SECTION   I
Chapter 1
Introduction
Some knowledge of the life of the Šíkyamttni Buddha and the historical development of Buddhism on the part of the reader is presumed in all that follows, but it may be helpful to re-state here a few elementary facts which every Tibetan takes for granted.
"We believe that during the present KLalpa (Aeon) the incarnations of a thousand supreme Buddhas will take place in this world. Like ourselves, these Buddhas were living beings before they attained perfection. These Buddhas have the power to project reincarnations of their mind, body, and speech into millions of forms within a moment of time. And they do this for the benefit of all living beinga of worlds like ours. Each of these supreme incarnations will preach his own doctrine, and will work eternally for the salvation of sil living beings.1'1
We regard the Säktahttni Buddha as one of the thousand Buddhas. He was born in a royal family in India over two thousand five hundred years ago and lived his early life as a prince. Contact with old age, disease and death made him decide to renounce his princely life and become an ascetic at the age of twenty-nine.
"After he attained Enlightenment, the Perfection of Buddhahood, at Buddha Gaya, he preached three different sermon«, each at a different place in the part of India known as Bihar. The first, at Varanasi (Benares), was on the Four Noble Truths ... It was mainly addressed to the Sravakas (hearers) who were people gifted spiritually but of limited outlook The second sermon, at Girdhakuta, was on Sunyata (Voiduess), the non-existence of an ultimate self-nature ... This was addressed to Mahayanists, or followers of the Great Way, who were men of very high intellect. The third sermon, at Vešali, was intended primarily for Mahayanists of a lesser calibre. Thus, he not only preached on Sutras for Mahayanists and Hinayanista (followers of the Greater and Lesser Ways, the two main schools of Buddhism), but also preached many Tantras for Mahayanists.''*
Within Buddhism are to be found a great number of systems of teaching and tenets but all of them can be grouped under the two major traditions of
1 Dalai Lama, An Introduction to Buddhism, 1965, page 4. 1 Dalai Lama, An Introduction to Buddhism, 1966, page 5. * See diagrams I and II.
Theg-chen {Mahäyäna) or the Great Vehicle, and Theg-dman (Hinayäna) or the Lesser Vehicle. In order to avoid having to enumerate these different systems here and to facilitate their identification separate diagrams are given of the various branches and sub-branches.1 In subsequent chapters an attempt has been made to give a general and brief outline of the Mahäyäna and Hínayäna traditions. This is not the place for a detailed explanation of the tenets of the Buddhist faith, and only such explanation is given as is necessary to an understanding of the works of art under consideration. For a fuller account of the tenets of Buddhism the reader is referred to the books of reference oited in the footnote.4
By the careful study of these works of reference it will become evident that the Buddha when he delivered his teaching took into account the spiritual inclination and intelligence of those he addressed, and taught them in an appropriate manner. In the same way, the truly learned men of old, both Indian and Tibetan, who over the years taught the words of the Buddha and made commentaries on them also bore in mind the location in time and place and the mental aptitude of the people they taught, and varied and adapted their mode of instruction accordingly. Naturally, as a result of this there came into existence a large number of Buddhist systems of teaching and each of them had to be given a name. However, these systems of teaching are all inter-connected and form a sort of spiritual ladder which the devotee joins on a rung suited to his own spiritual state.
By the study of the books referred to above it will also be seen that certain words of the Buddha, spoken at different times, which at first appear to be contradictory, are really not so in fact. In the same way it will be seen that the teaching methods employed by the learned teachers and expounders of the Buddha's words, although appearing to differ on points, all fall within the framework of what the Buddha taught and do not represent alien doctrines. In the building of a house there are hundreds of different tools used. Although each of the tools
* The major works of reference are: Sources nos. 22—26, 38,78,96, 97, 100,115,117,126,127,159. 169,178,186-189, 209, 212, 227, 250, 296, 320 and 322.
differa in its form and function they all serve the same purpose — that of building a house. So it is with the different systems of teaohing — their end is the same although their means differ.
Buddhism was first introduced in a small way to Tibet during the reign of king IBLa tho-tho-bi gnan-btsan in 233 A.D.8 Under the patronage of the religious kings, the three most well-known being Sboň-btsan sgam-po (seventh century A.D.), king Kbbi-sbo» ldb'ü-btsan (eighth century A.D.) and king Khbi bal-pa-oan (ninth century A.D.), Buddhism steadily spread despite a set-back under the repressive king Glak- dab-ma in the ninth century A.D. Many distinguished Indian and Tibetan scholars took part in the spreading of Buddhism in Tibet and in the translating of texts from Sanskrit into Tibetan.
In time various schools of Buddhism grew up in Tibet suoh as the r Sin-ma, bKa'-brgyud, Sa-skya and dQe-lugs sects, but all these schools adhere to the same teaohing of Theg-dman (Hinayäna) — the Lesser Vehicle, and Theg-chen (Mahdyäná) — the Great Vehicle, including rOyud-kyi theg-pa {Tan-trayäna) — the Tantrio Vehicle — and all conform to the 'dvl-ba (vinaya) rules of discipline. Tibetan Buddhists do not separate these teachings, but pay equal respect to them all.
The collected teaching of the Rakvamijni Buddha, translated from Sanskrit into Tibetan, are contained in the bKa*-'gyur scriptures. The vast collection runs into over one hundred volumes which can be grouped into three divisions. These three divisions are jointly called sde-snod-gsum (tripitaka) meaning literally, the 'three containers or receptacles'.
