The Buildings and the Images of
the Imperial Cult
VIII Templum Gentis Flaviae, Domitian
temple (Ephesos)
Templum Gentis Flaviae
Suetonius:
“Domitian was born on the ninth
day before the Calendes of
November, when his father was a
consul… in Pomegranate Street in
the 6th district of the city, in a
house that he later converted into
the Temple of the Flavian Gens.”
- 12 references to the temple
in the sources
-the house was on the-the house was on the
Quirinal hill, Vespasian moved
here his house, 6th Roman
region
Fragments:
a) Piazza della republica (north
side) – the relief with flamen
b) Ministero delle Finanze e dell’Economia – a colossal head of Titus , found in 1872 – known
facial features of Titus, but not an official portrait type
- contrast: smooth surface of the face, strong contourism of the hair (drilled), possibly a cult
statue inside the temple, an acrolith
- now in Naples – exchange for some fragments of the Acta Fratrum Arvalium
- found in 1871/1872
- known facial features of Titus,
but not exactly comparable to
any official portrait type
- remarkable: the contrast
between the smooth surface of
the face and the strong contoursthe face and the strong contours
of the hair
- deeply influenced by Domitian’s
portrait (could be his
posthumous portrait)
- possible a cult statue of Titus
inside the Templum Gentis
Flaviae
Vicinity
- the Temple of Quirinus, Horti
Sallustiani, Bath of Diocletian, a
republican house
- Romulus – Domitian’s legendary
counterpart, Quirinal – the
temple of Quirinus (Iulius
Proculus 325 BC the first temple)
- the temple of the Flavians and
Romulus - very close (Domitian
deliberately emphasized the
- republican walls in opus reticulatum, some of which were decorated with glass paste
polychrome mosaics of fantastic architectural and human figures (similar to 4th style wall
painting)
- dating to Neronian or Flavian period
- water pipe – identification – nympheum
Inscriptions: owner – Flavius Sabinus (Vespasian’s brother), Domitian was born in neighbouring
residence belonging to Vespasian or this one (Flavius Sabinus), so the podium might be a site of
the Templum Gentis Flaviae
deliberately emphasized the
proximity)
The Baths of Diocletian
- between the Aula Ottagona and the church of San Bernardo – remains of a huge building
- dating: the age of Domitian, demolished when the baths were built (based on the brickmarks
and the technique of the walls)
- a wide porticoed precinct – pillars in travertine, walls in opus latericium
- dimensions: quadriporticus 123x83 m, the porticoes 5.80 m deep, the walls always 1.20 m
thick
- on the outside – semi-circular and rectangular exedrae
- a monumental entrance probably on the NW side
the centre of the site:
- difficult to state dimensions – a podium 70x47 m
- on the podium – a giant temple or smaller one with
altar (similar to Traiaeneum at Italica)
- Hadrian’s library, Templum Pacis – exedrae, regular
distance
- the scheme of the porticoed square with exedrae
comes from Hellenistic models – imitated in Rome and
Italy and then later used in provinces (Trajan, Hadrian)
Chronology of the area of Quirinal:
64 AD republican Macellum destroyed by “Nero’s fire”
71-75 AD – Vespasian financed the construction on the Quirinal hill with the spoils of the Judaic War
Domitian: huge reconstruction and building campaign (after Nero’s fire)
Temple construction
- after some time of Domitian’s assumption in 81 AD, completion between 89 – 94 AD (not known precisely)
- before Domitian’s death September 18th 96 AD – quoted in several sources (e.g. Epirgrammata) - regularly
referred to in contemporary literature, but not identified on the coinage
96AD - lightning struck it
192 AD - another fire, rebuilt by Septimius Severus
354 AD - Chronographer took a note of it
408 AD - earthquake, restoration408 AD - earthquake, restoration
The mausoleum for:
Flavia Domitilla (69 AD)
Flavius Sabinus (69 AD)
Vespasian (79 AD)
Titus (81 AD)
Julia Titi (89 AD)
the son of Domitian (73 AD)
Domitian (96 AD)
Use: imperial mausoleum until the death of Domitian, Nerva (96 AD died) – buried in Augustus Mausoleum
Combination of a sanctuary of the familiar cult and a dynastic mausoleum, within the pomerium – special
permission by the Senate
Several different theories of reconstruction:
- Statius “Flavian heaven” – many scholars
meaning that it was round or oval, topped with a
dome to complete the impression of the skies
