The Buildings and the Images of the Imperial Cult IX Trajan and Hadrian Trajan - Marcus Ulpius Traianus (98 – 117), wife Plotina - adopted by Nerva in 97 - used his military skill to expand - the first emperor born in a province – Hispania - his art reflects his military exploits and their consequences for Rome - fought in Spain, against Dacians and Parthians - awarded title Dacicus, Germanicus, Parthicus - preferred the title princeps (not dominus et deus as Domitian) - founding colonies around the world- founding colonies around the world - in Rome – repairs and building of roads, Trajan forum - died at Selinus, in Cilicia in 117, on his return to Rome - divinized, ashes in a golden urn deposited in the base of his column - special title optimus (informally from 100, officially from 114) - 3rd and 4th c. AD – emperors – felicior Augusto, melior Traiano Cult - Pliny, Dio Cassius - Nerva – providentia deorum - a good heir to the throne, made gods his advisors - adoption of Trajan – the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus - Trajan elected by the gods, through Nerva it was implemented and maintained its legitimacy, the same with Hadrian - assimilation – transformed from a mortal into a leader destined by providence - captured the land of Armenians – senate – honors and title optimus (restricted for Jupiter) - careful not to incorporate it to his official titulature -Trajan – assimilation to Jupiter, in the West - During his life – worshipped as Zeus only in Pergamon – 2nd neokarate – 1st city with two imperial temples – Traianeum and Augustus - Trajan honored as Zeus – after death - East – Zeus Eleutherios, Zeus Embaterios- Trajan honored as Zeus – after death - East – Zeus Eleutherios, Zeus Embaterios IMP TRAIANO OPTIMO AVG GER DAC PM TR P DIVO TRAIANO PARTH AVG PATRI Rome and Italy a) The Temple of Divus Traianus b) The Extispicium Relief c) The Arch of Trajan in Benevento Provinces a) The Temple of Trajan at Pergamon The Temple of Divus Traianus - planned by Apollodorus of Damascus (?) - construction: responsibility of Hadrian - inscriptions – a family shrine dedicated jointly to Trajan and Plotina (died 123 AD, given divine honors) Historia Augusta – the only temple with Hadrian’s name Location: northwest of Trajan’s Column, the remains are buried benath the 16th – 18th c. churches – S. Maria di Loreto a SS. Nome di Maria The temple of Divus Traianus - coin images: tall podium, archaeological evidence 4.37 m high - cella: two rows of columns, divided space into a nave and two side isles - walls faced with exotic marbles - an apse holding a cult statue of Trajan (coins depict the statue between the two center façade columns) – his right hand raised, left rests on his lap, upper torso is bare, waist and legs draped, right hand – a sceptre, left a winged Victory statue - architrave: three fasciae, frieze – carved figures - pediment: seated central figure flanked by two reclining river gods (Danube, Tirgris), apex – standing figures The temple of Divus Traianus - fragments of temple’s granite column shafts, one shaft (14.8 m) and capital (Corinthian, 2.90 m) found close to the column – close to the presumed position - dimensions correspond to those of Mars Ultor and the final version of the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus plan: eight columns, pseudodipteral,plan: eight columns, pseudodipteral, width of the façade 36 metres, very similar to Mars Ultor The temple of Divus Traianus – The Great Trajanic Frieze - short side of the Constantinian arch – four slabs, two scenes Scene 1 - Trajan depicted on a horseback, Dacian kneeling in front of the emperor begging for mercy - the emperor is a conqueror and merciful man at the same time The temple of Divus Traianus – The Great Trajanic Frieze Scene 2 - adventus of Trajan - Trajan is being crowned by Victory and is welcomed by Virtus and Honos The temple of Divus Traianus (?) – The Extispicium Relief - discovered in the east hemicycle of the Forum of Trajan - associated with the Great Trajanic Frieze – findspot, comparable height Scene (not sure!) - in front of the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus Capitolinus, the pediment (with the Capitoline triad) is now missing, but there are drawings recording its original form - in front of the temple – eight togati men – the central one - Trajan - the left side of the temple: extispicium rite – a victimarius examines the bull while a haruspex in a toga interprets the