The three 'containers' are: mdo-ade'i sde-snod (sütrapitoka) — the collection of discourses; 'dul-ba'% sde-snod (vinayapifaka) — the collection of disciplines; and mrion-pa'i sde-snod {etbhidharma pitaka) — the collection of spiritual philosophy. Generally when one speaks of the sde-snod-gswn the tantras (rgyud) are included in and belong to the first division. There is however another mode of classification which excludes the tantras from the three collections and gives them separately. The tantras themselves are sub-divided into four section».*
5 Refer Tsepon W. D. Shakabpa, Tibet, A Political Hiatory, Tale University Press, 1067, page 24.
The Tibetan translation of commentaries by Indian scholars upon the Šäkyamxtni Buddha's teachings are contained in the bsTan-'gyur which consists of over two hundred volumes.
Chaptbb2
Some General Points about Buddhism
Because Tibetan art is largely religious in content we should first try to convey the meaning of the word ehos [dharma). The word conveys ten different meanings.1
1.  It can be applied to all Tmowable things'/ phenomena (ées-bya). This interpretation comes from the meaning 'to hold' whioh is one of the many meanings of the Sanskrit word dharma. In this sense the word refers to all conditioned states, those which can be seen by the human eye and which may possibly exist, which are said 'to hold' their own essential identity, in the same way that all phenomena 'hold' the characteristic of imperma-nenoe.
2.  The second of the meanings implies a lam or 'path', for example 'the pure view* which is the 'path' of stoň-ňid (éůnyatd) — the view of emptiness — and all spiritual knowledge gained, through various levels of meditation, along the 'path' leading to the view of emptiness.
3.   Thirdly it may mean mya-nan-las 'das-pa, meaning literally 'gone beyond suffering', which is the obtaining of nirvana ■— liberation from samsära. This meaning is another interpretation of the first meaning given above, 'to hold', though the sense here is 'to hold back' or to be saved from the sufferings of samsära.
4. Fourthly chos means any 'object of the mind' — and includes all phenomena reoognised by our six senses.
5.  Fifthly chos may mean bsod-nams 'merit' or the 'good fortune', acquired by meritorious actions in previous existences, which enable one to practise the Buddha*s teaching. For example, in order that the mind may concentrate on religion it is necessary that the body should be free from material worries
* See chapter 7 on Tamtrajfäna.
1 References souroea no«. 114 page 7 and 156 page 244.6.8.
SoáiÄ-General Point« »bout Buddhism
3
and wants. Or again, to be born in a devout environment, or to be free from physical and mental infirmities are advantages which are conducive to religious progress, and these are said to be 'good fortune*.
6.  Sixthly choa may mean 'life'. Respect for the lives of other creatures or the saving of the lives of other creatures are factors which will prolong one'B life, possibly even one's present life.
7.  Seventhly choa may mean the 'virtuous teaching' — 'words' {gsun-rab) — of the Buddha which clearly and unmistakably outlined the right and wrong course of action.
8.  Eighthly choa means that which is to come to pass — the inevitable future, as for instance that to be born means to die. The inevitable nature of the human body is to be subject to ageing: every minute the new-born child lives also shortens its life and brings old age and death closer.
Ô. Ninthly choa may mean a prescribed course of conduot. For example a monk, by the very nature of his profession, is expected to observe certain rules of conduct.
10. Tenthly choa may mean the intrinsic behaviour-pattern of any object or group of objects. For instance the traditional customs and usages of any community •— be it of oountry or caste — may be defined as its choa.
Of the ten meanings given above the most commonly understood meaning of choa is the 'virtuous teaching' of the Buddha (no. 7 above). This is because the 'virtuous teaohing' of the Buddha can get rid of all the stains and defilements of earjwära. The basic tenets of the Buddha'* teaohing are embodied in the Four Noble Truths or 'phags-pa'i bden-pa-bii (calvan äryaaatyäni) and those persons who practise the Buddha's teaching increase in virtue. The wide use of the word choa in this sense caused this meaning to be the one most commonly understood.
The basic tenets of the Šákyamuki Buddha's teaching given in his first sermon at Var&nasl are the Four Noble Truths — 'phaga-pa'i bden-pa-bH
1 "Karma has been defined as 'concordant action and reaction'. Aooording to the higher aohools of Buddhism, Karma has two aspect«, known in Tibetan a« Sempai Le and Sampai Le. Sempai Le ii the latent stage of Karma in which physical action is yet to take shape; the «tage where the impulse to act is subconscious. Sampai Le is the manifest stage in which physical and oral actions occur. With regard to it« result«, there are three kinds of Karma.
(catv&ri äryaaatyäni). These are: True Sufferings, True Causes, True Cessations and True Paths.
True Sufferings — the first of the Four Noble Truths — means 'khor-ba (aamsära) or cyclic existence. This is the vicious circle which consists of a succession of continuous existences in the many realms of birth. Satnadra is divided into three spheres — the realm of the five senses, the realm of form, and the realm of the formless. Aooording to the forms of births found within aarnaára aaijiěára can be divided into 'six kinds of beings' ('gro-ba rigs-drug). These are: Via (deva) — gods, Iha-ma-yin (asura) — demi-gods, mi—human beings, dud-'gro~ animals, yi-dvags (prela) — hungry ghosts, and those beings in dmyal-ba (hells). The first three divisions are known as bde-'gro, meaning beings in happy states; and the other three as ňan-'gro, meaning beings in suffering states (see Plate 6).
