the foundational bases of the Pure Land School of Buddhism. The text of the sutra begins with the Buddha on Vulture's Peak surrounded by a huge retinue of sravakas (i.e., hearers, disciples) and bodhisattvas. Using the premise of instructing Ananda, the Buddha rehearses the story of a monk Dharmakara who made a series of forty-eight vows under a prior Buddha known as Lokesvararaja. Dharmakara begins pursuit of the bodhisattva path, focusing all his vows on one Buddha-Land. Eventually, Dharmakara is able to actualize his vows, becoming the Buddha Amitabha residing in the Pure Land of SukhavatT (the Western Paradise). Rebirth in SukhavatT is available to those who (1) make a vow to be reborn there, (2) employ their good merit to do so, and (3) meditate on Amitabha. The sutra ends with a vision of Amitabha. The Smaller SukhavatTvyuha Sutra is a Mahayana text that is also important as one of the foundational bases of the Pure Land School of Buddhism. As opposed to the larger version of the text, with the Buddha on Vulture's Peak, here the Buddha Amitabha presides over the Pure Land of SukhavatT. Birth in the Pure Land is not a result of good works, as in the larger version, and is not even mentioned. The key issue in the smaller text focuses on the metaphor of sound. The sounds present in the Pure Land are to remind one of the Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha. Additionally, these sounds, and that of Amitabha's name, are prerequisites to meditation. Consequently, they must be repeated if salvation is to be attained
Mahayana Doctrines
Although Mahayana is often cited for the importance of the new literature it created in Buddhism, and for its emphasis on the laity, the ideas and doctrines embodied in that literature were equally important in shaping the later development of the
tradition. Most important among the Mahayana doctrinal innovations were its new theories about the nature of the Buddha and about reality, as well as its emphasis on the bodhisattva as a new ideal type in Buddhism. Concomitant with this new path, was its stress on a series of perfections known as paramitas, and two of the most important perfections: compassion and skill-in-means.
Buddha Nature
Buddha nature is a Mahayana notion that all sentient beings possess an inherently pure nature identical to that of the Buddhas, worldly or cosmic. This Buddha-ness (tathata) is one of the issues that clearly differentiates Mahayana from HTnayana, for in the latter there is no notion suggesting that all beings can become Buddhas.
Emptiness
The doctrine of "emptiness" or sunyata is stressed in many Mahayana scriptures, beginning with the Prajnaparamita sutras. It goes beyond the early Buddhist position of anatman (not-self), stating that even dharmas, the momentary building blocks of experiential reality, have no ontologi-cal existence in their own right. The doctrine of emptiness thus emphasizes the relational aspect of existence, a presumably proper understanding of the early Buddhist doctrine of dependent origination (pratTtya-samutpada). In this way, emptiness becomes an epistemological tool used to "unfreeze" the fixed notions of our minds. It is important to understand that sunyata, utilized in this fashion, is not an ontological state, and that even emptiness is empty. However, it would be incorrect to surmise that the negative terminology associated with the concept is indicative of a subtle nihilism in Mahayana. To argue that all
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dharmas are empty does not mean that they do not exist, but rather identifies them as appearances which should not be perceived as objects of grasping. Because the doctrine of emptiness is critical to all Mahayana schools of Buddhism, it becomes of paramount importance, not only to the Madhyamika and Yogacara schools of Buddhism in India (including all of their respective subdivisions), but to all the Mahayana schools across the geographic landscape, ancient and modern. Sunyata also plays a critical role in all the Vajrayana schools as well. Consequently, it is probably not unreasonable to cite this doctrine as the single most important Mahayana innovation.