sings - this rite usually appeared at the beginning of a military campaign - a Victory with a vexillum flies above the extispicium The Arch of Trajan at Benevento - advertised Trajan’s program – donations, taking care of poor, increase of a birthrate, alimenta - central bay: alimenta, Trajan sacrificing to commemorate the opening of the Via Traiana - eight panels on the main body of the arch – major event from the principate of Trajan: the emperor’s military campaigns in Dacia and Germania, the subsequent founding of military colonies, the building of a new port in Ostia, Trajan’s triumphal entry into Rome,in Ostia, Trajan’s triumphal entry into Rome, the establishment of the alimenta - not intended to be a precise historical reportage, only a illustration of the emperor’s policies in Italy and abroad - significance: the panels continue a Flavian tradition to depict interaction of human beings and divinities, Trajan usually depicted taller than other humans - the vault – coffers with rosettes, in the centre Trajan in military breastplate crowned with a laurel wreath by Victory The Arch of Trajan at Benevento – four attic panels -one panel at each side of the inscription plaque - the country side: the left - the reception of the Dacian gods, the right – Dacia keneeling at Trajan’s feet - the city side: adventus – Trajan is welcomed in Rome by two togate consuls, Roma and the Capitoline Triad. Jupiter holds his scepter in his left hand and offers his thunderbolt to a togate Trajan, who stands in the other panel - the inscription informs, that Trajan is already divus and also shares the title optimus with Jupiter - Trajan receives his power from Jupiter, stands in front of the Capitolium, Hadrian present PERGAMON - an elevation of 392 meters from the sea level -the area of the Acropolis was formed with several terraces enabling the construction of palaces, temples, altars, and many other structures - no proof of a settlement belonging to the earlier period (12th – 10th centuries) - inland, not a favorable position for settlement 560 BC – Lydian king Kroisos, defeated by Persians, but the city stayed independent, had to pay taxes 334 BC the King of Macedonia, Alexander the Great defeated the Persian King Darius III 323 BC Lysimachus got to the throne – military base and treasury, betrayed by Philetairos (his general) – enlarged borders 263 BC Eumenes I – the kingdom expanded, the city was a centre of arts and science Attalos I – continued to rule with the same politics, gained large territories, the Altar of Zeus was built Eumenes II – friendly relationship with Rome – Pergamon the most powerful and richest of all the times, most of the still visible monuments were built Attalos III – bequeathed the kingdom to Rome - continued to be an important center during the Roman period. - the Byzantine period - an important episcopal seat and after the adoption of Christianity it became an important missionary center -the attacks of the Arabs, and sacked by them in 717 AD - finally fell to Ottoman Sultan Orhan in 1336. Lower City the Upper Gzmnasium the Middle Gymnasium the Lower Gymnasium the Temple of Demeter the Sanctuary of Hera the House of Attalus the Lower Agora and the Gate of Eumenes Sanctuary of Asclepius the Roman theater the North Stoathe North Stoa the South Stoa the Temple of Asclepius a circular treatment center (sometimes known as the Temple of Telesphorus) a healing spring an underground passageway a library the Via Tecta (or the Sacred Way, which is a colonnaded street leading to the sanctuary) and a propylon 1 the Heroon – a shrine where the kings of Pergamon, particularly Attalus I and Eumenes II, were worshipped 6 -7 the Sanctuary of Athena 10 – 13 the Royal palaces 15 the Sanctuary of Trajan (also known as the Trajaneum) 16 the Hellenistic Theater with a seating capacity of 10,000. This had the steepest seating of any known theater in the ancient world 17 the Temple of Dionysus TRAJANEUM - the Temple of Trajan (Trajaneum) - Pergamon's Upper Acropolis area - the only Roman monument in this location - construction initialized under Trajan in 114 AD and completed by his successor Hadrian - purpose: to provide a venue for the religious cult of both rulers as well as Zeus to strengthen the bonds of Pergamon with Rome and with the Imperial family - the fourth imperial cult temple in the province of Asia: 1st in Pergamon, Augustus, 2nd Smyrna, 3rd Sebastoi, now the temple of Domitian in Ephesos The sacred