The second of the Four Noble Truths — True Causes — means las (karma) or actions, and Äon-mons or afflictions. There are physical, verbal and mental actions, and they may be meritorious, non-meritorious or invariable.' We speak of 'accumulating actions'. We may experience the results of these 'accumulated actions' in this life, or the next or in any other of our future existences. There are rtsa-non^irug, six main afflictions: desire, anger, pride, ignorance, doubt (about Truths), and wrong-views. These are further divided into twenty subdivisions — íie-Hon ňi-iu. The root of all afflictions is the mistaken view that all phenomena exist — whereas in truth all phenomena are empty of self-nature. Self-attachment stems from this wrong view.
True Cessations — the third of the Four Noble Truths — means the complete extinguishing of True Sufferings and True Causes. And the True Paths — the fourth of the Four Noble Truths — are the means by which these cessations are achieved.
When the True Causes of actions and afflictions are removed at the root one is released from the bondage of aamsära. This release is thar-pa (moksaj nirvana) or liberation.
To recapitulate, in order to effect liberation from aamaära one has first to recognise what causes one
Meritorious Karma cause« beings to take rebirth in the realms of gods, demi-gods, and men. Demeritorious Karma causes rebirth in the lower region« of animals, Pretas and hell«. Finally, Achala Karma, Invariable Karma, cause« being« to take rebirth in the upper worlds, Bupa and Arupa Dhatu, the worlds of the Form and the Formless.*'... Dalai Lama, An Introduction to Buddhism, 1966, page 11.
to be enmeshed in sarfisära. All that we are in our present existenoe, all that we experience in the way of misery and joy is the effect of causes which He in our past actions. Thus the starting point on the road to liberation is to have a thorough understanding of the vicious nature of sarjisära and the nature of our actions and afflictions. Out of this oonviotion is then born Aes-'byuA — 'renunciation' — the resolution to tarn one's back on worldly existenoe and to break out of sa^ts&ra. In order to achieve the final goal the basio codes of right conduot most be 'adhered to* (bíafi) and acoepted as the basiB of one's moral behaviour; and correspondingly wrong conduct must be 'relinquished' {span). The mind continuity must purify itself and raise itself by degrees and eventually suooeed in cutting off at the very roots the causes leading to rebirth. We can do this by choosing a suitable path from the many shown by the Buddha. Once one has attained liberation one is no longer subject to the cycle of rebirths, unless one voluntarily ohooses to be reborn as in the case of some bodhisattva.
All the sdug-bsňal {duhkha)9 — sufferings of this transmigratory existence — have as their sole cause the undisciplined mind. In order to get rid of one's misery one has first to discipline the mind. This can be done by first recognising one's wrong mental attitude and then replacing it with another. A religious mental attitude is the only one which offers a lasting solution. Non-mental agents such as medicines or drugs and other external agents cannot remove permanently the misery accompanying a wrong mental attitude. One should strive to get rid oneself of those causes which give rise to suffering and to perpetuate those causes which give rise to merit.
The basis of cultivating the right mental attitude is to observe the Ten Virtuous Rules relating to the body, speech and mind.*
These Ten Virtuous Rules are observed when one refrains from: taking life of any sort; stealing ; adultery and perverted sexual practices; lying; slanderous speech; harsh and abusive language; frivolous talk; covetousness; the desire to harm others; and wrong views, such as holding anti dharma or false views concerning the Buddha's teaching. In order to have a full understanding of when
* "Duhkha may be physical (pain) or mental (anguish), it refers to the facta of 'birth, old age, disease and death*, to ~ the oommoD enough 'grief, lamentation, pain, anguish and despair', to being 'conjoined with what one does not like' and being 'separated from what one likes, to not getting what one wants'. The very oomponenta of our personality
these ten precepts are infringed one has to know exactly what the following constitute: the 'object* (of the action); the 'intention' (to distinguish between wrong oommitted wilfully while in a state of awareness, and wrong oommitted accidentally or in a state of ignorance); the 'effort' exerted towards executing the final goal; and the 'accomplishment' of the deed.
One should refrain from actions which contravene these ten precepts, and instead carry out actions which will bring merit. To control and discipline one's mind — that is the foundation stone on which the Buddha's teaching rests.
The actions of a person who, having come to discern the difference between merit and evil, proceeds to lead a virtuous life with the purpose of furthering his spiritual progress, all constitute choa ^dharma); but if one's good deeds are motivated by the desire for gain in this present life, then these actions are not religious and do not constitute chos. All those beings who profess to be religious must be judged for the sincerity of their motivation by this criterion.
Compassion (sňiú-rje) whereby one does not harm others but turns to follow a path of peace is the basis of the Buddha's teaching. When the Buddha taught what course of action one should take (i.e. what one should adhere to and what one should give up) he stated clearly that all our actions, whether good or bad, cause their corresponding effects. He did not merely tell us to observe suoh and such a rule without giving a reason. Instead he outlined the causes and their effects and left us a free choice of action.
The effeots of one's actions — whether virtuous or otherwise — must be borne by the person concerned. No one, not even the buddhas or bodhisaUvas, can help to wash away or remove with a gesture of the hands the ill effects of past actions. Nor can the buddhas or bodhisaUvas transfer their accumulated spiritual attainments to another being. There is no short out either to escape one's past demerits or to aoquire fruits for which one has not worked. The only help available is the Buddha's teaching which shows a multitude of paths suitable for every mental level. By means of these, if one ohooses a path most suited to one and pursues it with dedi-
are, because we grasp at them (as 'ľ, as 'mine'), bound up
withduhkha.'\..
Dalai Lama, The Opening of the Wisdom-Eye, Bangkok,
1968, p. 107.
* Reference sources no*. 121, 123, 2Ö8 page 88 vb and 301.