Bodhisattva
The bodhisattva is literally an "enlightenment being," one who has postponed personal salvation in favor of a compassionate effort to save all sentient beings. In early Buddhism the term bodhisattva (or bodhisatta in Pali) was used to identify Siddhartha Gautama, the historical Buddha, and it was assumed that only future historical Buddhas merited this designation prior to their attainment of Buddhahood. In Mahayana, this term was given a radical, new interpretation, and used as a designation for anyone aspiring to complete, perfect enlightenment ... to Buddhahood. Motivated by extreme compassion (karuna), and tempered by the perfection of wisdom (prajfia), the bodhisattva first completes three basic prerequisites that include generating the thought of enlightenment (bodhicitta), undertaking a formal vow to gain complete, perfect enlightenment for the sake of all sentient beings (pranidhana), and receiving a prediction with regard to future attainment (vyakarana). Then, a path known as the bodhisattva path, and including ten stages (bhumis), is traversed. This path requires rejection of the
personal attainment of nirvana, deliberate rebirth in the cycle of samsara, and a sharing of all merit accrued with other sentient beings. In Mahayana a number of Celestial Bodhisattvas became extremely important, most notably Avalokitesvara, ManjusrT, Mahasthamaprapta, and Samantab-hadra. They served as ideal models for their earthly counterparts by exhibiting extreme compassion and wisdom. The entire Mahayana notion of the bodhisattva was a clear antithesis to the ideal type in early Buddhism, the arhant, whose effort was found by Mahayanists to be self-centered and ego-based. An enormous literature developed focusing on the bodhisattva and the bodhisattva path, including such famous texts as the Bodhisattvabhumi Sutra, Dasabhumika Sutra, and others. Sometimes, the path of the bodhisattva is called the "Vehicle of the bodhisattva" or Bodhisattva-yana. It is another means of referring to the Mahayana or so-called "Greater Vehicle" school of Buddhism. Mahayana of course coined a pejorative phrase to describe the entirety of early Buddhism: "HTnayana" or "Lesser Vehicle." Within this HTnayana appelation, however, Mahayana identified two individual paths: (1) the Vehicle of the Sravaka, or Sravaka-yana, literally "hearers," the immediate disciples of the Buddha (and their spiritual descendants), and (2) the Vehicle of the Pratyeka-buddhas, or Pratyeka-bud-dha-yana, those who attained enlightenment on their own and who did not embark on a teaching career. In light of the above, it was only logical to also refer to the Mahayana path as the Bodhisattva-yana, the "Vehicle of the bodhisattvas."
Paramita
This is a Sanskrit technical term usually rendered as "perfection" and applied to a series of practices thought to be essential for spiritual progress. The
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term paramita is derived from the Sanskrit prefix param which generally denotes the other side of something, that is, beyond, and the past participle of a verb meaning "to go." Thus, paramita means "going to the other side" or "having gone beyond," and by application "perfection." Although the term appears in the literature of various HTnayana sects, and is especially important to the Sarvastivadins, it is in Mahayana that the notion of perfections becomes a critical component of Buddhist philosophy and practice. The concept appears early in the Prajnaparamita literature, emphasizing six paramitas: (1) dana (giving), (2) sTla (morality), (3) ksanti (patience), (4) vlrya (vigor), (5) dhyana (meditation), and (6) prajna (wisdom). And of course the intended ideal emerges: wisdom can be perfected by all beings if certain religious principles are understood and rigorous religious practices are observed. The practices involve traversing the bodhisattva path as opposed to the way of the arhant in earlier Buddhism. Eventually, four additional perfections were added: (7) upaya (skill-in-means), (8) pranidhana (vow), (9) bala (power), and (10) jnana (knowledge). These ten paramitas are correlated with the ten stages of the bodhisattva path, each perfection corresponding to a particular stage (bhumi). As a result, a highly ambitious path is outlined which is a guideline for a distinctly Mahayana Buddhist practice.
Karuna
Karuna is a Sanskrit technical term meaning "compassion," and is important in all Buddhisttraditions. Considered to be one of the chief attributes of a Buddha, it is among the prime motivating factors in Siddhartha Gautama's pursuit of enlightenment. In the HTnayana sects it find its highest expression as a member of the fourfold brahmaviharas or "divine abodes." In the brahmviharas it functions
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in consonance with love (maitrl), sympathetic joy (mudita), and equanimity (upeksa) as an expression of the highest ethical standard of pursuit. In Mahayana it achieves its fullest development as one of the driving forces in the bodhisattva's religious practice. It is generally linked with wisdom (prajna) in describing the two chief descriptive attributes of the bodhisattva. Karuna is said to be embodied in the bodhisattva Avalokitesvara, who receives much attention in the Chinese and Japanese traditions (as Cuanyin and Kwannon, respectively). Compassion is extremely important as the basis of the Pure Land tradition as well.
