 43) 11.8 (22 of 186) 12.7 (15 of 118) 1.25 (0.70–2.22)
*Signiﬁcantly lower level of subsequent aggression in comparison with individuals who spent more time watching television at mean age 14. †Signiﬁcant association after
controlling for the covariates that were signiﬁcantly associated with television viewing and subsequent aggression. NOTE: Odds ratios indicate the average increase in the odds for
subsequent aggression associated with an increase in the level of television viewing (e.g., from Ͻ1 hour to 1 to 3 hours per day of television viewing). ‡95% conﬁdence interval.
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1.86; CI: 1.32-2.61) and subsequent television
viewing (AOR ϭ 1.46; CI: 1.05-2.60).
Television viewing at mean age 14 was not
associated with risk for subsequent property
crimes, including arson, vandalism, or
theft. Time spent watching television during
early adolescence was associated with
risk for subsequent aggressive acts among
youths with and without a history of aggressive
behavior (Fig. 1). The statistical
interactions of television viewing with sex
and previous aggression were not significantly
associated with subsequent aggressive
behavior.
In the male subsample, television viewing
at mean age 14 was associated with
subsequent assaults or fights resulting in
injury and any aggressive act against another
person. Although the prevalence of
subsequent aggressive acts increased in relation
to television viewing at mean age 14
among both the male and female subsamples
(Fig. 1), the association did not
attain statistical significance in the female
subsample (28). The association between
television viewing at mean age 14 and any
aggressive act against another person was
significantly stronger in the male subsample
than in the female subsample (z ϭ
2.17; P ϭ 0.03).
There was a significant association between
time spent watching television at
mean age 22 and subsequent aggressive
acts against other persons after the covariates
were controlled statistically (Table 2).
This association remained significant after
controlling for prior television viewing
(AOR ϭ 1.65; CI: 1.07-1.99). Television
viewing at mean age 22 was not associated
with risk for subsequent property crimes,
including arson, vandalism, or theft.
In the male subsample, television viewing
at mean age 22 was associated with
subsequent assaults or fights resulting in
injury. In the female subsample, television
viewing at mean age 22 was associated
with subsequent assaults or fights resulting
in injury, robbery, threats to injure someone,
or use of a weapon to commit a crime,
and any aggressive act against another person.
The association between television
viewing at mean age 22 and any aggressive
act against another person was significantly
stronger in the female subsample than in
the male subsample (z ϭ 2.44; P ϭ 0.01).
Aggressive behaviors at mean age 14
were not associated with subsequent television
viewing after the covariates were controlled
statistically. However, youths who
committed assaults or participated in fights
resulting in injury at mean age 16 spent significantly
more time watching television at
mean age 22 than did the remainder of the
youths in the sample (␹2
ϭ 10.94; df ϭ 2;
P ϭ 0.004). This association remained significant
after the covariates were controlled.
The present findings indicate that extensive
television viewing by adolescents and
young adults is associated with an increased
likelihood of committing aggressive
acts against others. Our findings suggest
that this association is only partially
attributable to environmental characteristics
that are associated with both television
viewing and aggressive behavior. These
findings are also consistent with the hypothesis
that extensive television viewing
partially mediates, or helps to explain the
association between certain environmental
risks and subsequent aggressive behavior
(30). It should be noted that a strong inference
of causality cannot be made without
conducting controlled experiment, and we
cannot rule out the possibility that some
other covariates that were not controlled in
the present study may have been responsible
for these associations. Epidemiological
studies, such as the present study, are conducted
when it is not permissible to conduct
a controlled experiment due to the
adverse outcomes that may result from prolonged
exposure to a potentially harmful
stimulus.
Fig. 1. Association between
time spent watching
television at mean age
14 by males and females
with and without a history
of aggressive behavior,
and the prevalence of aggressive
acts against others,
reported at mean age
16 or 22.
Table 2. Television viewing at mean age 22 and aggressive acts reported at mean age 30 (n ϭ 707).