The Three Jewels or Ecioges
5
cation putting all its principles into praotioe, one can reach a high spiritual level. The highest spiritual le-vel in the Hinay&na tradition is the achievement of thar-pa {móksajnirvä/na) or liberation from sarnsära; and in the Mahäyäna tradition it is the achievement of Buddhahood (Sans-rgyaS'kyi go-'phaň) — the state of total enlightenment.
Chapter 3 The Three Jewels or Refuges1
There is no means of access to the Buddha's teaching other than through seeking refuge in the Three Jewels — dkon-mchog-gsum (triratna) — the Three Barest (and) Best.* These are the sans-rgyas dkon-mchog {buddharatna) — the Buddha Jewel; the choß dkon-mchog {dharmaratna)—the Dharma Jewel; and the dge-'dun dkon-mchog {samgharatna) — the Samgha Jewel.
The three names are already familiar enough to many people but that is not sufficient; their taue meaning and full significance should be understood. Many texts1 belonging to both the Mahäyäna and Hlnayäna traditions give details of the Three Refuges, the manner in which one seeks refuge in them, the benefits which one receives as a result of having taken refuge in them and the precepts to be observed. To go into an explanation of the Three Refuges at this point may seem uncalled for, but as already mentioned in the Preface, one of the main tasks of this book is to provide a background for the explanation and interpretation of Tibetan art. It is therefore necessary to touch on those subjects whioh play a direct or indirect role in this task. The essential meaning of the Three Refuges will be treated here briefly.
As has been pointed out in the previous chapter the ultimate aim of those who practise the dharma is to gain either liberation from samsära or the state of omniscience (total enlightenment). The one who shows the way and teaches us what refuge to take is a buddha, who is like a physician administering the right medicine. This is the Buddha Refuge. The
1 (Jeneral eooroes not. 1, 10—12 page 92 (Lhasa editiert)
63,96 page 24.1.7., 103,106,110,161, 168,173,182, 190,
192, 199-201, 204, 210, 231 and 251.
1 The Three Barett (and) Best are synonomous with the
Three Befuge« — tltfabs-gwm.
1 Befer source« no«. 94 page 19r3, 124, 179, 200 and 300.
' aGnb-gni*  —   'two   obscuration»'   inolude  all  aamsario
misery and affliction whioh give rise to the darkness of
path shown is the dharma — the actual refuge — and it is likened to the medicine. Tins is the Dharma Refuge. The Samgha Refuge is like the nurse, a friend who helps one to achieve the actual refuge.
What then in more detail is a 'buddha refuge', a 'dharma refuge' and a 'samgha refuge' ?
A 'buddha refuge' is a being who, for the sake of himself, has completely got rid of the 'two obacura-tions' (sgrib-gtiis) ;á and who, for the sake of others, has gained complete wisdom. A 'buddha refuge' possesses two 'buddha bodies' — chos-sku {dharmakdya) — the 'truth body';5 and gzugs-sku (rüpakäya) — the 'form-body*. The 'truth body' is the mind of a buddha which is the 'accumulation of wisdom' (ye-áes-kyi tshogs) gained along his paths of progression leading to Buddhahood. gľiugs-ahu — the form-body' is the physical body of the buddha whioh is the 'accumulation of merit' (bsod-nams-kyi tshogs), gained by carrying out merit-earning deeds such as making prostrations, offerings, giving alms to the poor and so on.
The 'dharma refuge' is the teaohing of the Buddha and all spiritual knowledge from the stage of iphag$-pa [ärya)* onwards.
The 'samgha refuge' is the community of monks— a minimum number of four fully-ordained Buddhist monks; or any one individual who has reached the rank of 'phags-pa (drya).
In order to seek refuge one must have fear and belief. If one is not afraid one will not think of seeking refuge. If one is aware and fears the sufferings to be found within samsära and also the un-satisfactoriness of remaining static in a state of bliss after having achieved liberation from sarjuära, one will automatically come to think of refuge. However it is not sufficient just to think of a refuge, one must seek the refuge and pursue it. In the same way, when one is hungry it is of no use thinking of food: one must look for it and satisfy the hunger by consuming the food. When one thinks of the Three Refuges in the light of the comparison made to a physician, medicine and nurse one will be convinced that they are the only ones worthy of giving
ignoranoe, and obscuration of omniscience, that a — direct cognition of all objects of knowledge. 1 Dkarmaiůya: The Spiritual Body in which all Troth, relative and absolute, ia understood. Befer Dalai Lama, The Opening of the Wisdom-Eye, Bangkok, 1968, page 90f. 'having a body that is, or is characterized by the Doctrine ...' ir&nJdin Edgerton, Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar and Dictionary, Delhi, 1970 page 277. • 'Phags-pa (ärya) or an 'exalted being'. See chapter 6.
refuge. When should one start to seek refuge t The answer to this is — immediately I The reason for this urgency is made clear in the following paragraphs.
In order to practise the dharma (which is the refuge) it is necessary first of all to be born as a human being, to have a qualified spiritual teacher to guide one, to have the opportunity to hear the Buddha's teaching and to want to pursue the dharma. When these conditions are all present, preparations are complete for the practice of the dharma. The opportunity to practise the dharma is one which is difficult to come by again, and one must recognise that the present is the rare opportunity which one must utilise to praotise the actual refuge — the dharma.