precinct - originally dedicated to Zeus Philios (Latin, Jupiter Amicalis) and Roman Emperor Trajan - The epiphet "Philios" (friendly), previously not known at Pergamon, may signify the patronage of Zeus over the bond of friendship between Rome and the Greek cities of Asia Hadrian worshipped at the Trajaneum An inscription found at Pergamon is the copy of a letter written by Hadrian in 137 AD, in which he turns down the request of the Pergamese to build him a temple, but consents to the placing of a statue of him in the temple of his father, the Trajaneum. Acrolithic statues from the Trajaneum - acrolithic statues: the head of Trajan is one of a pair now in Berlin's Pergamon Museum, the other is Hadrian (severly damaged, much of the jaw missing)other is Hadrian (severly damaged, much of the jaw missing) Pergamon's three neokoroi - Pergamon's first neokoros, or "provincial temple" was the Temple of Augustus and Roma, the third neokoros was the Temple of Aesclepieios at the Asclepieion also dedicated to the Emperor Caracalla TRAJANEUM Archaeological research - uncovered and examined in the years 1879- 1880 and 1885 by an architect H. Stiller, but for decades the ruins were left - 1960's the Turkish Administration initialized the process of its restoration - German Archaeological Institute (DAI) - preparations started in 1965 and in 1976 the restoration program was approved by the Turkishrestoration program was approved by the Turkish Directorate of Antiquity, finished in 1994 - the reconstruction started with the halls - method: anastylosis – the reassembly of existing, but loose parts - statues of Trajan, Zeus Philios and Hadrian were found during the reconstruction process which are now in the Pergamon Museum in Berlin. TRAJANEUM Construction -high podium covered with marble, in the middle of the site, the top of the acropolis hill - the large space - obtained by leveling the rock in the side of the mountain, a platform supported by arches was built - the structure: strong parallel supporting walls which were covered with barrel vaults - the substructure towards the valley finishes with an ashlar stone wall 23 meters high and consisted of 11 parallel rows of arched tunnels - the upper part of this wall, with a large arch- the upper part of this wall, with a large arch in front of each vault - the lower part - the vaults form a passageway - in late antiquity - increasing value of metals inspired the plundering of ancient buildings. - in Byzantine period the temple wall facing the valley included in the acropolis fortifications and restored several times - some parts of the substructure were used as cisterns and warehouses. - until the end of the 19th c. - the marble components of the building served as material for lime burning. TRAJANEUM Typology - rectangular podium 68 x 58 meters. - the temple stands on the highest point of the - previous constructions of terraced residential and trade buildings from the Hellenistic period found underneath - Greek traditions - the main part of the building - free-standing. - three sides (north,east and south)surrounded by stoas with monolithic columns and a special form of Corinthian capitalscapitals - the west side was left open so that the temple could be seen and admired from below the Acropolis and the surrounding countryside. - the stoa on the back of the temple is higher than others by 5 meters, because of the terrain unevenness. TRAJANEUM Temple - a peripteros type, hexastyle, with 9 columns on both longer sides, Corinthian order - next to the temple - an altar where the statues of the emperors once stood - near the entrance to the Trajaneum two inscriptions: a) from the city of Thyatira and it congratulates Pergamon for becomingcongratulates Pergamon for becoming neokoros for two imperial cult temples. b) from the time of Trajan and it declares him the lord of the land and the sea. Publius Aelius Hadrianus (76 – 139) - imperium in 117 AD - born in Hispania, a ward of Trajan (family connection) - educated in music, arts, loved Greece and Greek culture - most of his principate – traveling everywhere – statues, monuments, erected in his name - no military ambitions – consolidating and protecting (Hadrian’s Wall) - the adoption – suspicious (supported by Plotina) - patron of architecture – amateur architect, designed the Temple of Venus and Roma - Apollodorus of Damascus – Hadrian designed and- Apollodorus of Damascus – Hadrian designed and “drew pumpkins” - Villa in