- Martial and Statius – a rectangular, peripteral
building with cryptoporticoes and nymphea, along
the line of the Claudian on the Caelian hill
La Rocca - on the podium a medium-sized temple,
altar in front with Hartwig reliefs
Coarelli - centralized circular building covered by a
dome
Paris – an arch similar to Titus, or an altar similar
to Ara Pacis , enclosure with caryatids leaning
against palm trees
Torelli - a giant temple occupying the whole
podium, historical relief in the Vatican Museums
and Terme di Diocleziano
a) on the basis of sestertius – decastyle
porch within a double precinct, complete
porticoes and a façade marked by an arch
and 2 lateral entrances
-the coin minted in 95/96 AD (Domitian)
b) Two reliefs depicting a temple (Museo
Nazionale Romano, Terme di Diocleziano
-the pediment decoration suggests the
decoration of the temple – Lupercal - the
birth of Romulus and Remus, sleeping Vestal
Virgin, Rhea Silvia, in the heaven Mars (only
legs and spear), she-wolf suckles twins, twolegs and spear), she-wolf suckles twins, two
shepherds standing nearby with their flock
-cycle of birth, death, apotheosis in the
pediment and nearby temple
- 1980’s – excavations – a concrete core for a
huge podium facing south
Only a little evidence of the temple monumental,
very decorated
- family tomb and cult place (mausoleum
and sacrarium)
Sculptural decoration
- symbol of the whole cycle of life: birth, death, apotheosis
1901 – Paul Hartwig – purchased a group of sculptural
fragments – art market – donated to the Museo Nazionale
delle Terme, there is a record: discovered while construction
of the large semicircular palazzo on the northern side of the
exedra – not organized excavation
1901 – Francis W. Kelsey – a set of relief fragments – record:
from the bath of Diocletian, similar style – penthelic marble,
figure proportions similarfigure proportions similar
- Hartwig-Kelsey Reliefs – Museo Nazionale Romano,
University of Michigan – they didn’t know about the
connection, Hartwig identified them immediately, Kelsey 70
years later – head and a breastplate fit perfectly
- stylistically late first or early 2nd century
- palm tree columns – subjugation of Judea
- Vespasian’s head – a high quality of the sculpture
- suggest they belong to a monument of a major importance
at the time of the Flavians
Hartwig:
1. Corner Entablature Fragment with Part of a Capital
2. Projecting Corner Entablature Fragment with Part of a Capital
3. Male Torso Draped in a Mantle and Leaning against a Palm Tree
4. Nude Male Torso
5. Relief Fragment with Representation of the Temple of Quirinus
6. Relief Fragment with Head of a Bull
7. Relief Fragment with the Head of a Soldier
8. Relief Fragment with Female Head
9. Relief Fragment with the Profile of a Male Head
Kelsey:
10. Profile Head of a Soldier in Relief
11. Fragment of a Lorica Segmentata and Right Hand in Relief11. Fragment of a Lorica Segmentata and Right Hand in Relief
12. Head in Relief of Vespasian Wearing the Corona Civica
13. Fragment of an Entablature
14. Fragment of an Entablature
15. Fragment of an Ionic or Composite Capital
3 groups:
a) Architectural features: entablature crowning a wall, free standing columns shaped and stylized
palm trees, male figures leaning against them
b) Panel 1Triumph (adventus) of Vespasian: the head of Vespasian, the torso of armored soldier,
idealized youthful head of Genius Populi Romani, head of Victoria
c) Panel 2 Sacrifice of a bull: Head of a sacrificial bull, head of a flamen, a temple façade – temple of
Quirinus – ceremony of founding of the Temple Gentis Flaviae
Corner Entablature Fragment with Part of a Capital
-the corner entablature, decorated on all sides, respects all
the elements of the Corinthian order aside from the
absence of a corona.
- the cornice composed of a molding, a cyma decorated
with upturned leaves, the astragal, the echinus decorated
with down-turned leaves, and dentils with hollowed
centers.
-the subcornice is composed of an astragal and cyma
reversa decorated with a double row of down-turned
leaves
- the frieze is a continuous relief of crouching griffins- the frieze is a continuous relief of crouching griffins
- there follows a molding, a cyma reversa decorated with a
row of lotus flowers, the first fascia of the architrave, an
echinus decorated with a vegetal motif, and the second
fascia of the architrave.