Then again if one does not start to practise the dharma this very moment it might be too late. It is certain that one will die, it is uncertain when one will die. Therefore, no one can guarantee the order in which 'tomorrow' and 'the next life' will follow, for the next life might well come before the start of the next day. When one is dying none of such things as relatives, friends, wealth, power, influence or rank are of any use to one. It is only the dharma whioh can be of benefit to one at the time of one*s lonely death. After death life does not go out like a light, without continuation, but will continue, taking birth in another form. The Bpheres in which one will be born will depend on the strength of the merit and demerit of one's past actions. If one takes birth in one of the 'suffering states' one will not be able to endure the immeasurable Bufferings in those states. One should seek now a refuge to save one from those states, because when one is actually suffering in those states on^ will not be capable of even the thought of seeking refuge. Therefore it is imperative that one make use of the present opportunity.
It is important that followers of the Buddha's teaching, like the followers of other religions, should have strong faith in their religious beliefs. But the faith should not be of the kind which regards as religiouB obstinate and blind adherence to the religious codes, or the enduring of physical hardships. What is important is to have the right frame of mind wherewith to examine and understand the religious codes which one is to follow. To examine one's beliefs and codes of conduct is both essential and to be encouraged, and they should be of such
T For a oompiete list of the Twelve Division« see Sarat Chandra Das, Tibetan-English Dictionary, Kyoto, Japan,
substance that they stand up to examination. The faith born out of total conviction after such examination is the strongest and the best.
Images of the Buddha, bodhisattva, bla-ma (spiritual teachers), deities and so on, holy texts and writings, the 'Twelve Divisions of the Sayings of the Buddha'1 are not themselves the real Three Refuges and should not be mistaken for them. They are only symbolic representations and serve to remind us of the Three Refuges. But since they play such a vital part in directing the devotee's thoughts towards the precious Three Refuges a great amount of merit can be earned by those who regard these symbols with deep devotion and veneration — merit equivalent to what one would gain were they the real Three Refuges.1
It is for this reason that the religious kings of Tibet (like king Sboň-btsan so am-po and many others from the days of old right up to recent times) had numerous images and temples made suoh as have since become famous. For the same reason, Tibetans retain in their daily lives the traditional praotioe of having a place of worship — be it a private ohapel, an altar or a simple shrine — the size and elaborateness of which varies aooord-ing to what room-space and expense the individual can afford. These places of worship are attended to continuously with devotional offerings, including the lighting of butter-lamps.
Tibetans also retain the practice of carrying gold or silver reliquaries, in the shape of ininiature shrines, on the person when out on a journey. Inside these reliquaries are placed miniature statues and other relics (See Plates 1 & 2). They serve both as a reminder of what they stand for, and as a means of obtaining grace and protection from harm.
CHAPTER4
Additional Kinds of Refuge
bla-ma   yi-dam   byaň-chub sems-pa
ran sans-rgyas   ftan-thos   dpa'-bo mkha'-'gro
chos-skyoá/sruň-ma
In Buddhism the following are also regarded as refuge-givers: bla-ma (guru) — spiritual teachers; yvdam — meditational deities; and those of the following who have reached the rank of 'phags-pa
I960, page 1307. 1 Source no. 11.
/
Bin-ma
7
(ärya):3 byaň-ckub dtms-pa (bodhisattva)* — a bud-áAa-to-be; raň saňs-rgyas {pratyekabuddha)* — a &t«žáÄa-by-oneself • flan-thos {irävaha)1 — a disciple; dpa'-bo mkha'—'gro* — beings possessing tanfcric powers; and choa-akyoAjsruň-ma (dharmapäJa) — protectors of the dharma.
The reader might well wonder how so many refuges are possible when the fixed number of three has been given in the previous chapter. There is no contradiction here however, for all refuges fall into three types or categories, so that if all objects of refuge were classified they would be seen to fall within the Three Refuges already outlined. The refuges just mentioned are sub-divisions of the three major refuges and may be classified as follows. Bla-ma and yi-dam belong to the Buddha Refuge, and the remaining five to the Samgha Refuge. The spiritual knowledge possessed by all these seven additional kinds of refuge belongs to the Dharma Refuge.
Bla-ma are included within the Buddha Refuge because not all beings are fortunate enough to be born into this world at a time when a buddha-manifestation with the superhuman physical marks has taken human form. The Šabyamuni Buddha himself has proclaimed again and again that he will take the form of bla-ma — on the same plane and sharing the same fortune as ordinary men — in order to benefit others. And it is because the most benefioial action of a buddha is his speech — the teaching of the dharma — that a buddha manifests himself directly or indirectly in bla-ma who are his blessed agents. Bla-ma give religious teaching and show us the virtuous way by instructing us what course of action to follow and what course of action to avoid.8 From the point of view of the person instructed his bla-ma is not only no different from a buddha but whatever measure of spiritual knowledge he has acquired he owes it exclusively to his bla-ma, and so his debt of gratitude to his bla-ma, who is accessible to him, is greater even than that which he owes to the Buddha. For this reason bla-ma are included in the Buddha Refuge. Thus it is that when a devotee reoites the formulas for seeking refuge in the Three Refuges he opens with the line seeking refuge in the bla-ma, thereby especially singling out the bla-ma refuge, whioh is in actual faot a part of the Buddha Refuge.
1 Phags-pa {&rya) or 'exalted being' means one who has reached the third of the five stages of progression. See ohapter fi.
1 BodhvtaUva is a being possessing the bodM-mind. See chapter 6.
Bla-ma
A bla-ma is a person who is versed and practised in the tütras and tantras. His spiritual practices may be carried out openly for all to see, or they may be practised in secrecy. A person who upholds and spreads the Buddha's teaching, ii only by an explanation of just one syllable of the Buddha's word, is a bla-ma — but with the important proviso that there must first be established a mutual acceptance of the teacher-pupil relationship, which means that the interested pupil must ask the teaoher for instruction and the teacher must agree to the request.