Upaya
Upaya is a Sanskrit technical term literally meaning "skillful means" or "skill-in-means." Although the term is not unheard of in early Buddhism, it is almost always applied to the Mahayana tradition, where it is counted as one of the paramitas or "perfections." Identified as the seventh perfection, it follows attainment of the perfection of wisdom (prajna). Since one of the critical aspects of Mahayana teaching is that bodhisattvas must have compassion (karuna) for all sentient beings, it is logical for Mahayana adepts, at a certain stage of development, to know precisely how to apply the wisdom they have experienced. Upaya provides that aspect of the teaching. Upaya enables the individual who is teaching to find precisely the method of instruction that is appropriate for the person being instructed. Whether a Dharma discourse or shout, meditation instruction or a slap, 161 Mahayana Doctrines Contents | Chapter 6: tstart | .lend
upaya is the skillful means by which a genuine teacher demonstrates the truth of enlightenment.
Celestial Buddhas And Bodhisattvas
Many celestial Buddhas permeate the pantheon of Mahayana Buddhism. Foremost among them is Amitabha. the Buddha of "Unlimited Light," said to rule over the Western Paradise of SukhavatT. Known in China as Amituo and in Japan as Amida (from the short Sanskrit form Amita), this Celestial Buddha is the focus of three major texts of Pure Land Buddhism: the (1) Larger SukhavatTvyuha Sutra, (2) Smaller SukhavatTvyuha Sutra, and (3) Amitayurdhyana Sutra. The legend surrounding Amitabha develops from the story of a monk named Dharmakara who, eons previously, aspired to Buddhahood and made forty-eight vows, each concerning the nature of existence whence he becomes a Buddha. Dharmakara, after countless lifetimes of practice, becomes the Buddha Amitabha. Amitabha is generally conceived of in two ways: (1) as an object of meditation and (2) as the embodiment of compassion. As ruler of the Pure Land of SukhavatT, he welcomes all who earnestly wish to be reborn there, requiring only a strong commitment of faith in Amitabha's vows. This faith is expressed by the formula (in Sanskrit): Namo Amitabhaya Buddhaya, "Homage to Amitabha Buddha." Known in China as the Nianfo (Nanmo Amituofo) and in Japan as the Nembutsu (Namu Amida Butsu), its repetition was a necessary ingredient for rebirth in the Pure Land. In fact, Dharmakara's eighteenth vow, often referred to as the most important of all vows, states quite directly that anyone who desires rebirth in the Pure Land need only recite his name or think of this desire ten times, in order to actualize their ambition. Because this tradition relies on faith rather than meditation, it is sometimes referred to as the
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"easy way" (tariki in Japanese). Amitabha sometimes appears with the bodhisattvas Avalokitesvara and Mahasthamaprapta on his left and right, respectively. He also appears with Bhaisajyaguru Buddha, another of the Celestial Buddhas. An alternate name for Amitabha is sometimes employed:   Amitayus,   literally  "Unlimited Life."
Another famous celestial Buddha is Aksobhya, earliest of the non-historical celestial Buddhas. His name literally means "immovable," and he is said (in the VimalakTrti-nirdesa Sutra) to reign over the Eastern Paradise known as Abhirati. His name seems to be first mentioned in the Perfection of Wisdom (Prajnaparamita) literature, but eventually finds citations in a wide variety of Mahayana and Vajrayana texts. His most usual color is dark blue, but occasionally golden colored. He usually holds a vajra or diamond scepter in his right hand, while making the earth-touching gesture (bhumisparsa-mudra) with his left. He is often seated on a blue elephant. Legend reports that Aksobhya, while still a bodhisattva, vowed never to manifest anger toward any being, and as a result of his vow, came to rule over the paradise of Abhirati. It is suggested that other practitioners who follow his example will obtain rebirth in Abhirati. While he is prominent in Nepal and Tibet, Aksobhya is less popular in China and Japan.