- the capital is composed of palm fronds articulated by
deep drill channels that create a sense of movement
The griffins - a recurrent motif in Roman decorative art
- their symbolic meaning is connected with the apotheosis of the deceased and was ultimately
coopted as a symbol of imperial apotheosis (Ara Pacis, Basilica Ulpia in the Forum of Trajan, the
frieze of the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina)
Dentils - with hollowed centers are rare and specific to the Domitianic period
2. Projecting Corner Entablature Fragment with Part
of a Capital
- the moldings are the same as previous
- this piece belonged to a projecting part of the
structure and was associated with the male torso
that leans against a palm tree
3. Male Torso Draped in a Mantle and
Leaning against a Palm Tree
- the figure depicts a male personage of
mature age, in a standing position and
dressed in a mantle fastened by a bulla on
the right shoulder
- the left hand probably held an attribute
- the back of the figure is not finished,
leans against the trunk of a palm tree,
which continued upward to form a palmfrond
capital
- constituted the colonnaded part of the
structurestructure
- the use of male and female figures as supports for the entablature of buildings - long tradition
- two typologies: telamones (support the overlaying architecture) and caryatids (in no way
emphasize their weight-bearing, often female - the Forum of Augustus)
- probably represents a personification
- given the association with a palm tree, the conquest of Judaea, an event of the highest
importance in the history of the Flavians, immediately comes to mind.
4. Nude Male Torso
- a nude male at the height of his physical powers
- the hand probably held an attribute, of which a small
part remains under the left breast
- served as one of the columns of the structure
- this figure was directly attached to the wall Its
dimensions are the same as those of the preceding.
5. Relief Fragment with Representation of the Temple
of Quirinus
-the head of a flamen, who wears the characteristic
headgear, the spiked galerus, in front of
- the central part of a temple identified as the Temple
of Quirinus on the Quirinal - two columns of the
Tuscan order, part of the isodomic masonry of the wall
of the cella, part of the cornice of the doorway, and
almost all of the pediment decorated with a complex
figural scene
- scholars have advanced many interpretations of the- scholars have advanced many interpretations of the
scene represented on the pediment all involve the
theme of the foundation of Rome:
a) augurium augustum – taking of auspices at the
foundation of Rome watched by Romulus and Remus
b) the apotheosis of Romulus – Victory crowning him,
witnesses: Aeneas, Mercury, Hercules, Faustulus, Alea
Larentia
- the appearance of the temple is that of the Augustan
restoration of AD 16.
6. Relief Fragment with Head of Bull
- the head with its join to the neck
- the animal depicted in an erect position, walking toward
the left, with its head slightly inclined to the rear.
- the infula, a typical ornament for a bull destined for
sacrifice, is wound between the horns and then hangs downsacrifice, is wound between the horns and then hangs down
along the body
- the victim is shown at a moment before the blood
sacrifice.
7. Relief Fragment with the Head of a Soldier
- the head, in high relief, of a soldier depicted against the
background of a building
- the figure has a beard and moustache and wears a helmet
decorated with a very delicate vegetal design. The right cheek guard
is decorated; the other has been left plain because it would not
have been visible.
- belonged to a scene of military character, probably involving the
presence of the emperor Vespasian (close to certain individuals on
Relief A from the Palazzo della Cancelleria – much more formal and
academic)
-face appears to have been carved with a greater degree of-face appears to have been carved with a greater degree of
refinement, different parts of the figure worked by different artists
11. Fragment of a Lorica Segmentata and Right Hand in Relief
- the upper chest, right hand, wrist, shoulder, and upper arm of a
soldier
- eight low relief bands of his lorica segmentata fasten along the
center of his chest in an alternating pattern.
- the soldier's right hand grasps a lance marked with a spiraling
groove
- the pommel of his gladius is visible near the wrist
8. Relief Fragment with Female Head
- this little head is worked almost in the round and is shown in
three-quarter view
-The hairstyle, with center part and soft curls gathered at the
nape of the neck, is completed by a garland.