Tivoli – pumpkin-vaulted structures 112 archon eponymous Athens – Roman Agora – Arch of Hadrian, Olympieon, Library, the Theatre of Dionysius - died at Baiae, divinized by Senate Sabina -100 – Hadrian married Sabina - Sabina died 136/137, divinized by Hadrian and honored with jointly with him after death - Ostia – Sabina as Ceres – poppy and an ear of corn (posthumous version) - found in the palaestra of the Terme di Nettuno, Ostia Arco di Portogallo (136 – death of Hadrian) - 2 reliefs – Palazzo dei Conservatori – Sabina’s apotheosis, Hadrian’s alimentaria - the form is unknown (maybe arch or altar) - found close to Portuguese ambassy Apotheosis of Sabina - the first depiction of the apotheosis of an empress in monumental sculpture - also coins - characteristic Greek-style coiffure covered with diadem and veil - seated on winged female personification –- seated on winged female personification – Aeternitas(?), who carries a torch - Aeternitas seems to rise from flaming ustrinum (modern addition?) - the young figure – watching – Campus Martius - Hadrian sitting on the right (figure behind, impossible to identify) - all figures in profile - the style of reliefs – classicizing – elegant figures on a blank background Antinous - a Bithyan Greek - born in Claudiopolis, Turkey - introduced to Hadrian in 123 AD - 128 AD – a tour of the Empire as a member of Hadrian’s retinue - died in October 130 AD, while going along the Nile – mysterious circumstances Cult of Antinous - Hadrian deified Antinous by identifying him with Osiris, without the permission of the Senate - the decision unusual – divinization reserved for the emperor and members of the imp. family - body was probably embalmed and mummified, taken back to Rome to the villa in Tivoli - on the site of his death – the city of Antinoopolis - in Athens, October – Antinoeia (games) - worshipped as a divine hero, a god, or both- worshipped as a divine hero, a god, or both - three excavation campaigns (2002-2004) - a rectangular temenos (63 x 23 m), opening in the west side into a wide hexedra. - inside the temenos - two facing temples (A: 15 x 9 m each) in antis (4 columns on the front), with a deep pronaos and a podium with central staircase - entirely in marble, until the top of the roof - destroyed because of the intensive cultivation of the area since the 17th century A A C B D C F D EE F century - inner foundation wall of the hexedra - slim columns in giallo antico, forming porch (B) - in front of the hexedra - two long and narrow basins (C: 13 x 1 m), covered in white marble slabs - the pavement of the temenos was in mosaic. -the area was organized as a garden: a) the two temples were enclosed inside a deep trench in the tufa (D), into which trees must have been (possibly palm-trees, evocating the Egypt and, thanks to their high stem, not hiding the temples with their foliage) b) four parallel trenches - flowers (E). - the hydraulic system was very well conceived and on the south wall of the temenos there were fountains (F). - Hadrian focused on the spread of the cult in the Greek lands - Antinous syncretized with Hermes, Dionysus, Bacchus, Silvanus, Apollo, Osiris - altars and temples to the god erected in Hermopolis, Alexandria, Oxyrhynchus, Tebytnis, Lykopolis, Luxor - a small cult (comparing to traditional deities or emperors) – found in 70 cities, at least 28 temples, about 2000 sculpturesleast 28 temples, about 2000 sculptures (115 survive – 44 found in Italy, 12 in Greece and Asia Minor, 6 in Egypt) -votive offerings, gifts of food and drink in Egypt, with libations and sacrifices Antinous as Apollo (Delphi) - Antinous as Bacchus (Vatican) - Antinous as Silvanus (Lanuvium) – from Aphrodisias -a pinecone on the altar, and Antinous appears to be cutting a grape vine (both of which suggest(both of which suggest Dionysos) - but he is holding a falx (the curved vineyard knife), which was one of Silvanus’ attributes - accompanied by a hunting dog - about 90% of the extant images of Silvanus Hadrian and the Imperial cult - centre of his religious program – focused on the emperor and imperial house – Sabina and Antinuos - early in his reign – silenced rumors regarding his adoption – adoption planned by the gods (coins) – Jupiter´s providence, Trajan only implemented the divine will - Hadrian – invoking both earthly and divine commands - religious language – Greeks – public monuments, private dedications, received more divine = - honors than any of his predecessors – statues, shrines, association with Greek divinities – Zeus, Apollo – a bronze sestertius – reverse Hadrian bust, obverse Hadrian and Trajan – standing close to each other, Trajan delivers globe to Hadrian - Hadrian – importance of the cult – unifier of the empire, promotion of the cult of Zeus and his own assimilation with this god - religion in the service of politics Hadrian and Divine election - Giessen papyrus – 2nd c. AD – Egypt – dramatic performance in honor of Hadrian´s accession, people participating: Apollo, Demos of the city – Apollo brings a divine message, rides on the chariot, rises as Helios to the sky with Trajan and introduces the new king Hadrian to the audience - Apollo as a messenger – not a coincidence – Apollo as Helios is Egyptian Ra, protector of pharaohs - poem - composed on account of Hadrian´s accession, Trajan already deified here - coins – bronze sestercius – 119 – 121 AD – obverse- rises hand towards an eagle – Jupiter, which bears a scepter in his claws, Hadrian – a roll in the other hand, the legend – providentia divorum – a providence of the gods and a good emperor - golden aureus – laureate bust on the obverse, reverse – Hadrian standing, receives the globe from Jupiter, between them – an eagle - wanted to state his divine election publically - city Cyzicus – declared Hadrian the 13th god, and the city became a neokoros of his cult – temple – worshipped alone or as synnaos of Zeus, or all the gods - Hadrian became the new Zeus Hadrian and Divine - interested in divination and mystic cults, magic, was superstitious - skilled in astrology and every science and art, credited with healing powers (divine, superhuman – predestinated) - desire to know past and future – generous to Delphi and its oracle - 125 AD – Delphi – elected him an archon 2nd time - a frequent visitor to the oracle – 2 visits before gaining imperium, excellence in the art of astrology – created his own horoscope The art of the occult Aurelius Victor – Antinous offered himself – Hadrian believed that he´ll prolong his life Promotion of the cult of Rome - consolidating traditions - problems in Rome - instability and revolts - strong in the east – more accepted there, because he didn´t want assimilation of different nations, but their acceptation Trajan – accepted as and assimilated to Jupiter, in the West Hadrian – Zeus – helped him to promote his program among the Greek people But what about the West? Two main cults – Zeus – Greek mainland and Asia Minor Roma – Latin West Roma and Augustus (Venus) -Hadrian - temple of Venus and Rome in Rome - dedicted because pietas towards the Julio-Claudian dynasty, especially Augustus - inclusion Rome and Venus – inclusion of Augustus line in the monument – legitimacy to his rule - rebirth of Roma´s cult – restoration and revitalization “‘For now,'” he said, ‘if the goddesses wish to get up and go out, they will be unable to do so'”, Apollodorus Damascus (Dio, LXIX.4.1-5). Hadrianeum -145 AD, coins, inscriptions - Antoninus Pius – commemorated Hadrian location: close to Pantheon, Piazza della Pietra -1696 - pontificate of Pope Innocent XII – incorporated into a large building designed by Carlo Fontana to house the central Custom office 1879 – 1882 – building modified, baroque decoration replaced by a simpler one 1928 – wall of the cella freed today – Rome’s stock exchange The precinct - consisted of: the Temple of Divus Hadrianus (later also Diva Sabina), enclosed by a rectangular porticoes with an internal colonnade, 2 columns still in situ (northern peristyle) and an arch of Hadrian nearby - entrance gates – main axis – east and west side - monumental wall in peperino tufa, 4 m below the pavement level The temple -peripteral (similar to Venus and Rome), 8 x 13 columns, podium 27 x 45 m, shafts on columns, not monolithic, Greek fashion - cella and columns – stand upon a stylobate and large podium – excavations - 5 m below the present floor level -poorly preserved – 11 Corinthian columns – peperino blocks from the north wall of the cella, part of the vaulting, remains of the staircase, 15 metres high, 1.44 m diameterstaircase, 15 metres high, 1.44 m diameter -interior – vaulted, lined with columns on each sides, west – apses - architrave – 2 fasciae and 3 moldings - cavetto, ovolo, astragal, frieze - richly decorated entablature The sculputral program - portraying the provinces united under the emperor and under Pax Romana - Hadrian’s politics – pacification, unification - 21 panels of provinces, 9 trophies – Palazzo dei Conservatori (7+3), Naples (3+2) and private collections (some panels known only from the drawings from the 18th century) - no inscriptions, attributes identify the provinces location of the panels: many theories – inside or outside the temple – architectural support, provinces alternated trophies 3 different theories: a) decoration of balustrade of the temple’s podium – province under a column, trophy in intercolumnarium b) attic of the temple – now, the most preferableb) attic of the temple – now, the most preferable c) external frieze d) fine preservation – must have been inside the cella – flanking the statue of Hadrian – colossal statue base found style: classicizing (continuation of the style) figures: frontally positioned, blank background, stationary figures, high relief, projecting in front, with their feet resting on a molded base techniques: incised on the stone – outlining of the figures and the drawing in stone – artist’s attempt to highlight figures seen from a distance and from below HADRIAN´S ATHENS 1. The library of Hadrian 2. Pantheon 3. The Roman market 4. Vespasianai 5. The tower of winds 6. Agoranomeion (Sebasteion?) Vespasianai (1st c. AD) - a square building built in the 1st century AD - used as a public toilet of the Roman Market - took its name after the emperor Vespasian (built many similar buildings around the Roman empire) The "Agoranomeion" (circa AD 50) - unknown use - facade includes three arches made from grey Hymettus marble - access to it was made via a big staircase- access to it was made via a big staircase - the older hypothesis - the ‘Agoranomeion’ (invalid) - most likely - dedicated to the imperial family (Sebasteion) - the newest research - the arches - the monumental entry to a street with stoas. The Pantheon (AD 130) - philological sources - a temple dedicated to the gods and was built by Hadrian around AD 130 - the location not known precisely - the foundations of a big building east of the Library of Hadrian, likely belong to the Pantheon. Library 132 AD – pattern of the Temple of Peace – 122 x 82 m, 30 x 22 columns around, marble from Phrygia 267 AD badly damaged by the Herulians - restored in 408 – 412 (Herculius), in the courtyard - church - other churches in the Byzantine period entrance – propylon – 4 Corinthian columns western wall – Penthelic marble, 14 Corinthian, green cipollino, similar to the forum of Nerva - internal courtyard with a garden and a pool in the middlethe middle - eastern part – rooms with papyruses (two big rooms), wings – lecture rooms, smaller rooms – reading rooms, a cult room (?) The theatre of Dionysus - 2nd visit of Athens - reconstruction - a bronze statue of Hadrian 12 statues of Hadrian – in the theatre – 12 attic tribes, 4 bases found - reconstructed the theatre – built a monumental scaenae frons with reliefs depicting the life of Dionysus association with Dionysus – scaenae frons – the new Dionysus, the new founder of Athens The temple of Olympian Zeus – “Olympeion” - 3rd visit of Athens, 110 x 44 m, 104 columns, no altar in front of the temple, Corinthian order - many statues of Hadrian – by the cities (bases still visible) - project had started 600 years before by Peisistratos (platform and some elements of columns) 174 BC – Antiochus IV with Cossutius – Corinthian order 164 BC, abandoned when Antiochus died, half finished 86 BC – Sulla – serious damage – columns re-used86 BC – Sulla – serious damage – columns re-used in Rome – temple of Jupiter 131 AD – intended a dedication ceremony, winter today: 15 columns remain (total 104) - 1852 the 16th fell down Pausanias – colossal chryselephantine statue, behind the temple – colossal statue of Hadrian Hadrian associated with Zeus and received the epithet “Olympios” also called “Hadrianos Zeus Olympios” - originally dedicated to Zeus – became a centre of the imperial cult The Arch of Hadrian - Athenians erected in honor of Hadrian’s benefactions - purpose: divide old and new part of the city “This is Athens, the ancient city of Theseus.” – western side “This is the city of Hadrian and not of Theseus.” – eastern side, facing Olympieon - the 3rd visit to the Athens, 131 AD - on the occasion of dedication the Temple of Olympian Zeus - strategic position – people coming from the Agora went through the arch and could read the text, or returning from the Olympieon - boundaries of old and new Athens of Hadrianoupolis, no statuary decoration