Tibetans in general when they hear this word bla-ma think primarily of sprul-sku, or incarnate human beings. This is incorrect. Among non-Tibetans the word bla-ma is commonly, and inoor-rectly, used to denote all Tibetan monks (grva-pa). It should however be clearly noted that not all bla-ma are monks, and by no means all monks are bla-ma. This misuse of the word probably originates from the fact that the teachers and writers of religious works with whom non-Tibetans originally came into contact were mostly either sprulsJcu or monk-bla-ma. In the strict sense of the word a bla-ma need be neither a sprul-sku nor a monk. Many famous Tibetan teachers have been laymen, among whom Mab-pa (1012—1099), Mi-la bas-pa (1040— 1123) and 'Bbom-ston-pa (1004 to 1064) are perhaps the best known. AD three were bla-ma but none of them were monks nor incarnate beings.
Although a majority of bla-ma are men, it should be noted that female bla-ma also exist. Some examples of the better-known female bla-ma, of both Indian and Tibetan origin, grouped under the collective name bNal-'byob-ma bco-lňa — the Fifteen YoqinV — include the following: Ni-gu-ma, Sü-kha
SEDDHX, Ma-GCIG OBTJB-PA'i BGYAL-MO, mKHa'-'OBO YB-Ô1S KTSHO-BGYAL, YüM BDAG-MED-MA, Ma-ocio
lab-sgbon (ca. 1099—1201) and Ma-gcig za-ma (1062—1146).
Another well-known Tibetan female bla-ma is to be found in the line of re-incarnations of the bSam-sdiň bDo-bjb phag-mo of bSam-sdiň monastery. This line of re-incarnations is traced to Šbl-dkab bDo-bjd mtsho-mo, wife of a famous Tibetan scholar, Bo-doň Phyogs-las bkabi-bgyal
1 Pralytkabuddha — see chapter 6.
* JŠrávaka — see chapter 5.
4 dPa'-bo mkha'-'gro —• see chapter 7.
*  Source no. 180.
1 Source no. 324 *A' page 3v 1.
(1375—14Ö1). Another illustrious female bla-ma was mKha'-spyod bdk-ldan dbax mo who was probably a contemporary o£ the tenth Dalai Lama, Tshtjl-khbims BOYA-MTSHo (1816—1837). She is said to have been born as a male child in ICan-gron in the provinoe of Kon-po in Tibet. At the age of twenty-five ehe had a dream in which she received the blessing of Ma-gcig lab-sobon and was transformed into a woman. The Bixty-ninth and seventy-second dOa'-ldan hhH-pa* — Khri-chen Byaň-chub ohos-'phul and Khri-chen 'Jam-dpal tshtjI/-khbims — were amongst her principal spiritual teachers. More recently there was the nun bla-ma, Šua-GSEB bje-btsito*, who lived to the age of a hundred and thirty, dying in 1Ô509.
It is not possible to categorise certain bla-ma as belonging exclusively to the siliras, or to the tantras, or to only one of the two Vehicles, Hinayäna and Makäy&na.
Of the seven sub-divisions of the Three Refuges bla-ma has been defined above. Rail sans-rgyas and nan-lhos will be defined in chapter five; byaň-chub seme-pa in chapter six; and yi-dam, dpa*-bo nucha'-'gro and chos-skyoňlsrun-ma in chapter seven.
Chaptbb5
Theg-dman1 [Hinayäna)
The ultimate aspiration of the path of Theg-dman {Hinayäna) or the Lesser Vehicle is more limited than that of the path of Theg-chen {Mahäyäna) or the Great Vehiole. Thtg-dman is the path by which an individual seeks liberation from sarnsära for himself alone.
The followers of Hinay&na are generally considered to be narrower in their outlook, because they are more limited in their intellectual capacity. Because of these differences in intellectual capacity the Šaxyamitni Buddha — like a mother instructing her children — outlined, in the smallest detail for the benefit of both lay people and monks, methods by which bad oonduot of body, speech or mind might be controlled. These rules of discipline are contained in the 'dtd-ba'i sde-mod {vinaya pitaJea) or the collection of disciplines. In these
1 dOa'-ldan khri-pa — "Enthroned One of dGa'idan monastery" — heed of the dQt-lug* sect,
• Refer  Rinohen Dohne Taring — Daughter of Tibet, London, 1970.
' Generel source» no«. 12,151,199, 200, 201, 231, 296, 299 and 300.
rules the eight categories of discipline and their vows, together with the manner of observing the vowB, how a broken or neglected vow can be atoned for, and the point at which a vow may be considered to be completely broken are set out. The collection of disciplines lays down which rules are to be observed, what conduot is permitted, and what prohibited. From a study of these scriptures it is dear that even during the Sakyamttni Buddha** lifetime these rules of discipline were frequently altered, revised or added to. These adaptations were necessitated by changes of place, time and circumstances. It is clear, then, that if the Buddha were alive today he would most certainly have made alterations and introduced new rules as a result of taking into consideration the inclination of his followers, and the changes of place, time and prevailing conditions. There is a Tibetan saying that "the 'duL-ba rules are dependent on time and place".
Of the eight categories of discipline mentioned above, the first three apply to the lay people and the other five to the monks. The very fact that vows for the lay people were laid down should dispel the mistaken idea among many non-Tibetans that the presence in Tibet, up to 1959," of suoh a vast number of monks means that it was necessary to become a monk in order to practise Buddhism. It is in fact not even necessary to take a lay vow in order to do so, and it is possible for any person regardless of caste or creed to practise Buddhism without taking a single vow. Similarly those who break or neglect a vow of discipline are in no way ostracised or excluded from practising the dharma. This is an example of the kind of freedom found in Buddhism.