- in this head one can recognize a representation of Victory,
who frequently appears in scenes of a military-commemorative
character (the Arch of Titus, the Palazzo della Cancelleria, and
the Arch of Trajan at Beneventum)
9. Relief Fragment with the Profile of a Male Head
- left profile of a young man with idealized features
- the very close comparison with the figure who represents the
Genius Populi Romani on one of the Cancelleria relief panels - -
ought to be recognized as the same personification
10. Profile Head of a Soldier in Relief
- the soldier's head, in low relief, is shown in right profile
wearing a helmet with cheek guards, brow-plate, and crest
- the cheek guard bears a decorative scroll in low relief
12. Head in Relief of Vespasian Wearing the Corona Civica
-Vespasian appears as an idealized aging man with furrowed
cheeks, sagging flesh, and crow's feet at the corners of his eyes. -
his lips curve into a slight smile
- an expression of remote benevolence
- he wears corona civica
13. Fragment of an Entablature
- the somewhat concave sima at the top of the piece bears the
profile of a seated griffin in low relief
- beneath the sima are the broken remains of a projecting
cornice, followed by a beaded astragal, an ovolo with broad
pendant leaves, dentils with indented centers, another beaded
astragal, a smaller ovolo with pendant leaves, and a fillet
covered with broader pendant leaves
- below these is a frieze with opposed lion griffins
- parallels for individual elements of the unusual decorative
forms of these pieces can be found in structures datable to the
late Flavian and early Trajanic periods.
14. Fragment of an Entablature
-the same sequence of decorative elements as the
previous piece except for the cyma recta of leaves
pointed upward above the upper beaded astragal
- below this astragal are preserved only an ovolo
with broad pendant leaves, a row of dentils with
central indentations, another beaded astragal, and a
smaller ovolo with pendant leaves.
15. Fragment of an Ionic or Composite Capital
- the fragment consists of an egg-and-dart band over a
bead-and-reel band.
- approximately the upper part of an Ionic columm
Function:
a) Political manifesto addressed to the citizens (problems justifying position – dedicated
temples)
b) Torelli: competition – nomen Flavian as popular as nomen Julium
c) To legitimate adoptive sons (children of his cousin, his own son died very young, no other
children)
d) Male caryatids against palm trees – symbol of Judae conquered by the Flavians, gained a +
triumph and Vespasian return home
Collective priests:
flamines and sodalesflamines and sodales
Flamines – none, specific for the Flavians
Sodales – a college of priests created by Tiberius to serve Divus Augustus and the Julian gens,
originally 21 members, continued to be important for 3 Flavians, they were important – 30
inscriptions (other adjectives – Flaviales, Titiales, Flaviales Titiales)
EPHESUS
Strabo, Pausanias:
10th century B.C the story of the settlement: Androklos, son of Kodros (the King of Athens),
and his friends who were about to migrate to Anatolia, could not decide on the location of the
new city they were going to establish. They consulted the oracle of Apollo, which told them to
establish their new city at the location which would be indicated by fish and a boar. Androklos
and his friends who came to the region wanted to cook fish, but the fish they were frying
jumped off the pan, scattering flames that set the dry bushes on fire. A boar ran out of the
burning bushes and Androklos started to chase the boar, caught it and killed it. Convinced that
the prophesy of the oracle had come true, Androklos and his friends established their new city
in this location.
- the town of Apasas under the rule
of Ahhiyava Kingdom mentioned in
the written records of the Hittites of
the 14th and 13th centuries B.C
- a number of the findings on
southern slopes of Ayasuluk (Selcuk)
by the Ephesus Museum are dated
to second millennium
- after the fall of Troy, the Thracians
started migrating south and settled
in Western Anatolia, forming
colonies
- to ensure security, the immigrants- to ensure security, the immigrants
preferred to settle on islands near
the coast and on peninsulas
- the colonization of Ephesus was completed in the 10th century B.C.
- Ephesus was attacked by the Cimmerians in the 7th century BC but the 6th century BC brought
a prosperous period
- later under the rule of the Lydians and then under the Persians, in 334 BC, Alexander the Great
captured Ephesus
- after the death of Alexander - dark days, ruled in 287 BC by Lysimachos.
- later on Ephesus came under the sovereignty of Rome, and Emperor Augustus declared
Ephesus a metropolis
- in the year 262 AD Ephesus was attacked and destroyed by the Goths and after this, it never
regained its previous importance.