Aggressive acts reported
at mean age 30
Study group
(n)
Television viewing at mean age 22 (hours/day)
Adjusted odds
ratio (95% CI)‡
Ͻ 1 % (n) 1 to 3 % (n) Ն3% (n)
Assault or physical ﬁghts resulting in
injury
Total sample
(707)
1.2% (1 of 83) 2.7% (23 of 411) 10.8% (35 of 213)* 2.62 (1.58–4.33)†
Males
(360)
2.4% (1 of 41) 3.9% (8 of 207) 13.4% (15 of 112)* 1.79 (0.77–4.13)
Females
(347)
0% (0 of 42) 1.5% (3 of 204) 7.9% (8 of 101)* 4.21 (1.02–17.29)†
Robbery, threats to injure someone, or
weapon used to commit a crime
Total sample 6.0% (5 to 83) 7.8% (32 of 411) 10.8% (23 of 213) 1.26 (0.80–1.99)
Males 12.2% (5 of 41) 11.6% (24 of 207) 9.8% (11 of 112) 0.80 (0.45–1.40)
Females 0% (0 of 42) 3.9% (8 of 204) 11.9% (12 of 101)* 3.24 (1.23–8.57)†
Any aggressive act against another
person
Total sample 7.2% (6 of 83) 9.0% (37 of411) 17.8% (38 of 213)* 1.57 (1.04–2.38)†
Males 14.6% (6 of 41) 14.0% (29 of 207) 18.8% (21 of 112) 1.00 (0.61–1.65)
Females 0% (0 of 42) 3.9% (8 of 204) 16.8% (17 of 101)* 4.73 (1.83–12.35)†
*Signiﬁcantly higher level of subsequent aggression in comparison with individuals who spent less time watching television at mean age 14. †Signiﬁcant association after
controlling for the covariates that were signiﬁcantly associated with television viewing and subsequent aggression. NOTE: Odds ratios indicate the average increase in the odds for
subsequent aggression associated with an increase in the level of television viewing (e.g., from Ͻ1 hour to 1 to 3 hours per day of television viewing). ‡95% conﬁdence interval.
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What may account for the gender differences
in timing of the effects of extensive
television viewing? One possibility, which
remains to be explored, is a difference in
the content of programs watched by males
and females during adolescence and early
adulthood. However, violent acts are depicted
frequently on television, and previous
research has supported the hypothesis
that televised violence accounts, in large
measure, for the association between television
viewing and aggression (31).
Our finding that one index of adolescent
aggression was associated with subsequent
television viewing after the covariates were
controlled is consistent with the hypothesis
that there is a bidirectional relationship between
television violence and aggressive
behavior. However, time spent watching
television was associated with subsequent
aggression, whether or not there was a history
of aggressive behavior (Fig. 1). Thus,
although aggressive individuals may spend
somewhat more time watching television
than do other individuals, this tendency
does not appear to explain the preponderance
of the association between television
viewing and aggressive behavior.
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26. Web tables are available on Science Online at www.
sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/295/5564/2468/
DC1.
27. Analyses of contingency tables were conducted to
investigate associations between television viewing
and subsequent aggression, and to investigate associations
between the covariates, television viewing,
and aggression. Log-linear logistic regression analyses
were conducted to investigate whether television
viewing was associated with risk for subsequent aggressive
behavior after controlling for the covariates
that were associated with both television viewing
and aggressive behavior: childhood neglect; low family
income; low parental education; growing up in a
dangerous neighborhood; psychiatric disorders; and
previously reported aggressive behavior. These odds
ratios indicate the average increase in the odds for
subsequent aggression associated with an increase in
the level of television viewing (e.g., from Ͻ1 hour to
1 to 3 hours per day of television viewing). There
were no statistically signiﬁcant quadratic associations
between these variables. The analyses were
based on the assumption that the three levels of
television viewing were equally spaced.
28. Because the associations between adolescent television
viewing and subsequent aggressive behavior
were similar in the male and female subsamples (Fig.
1), the nonsigniﬁcant association among the females
may be attributable to the sparcity of aggressive
behavior among the females.
29. The association between the amount of time spent
watching television at mean ages 14 and 22 was
signiﬁcant after the age of the participant was controlled
statistically.
30. The statistical conditions required for this mediational
hypothesis were met in the present study when
television viewing remained signiﬁcantly associated
with subsequent aggression after the covariates that
were associated with television viewing and aggressive
behavior were controlled [see D. A. Kenny, D. A.
Kashy, N. Bolger, in Handbook of Social Psychology,
D. Gilbert, S. T. Fiske, G. Lindzey, Eds. (McGraw-Hill,
New York, NY, 1997), pp. 233–265].
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(2001).
32. Supported by NIMH grant MH-36971 and NIJ grant
1999-IJ-CX-0029 to P.C., and by NIH grant DA-03188
from the National Institute on Drug Abuse to J.S.B.
29 May 2001; accepted 14 January 2002
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Television Viewing and Aggressive Behavior During Adolescence and Adulthood
Jeffrey G. Johnson, Patricia Cohen, Elizabeth M. Smailes, Stephanie Kasen and Judith S. Brook
DOI: 10.1126/science.1062929
(5564), 2468-2471.295Science
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