However it is laudable for a person to take up and abide by a vow. This is because there is a certain amount of discipline involved in the process of observing a vow, and for this reason there is a stronger check exeroised on the person's conduct of body, speech and mind. Because the eight vows are progressively harder, the higher the vow chosen to be observed the greater the benefit.
Within Hinayäna are to be found: ftan-thos-kyi theg-pa {Šrävalcayäna) or the Vehiole of the Dis-
• It should be noted that throughout this book all reference« to Tibetan culture within Tibet refer to the period up to March 10th 1969 — the date of the Lhasa uprising against Chinese occupation« and the flight of the Dalai
1. The Stage of Accumulation (of merit end wisdom)
9
oiples, and Ban sans-rgyas-kyi th*g-pa [PratyeJca-buddhayäna) or the Vehicle of the Silent Buddhas*
The word nan-thos (ir&oaka) is derived from two roots — Han meaning 'to hear*, and Ihos meaning 'to make heard' (or 'to proclaim').* The Vehiole of the Disciples embraces all those devotees who have 'heard' the te&ohing of the Buddha from the Buddha himself or from other teachers of the dharma, and who, as a result of receiving this teaching, have reached their ultimate goal, that of Han-thos-kyi byaň-chub* (érävakabodhi) or the Enlightenment of the Vehicle of the Disciples, and then gone on to proclaim or 'mako heard' their knowledge to others, whether these others are followers of Hinayäna or Mahäyäna.
The meaning of the word raň sans-rgyae* (pratyeka-buddha) is literally a '&uddAa-by-oneself— and it covers all those followers of Hinayäna who attain the rank of dgra-bcom-pa (arhat) — 'one who has subdued his inner foes'7 — by their own efforts. What this means, in effect, is that in their final samsaric existence they do not require, or do not have to rely on, the teaching of another to gain the state of dgra-bcom-pa. They are able to achieve this state on the strength of their own past reservoir of merit, particularly on the strength of their own prayers and petitions.
Within rau sans-rgyas there are two types1 — the 'solitary' and the 'sociable':
1.   bse-ru tia-bu'i raň sans-rgyas (meaning 'the buAfta-by-oneself like the single-horned rhinoceros') who pursues his path of training in solitude;
2.   Uhogs-spyod rail sans-rgyas (meaning 'the 6ttddAa-by-oneself who is sociable'). Within this group are two further divisions.1 Firstly there are those who have reached the third [bzod-pa) of the four sub-divisions of the Stage of Preparation;19
1 Soureee not. 289 and 300.
* Sour«* no*. 46, 109 page 78 and 211.
*  ByaÝi-chub {bodhi) literally means one who is 'purified' and 'perfeoteď. This ia the quality attained by a buddha.
* Source no. 63.
1 The 'inner foes' referred to are the afflictions (see page 3). The dgra-beom^pa or arhat rank is the highest stage in Hinayina.
*  Sources not. 45, 53, 76, 199 page 82v6, 209, 211, 299 and 300.
* The names given to these two sub-divisionu «re: lahogs-spyod rah sahs-rgyas cht-ba (meaning literally, the rah oafui-rgyas who is sociable in a big way) and tshogs-spyod rah sahs-rgya» chuh-ba (meaning literally, the rah mths-rgyas who is sociable in a small w»y). In the sense given here the root 'tshogs' means 'crowd' or group of people, and the roots 'chc-ba' and 'chuh-ba' mean "big* and 'small'. There is an important additional meaning of these root« which it is not possible to translate by a single word or phrase in
and secondly all those between the last phase of the Stage of Preparation and just before the final Stage of No More Learning.
Because the main subject oonoentrated upon during meditation by the followers of the Vehicle of the Disciples differs from that oonoentrated upon by the followers of the Vehicle of the Silent Buddhas so does the thar-pa {moksafnirväna) — liberation from samsdra — which they gain at the end differ. So although at the end adherents of the two Vehicles are both said to have attained dgra-bcom-pa [arhat) there is a qualitative difference in the state of dgra-bcom-pa, because their views of 'emptiness' also differ.
Apart from this distinction, both these Vehicles have the Five Stages of spiritual progression, known by the following names: (See diagram DT)
1. tshogt-lam (sarnbhSramOrga)  — the Stag» of Accumula-
tion
2. sbyor-lam (prayoyamdrga) — the Stage of Preparation 3- mtkoh-lam {daréanamárga)    — the Stage of Seeing
4. sgom-Uxm (bhavan&m&rga)     — the Stage of Meditation 6. mi-tied-lam (asaiksam&rga)   — the Stage of No More
Learning
1. The Stage of Accumulation (of merit and wisdom)
The first stage is entered from the moment when a genuine resolve íb born within one to follow a path, be it the nan-thos or ran sans-rgyas path, to attain liberation from sarnsära. This resolve íb based on a complete understanding of the three types of sdug-bsnal [dufrkha)*1 — sufferings — found within sarnsära and the realization that these three sdug-bsnal inflict suffering on us ceaselessly. This is the
English. 'Tshogs' can also mean 'accumulation of merit end wisdom* and 'cAe-ba' and 'chuk-ba' then refer to the amount of effort exerted, so that tshogs-spyod rah sahs-rgyas che-ba ■> be who acquires merit and wisdom with more effort (because in the earlier stages); and Uhogt-rpyod rah tahs-rgyas cMfü-ba = be who acquires merit and wisdom with less effort (because in the latter stages). The point of the distinction here is that 'more effort' is required for the »«cumulation of merit end wisdom when the devotee is in the early stages of following the dharma; as the devotee makes spiritual progress 'less effort* ia required. A comparison here may help. When a householder wishes to make for himself a neat garden out of the untamed jungle, much effort is required to get the garden under control and free from weeds. But once the garden is under ocntrol, oompantively less effort is required to keep it free from weeds and in order. 10 See chapter 6, page 10.
stage when one starts to 'accumulate' merit and wisdom in great quantities. This stage has three sub-divisions, small (chun-ňv), medium ('brin), and large {chen-po) through which one must progress before the second stage begins.