The cult in Ephesos:
- 4 imperial temples
- a monumental Antonine altar
- an imperial portico
- 4 gymnasia associated with the emperor
- 3 monumental gates – statues of members of
Augustus, Trajan, Severus’ family
- number of imperial statues – in buildings,
theatre, council house, streets…
- monumental nympheum – life-sized statue of
Trajan
- the city had two dominant, equivalent cults –- the city had two dominant, equivalent cults –
Ephesian Artemis, the Emperors
1. Porticoes – not only used for trade, started a cultic function (not only Ephesos, also Thera
(north end – imperial statues), Italy, North Africa) - porticoes regulated boundaries
2. Creation of special rooms for the imperial cult in gymnasia – Hellenistic period – cults of kings
and benefactors (Pergamon – king, Diadorus Pasparos), about 10 gymnasia in Asia Minor
3. Small altars
4. imperial statues in various locations
- the imperial cult – attempts to find a position – it should be within the civic space rather than
separate area outside the city
Upper agora
-redesigned during Augustus:
a) prytaneum, magistrate building – the sacred
hearth of the city, council house,
b) Double temple Roma and Julius Caesar
c) Royal portico – dedicated to Artemis,
Augustus, Tiberius – one end – over life-sized
statues of Augustus and Livia
d) The centre of the square – a temple of
Augustus – 27 BC
e) Domitian – a precinct next to the main
square – construction of a high platform and
fine façade to the main streetfine façade to the main street
e.g.: Ephesos – imperial cult buildings – double temple, royal portico, free-standing temple, later
further addition of Domitian – transformed central civic space of Ephesus, permanent position
of the emperor in the heart of the city
- imperial architecture – relationship of the city and the emperor, the emperor and traditional
deities
traditional sanctuaries included emperor in 2 main ways:
a) separate buildings in the sanctuary
b) in the temple – several ways: statues, inscriptions, colossal statues in the separate part of
the temple
Neokoros of the cult (Ephesos)
- a term is standard part of modern interpretation of provincial cults
Neokoros – a title for certain officials associated with many different cults, the officials always
associated with the temple cult, the office lasted for a year, sometimes granted for life
Responsibilities (not the same in all regions, depended on the size of the cult):
a) the same as priests (priestesses)
b) assist the priests (Socrates said: “the temple cults – ideal state – priests and neokoroi)
c) In some occasions – a guard for a precinct or the possessions of the deity
d) Care of sacred facilities, equipment and funds
- at some point, cities started to call themselves “neokoroi”
- no trace of it before the 1st century AD
In the 1st century/2nd century AD – 3 mentions:In the 1st century/2nd century AD – 3 mentions:
a) Kyzikos inscription 38 AD – honoring Antonia Tryphania – the first known usage of
“neokoros” – not yet an official city title, only emphasizes benefits
b) Nero coin– obverse Nero, reverse proconsul of Asia Marcilius Acilius Aviola – 65/66 AD and a
temple depiction with 4x6 columns, the town called “neokoros” of Artemis
c) The book Acts – later than Nero – city of the Ephesians was known throughout the world as
the neokoros of Artemis
- the latter two – emphasize responsibilities, which come from the title
Evidence: coins – twice neokoros (Domitian + Artemis, Domitia + Artemis)
- the use of the city titles constituted a fundamental development in the political and religious
propaganda of the Empire
EXCAVATIONS
- Austrian Archaeological Institute – began
excavating in the late 19th century
1930
- Josef Keil – excavation on the top of an
artificial terrace
- Roman imperial period (south-west corner
of the Upper agora)
- large marble friezes – existence of the
Parthian Monument – earlier discoveries,
excavations to uncover the monument
there, but foundations supported a templethere, but foundations supported a temple
- identification unclear until a colossal
acrolithic male was found
- the temple floor plan – 34x24 m (under a
Byzantine cistern), cella 7.5x13m
-how many statues? - the statue of Titus - a
base at least 3.5x2 m, 5
- tetraprostyle temple surrounded by a
pseudodipteral colonnade (8x13 columns),
crepidomia – 6 steps on all sides
Later excavation – north- east corner of the precinct – confirmed datation to the late 1st century
AD, during Domitian’s reign
- 13 inscriptions found in different places –
mostly bases for statues
- the temple dedicated in 89/90 AD
- the right to establish the cult - granted by
Domitian – early or mid-eighties
Nature of the cult:
- Domitian – a predominant figure in the cult,
but he was not the only recipient of the
worship in the temple
Inscriptions:
- Sebastoi – it means Domitian was only one of- Sebastoi – it means Domitian was only one of
them
- all three Flavians: Vespasian, Titus and
Domitian + maybe Domitia
- the group dedication - allowed the cult to