Vairocana, yet another celestial Buddha literally means "Shining Out." Although he did not become popular until around the seventh century C.E., in Tantric Buddhism he is located at the center of the cosmic mandala, surrounded by the other four Celestial Buddhas. His symbol is often represented as the Dharmacakra or "Wheel of the Teaching," and is sometimes shown making the "supreme wisdom" mudra in which the right index finger is held by the fingers of the left hand. His is regularly associated with the Celestial bo-
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dhisattva Samantabhadra. Some traditions identify him with the earthly Buddha Krakucchanda, but he is also noted, in the Chinese scholastic tradition, to be the dharma-kaya of Sakyamuni Buddha. Vairocana is regarded in some traditions to be the Adi-Buddha or primordial Buddha. In the iconography, he is depicted as white in color
Perhaps the foremost Celestial Bodhisattva is ManjusrT. A prominent bodhisattva whose name means "Sweet Glory," and who is especially important in a number of Mahayana sutras. Although present in the Lotus Sutra, he is a primary interlocutor in the VimalakTrti-nirdesa Sutra where he, of all the bodhisattvas mentioned, comes closest to the brilliance and understanding manifested by VimalakTrti. A tenth stage bodhisattva, he is often shown iconographically holding a lotus which supports a Prajnaparamita text and a sword, symbolizing the wisdom he manifests in aiding sentient beings. ManjusrT is said to appear to people in dreams, and those worshipping him are protected by his power. He is also sometimes referred to as Manjughosa, ("Sweet Voiced"). In Tibetan Buddhism a number of the most prominent figures are considered incarnations of ManjusrT.
Maitreya is the name of the future Buddha, literally translated as "Benevolent One." Although the notion is present in virtually all the HTnayana schools, where they view Maitreya as a bodhisattva progressing toward Buddhahood, the notion reaches its apex in Mahayana, where Maitreya is depicted as avirtual cult image. He is mentioned in a wide variety of Mahayana sutras, and also comes to play a major role in Vajrayana Buddhism where his heaven is said to represent a Pure Land. He is represented byadetailedand explicit iconography, and is identified as one of the five earthly Buddhas.
Finally, Avalokitesvara is "The Lord Who Looks Down," one of the most famous and important of
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the Celestial Bodhisattvas in Mahayana Buddhism. Initially, Avalokitesvara is a minor figure in such texts as the VimalakTrti-nirdesa Sutra and Lotus Sutra. His first significant role is in the Pure Land Sutras where he and Mahasthamaprapta serve as the chief attendants to Amitabha Buddha. Presumably, Avalokitesvara has purified himself for countless ages, and accordingly, is the embodiment of compassion (karuna) which, along with wisdom (prajna), are the chief attributes expressive of Buddhahood. He aids all people who call upon him in need, helping them with numerous arms of compassion. In art, Avalokitesvara is represented in a variety of ways, often as a layman with eleven heads, as many as a thousand arms, and a crown with an image of Amitabha in it. He sometimes holds a blue lotus flower in his hand. In China and Japan, Avalokitesvara was transformed into a female image, known as Cuanyin and Kwannon, respectively. In Tibet, he was revered as a patron of the land, known as Chenrezi (sPyan-ras-gzigs).
Mahayana Schools: Madhyamika
Madhyamika is an Indian Mahayana Buddhist school founded by Nagarjuna, and emphasizing the emptiness (sunyata) of all components of experiential reality (dharmas) as its major doctrine. One of the most important schools of Buddhism across the face of the globe, it had its beginnings in the writings of Nagarjuna, a second or third century C.E. philosopher, famous for his Prajnaparamita-inspired logical discourses. The title of the school essentially means "Middle Way," and it uses as its primary text the Mulamadhyamika-karikas of Nagarjuna, a treatise that expounds in great detail about the genuine meaning of dependent origination (pratTtya samutpada) and emptiness (sunyata). Although subscribing to the merits of the bodhisattva path, and the efficacy of Mahayana
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