survive “damnatio memoriae” – the cult
shifted its focus to Vespasian and flourished
for at least another century (Domitian was
erased)
- a colossal statue found close to the
sanctuary
- immediately identified as Domitian,
but other scholars argued that the
facial features belong to Titus (it must
have been one of the statues in the
cella)
- the portrait is a bit unusual – not an
official portrait known in Rome
- Wegner: this is an example of Asian
workmanship “das asianische Barock”
- the left forearm is as tall as an adult, a- the left forearm is as tall as an adult, a
spear was held (agrees with the coins
depicting a statue in a standing
position and holding a spear)
1960 – 1961
- eastern side terrace – trenches:
a) shops - under pre-Roman wall,
unidentified building
b) Street - an earlier street from Augustan
period
- north-western corner – early imperial
pottery – in the fill that supports the terrace
- bellow: Hellenistic period
Occupation:
- part of the terrace – residential area in- part of the terrace – residential area in
Hellenistic times – larger building
-the street – Augustan period – shops on the
agora, repaved when the terrace was built –
redefining an existing district
- north-east corner – large square in relation
to the temple - apsidal monument raised in
the middle, terrace opened to the square in
the north (not the 4th stoa built)
Square function: free space from which the
viewer could watch north side of the terrace
and the temple
2009 - 2011
- the project Cult and Ruler - the absolute
chronological classification of the building
phases
- the excavations in the area of the imperial cult
temple 2009, a geophysical survey in 2010
- the focus of the excavations was on the period
of destruction and the later usage of the site
- an initial chronological evaluation indicated
that the temple was destroyed in the 5ththat the temple was destroyed in the 5th
century AD
- Almost immediately a building was erected in
the 5th century AD
- the period of usage extended probably into
the 6th century A.D., as it has not been possible
to document more recent finds.
- the east of the Imperial cult area
- excavations in 2011- an impressive building
complex consisting of a courtyard, an
elongated room with mosaic floor, a fountain
and a tract for commercial use
- bases, columns and capitals of marble are
preserved, and the courtyard was also paved
with marble slabs.
- a four-colored mosaic floor in one of the
rooms – marine motive
- to the south of the mosaic room - a threepart
nymphaeum
TYPOLOGY
Terrace
- near the upper agora – close to large dwellings of wealthy inhabitants – valuable land in the city
centre
- function: to create a level area above the descending slope of Mr. Koressos
- the greatest height – in the north - square - 10.4 m - vaulted shops behind a colonnaded hall cca
5 m wide
- in front of the hall – 3-story façade reaching to the top of the terrace, 4.3 m wide monumental
stairway – close to north-eastern corner – main access to the top of the terrace, at least one
other entrance is known
1st story - Doric - architrave (palmette, lotus, rosette designs)
2nd story - columns with engaged deities (Attis and Isis) along the length of the façade
Banner – the colonnade contained eastern deities
Price - way of depicting the relationship of the emperors and the gods, deliberate
attempt to classify the emperors in the divine category without equating them
with the gods
3rd story - Corinthian order
TYPOLOGY
Temple
- reconstruction: not possible, but it appears on the reverses of several coins – alongside the
temple of Artemis, sometimes with other (later) provincial temples (Hadrian)
- order: Corinthian – typical for imperial temple buildings (even though that depicted as Ionic on
the coins – just the way how temples depicted, inspired by Artemision)
- the temple set within a precinct – occupied the area on top of the artificial terrace (85.6x64.6m)
- lined by stoas (3 sides), north side open to a square and an intersection of streets below
The layout is typically Hellenistic:
- temple – a Greek style (Italian temples – not unknown – the cult of Rome and Divus Iulius –
north side of Ephesian upper agora), but the Greek design – more appropriate for Sebastoi
- Floor plan – modeled on traditional forms from Asia – tetraprostyle temple surrounded by a
pseudodipteral colonnade (8x13 columns), crepidomia – 6 steps on all sidespseudodipteral colonnade (8x13 columns), crepidomia – 6 steps on all sides
Altar
- U-shaped altar – a common feature associated with major temples in Asia – Artemision,
Athena in Priene, Pergamon…
- imperial altars – appropriate location for elaborate relief sculpture
- Ephesus – 2nd century AD – U-shaped altar (9 m2, only half of the foundations survived)
- Steps – western side (faced the temple), raised platform, three friezes found – mid. 2nd c. AD
- reliefs – military motifs, shields, spears, armour, trophies, a band captive – ideology of imperial
victory