2. The Stage of Preparation
(leading to the cognition of the view
of 'emptiness')
The second stage is entered when one gains 'an extraordinary wisdom which arises from meditation' {agcmubyun-gi áes-rab khyad-par-can). This is the 'union of abiding calm11 and penetrating insight'18 (H-lhag zuú-'brel-gyi tiú-úe-'dain) by which one is enabled to perceive 'emptiness' as the real nature of things. This stage is arrived at as a result of directing the mind and concentrating upon the Four Noble Truths and their sixteen sub-divisions.1* This concentration is carried out both by the nan-thm and the raň saňe-rgyas, eaoh according to his own conception of 'emptiness'. The Stage of Preparation has four sub-divisions which are known by the names of drod (heat), rist-mo (summit), bzod-pa (patient endurance), and chos-mchog (sublime dharma).
3. The Stage of Seeing (the 'emptiness')
The third stage is entered when one experiences directly for the first time the actual reality of the 'emptiness' or stoň-fíid (eünyatä) ab a result of having contemplated further the sixteen aspects of the Four Noble Truths. (As explained before, the experience of this 'emptiness' differs according to the type of meditation followed by a ňan-thos or a ran sans-rgyas).
11 These three sdug-beiuU (duhkha) are: (a) sdag-bsAai-gyi
sdug-hsňál (ďuhkha-diihlchatä) — the state of misery or
suffering which arises from physical or mental causes;
(b) 'gyur-bďi edug-bahal {vvparinämaäuKkhatä) — the state
of misery or suffering which arises from the impermanent
nature of things;  (o) hhyab-pa *du-byed-kyi «äug-bsňai
(tanuhSradvhkhatä) the state of misery or suffering which
arises from our dependence in being inescapably bound to
the cycle of rebirths.
u Tib. li-gnasy Skt. iamatha.
u Tib. Ihag-mihoA, Skt. vipaáyaná.
u Refer Dalai Lama, The Opening of the Wisdom-Eye,
Bangkok, 1968, page 123.
u Up till the realization of 'emptiness' meditation has been
of a relatively shallow nature, frequently interrupted by
a return to mundane affairs. Indeed no distinction during
In the moment of experiencing the reality of 'emptiness' one becomes equipped with the antidotes which will get rid of the one hundred and twelve afflictions belonging to the 'three worlds' (the world of the senses, the world of form, and the world of the formless) at their very root. This Stage of Seeing has sixteen sub-divisions which are known as des-bzod bcu-drug.u A person who has reached this Stage of Seeing is known as 'phags-pa (&rya) — or an 'exalted being'.
4. The Stage of Meditation (meditational development)
After the first experience of the 'emptiness* this realization is meditated upon again and again by the ňan-thos and ran sans-rgyas devotee — each according to his own type of meditation —until he reaches a level of meditation which enables him to start removing those of the afflictions which must be removed during this stage.1" This level of meditation is the first of the nine levels of meditation of which three are small [chuh-nu), three medium firwi), and three large [chen-po). These can be more readily understood if set out as follows:1'
Nine Levels of Meditation                  Nine Kinds of Afflio-
{agom-lam ěJcor-dgu)                      tions to be removed
(9gom*8pa* skor-dgu) (at the corresponding level of meditation)
small      — small	-V	í	■*- large	- large
small       —  medium	-+	2	•*~ large	— medium
small      — large	-*■	3	■*- large	— small
medium — small	-*-	4	-*- medium	— large
medium — medium	->•	5	■«- medium	— medium
medium — large	-*■	6	•*- medium	— small
large       — small	-*■	7	-«- small	— large
large       — medium	-*	8	■*- small	— medium
large       — large	->	9	■*- Bmall	— small
these early stages is recognised between meditation and normal life. With the realization of 'emptiness' the devotee reaches the rank of 'phags-^a (ärya) and from the beginning of this stage and onward*, meditation develops into a state of deep contemplation (called mííam-giag in Tibetan; samähita in Sanskrit) akin to trance. M An analogy here may help: after weeks of effort a person learning to ride a bicycle at last makes a break-through — he finds the skill has suddenly come and he exclaims excitedly "I can do it!" But this realization ia only the beginning. He can ride, it is true, but to become a really skilled cyclist requires repeated practice and training. So with the realization of 'emptiness'. r> The 'large' afflictions (large-large) are eliminated at the very first level of meditation (small-small). But the greatest effort (large-large) it needed to eliminate the last, lingering
Theg-ohen (Mahäyfina)
11
The ninth and final level of meditation is called rdo-rje Ua-bxt'i tin-ne-'dxin (vajropamasamádM) — or 'the meditation like the adamant diamond' — this state of deep calm is compared for its strength, stability and brilliance to the adamant, or hardest diamond.
5. The Stage of No More Learning
When the 'meditation like the adamant diamond' has removed those last remaining afflictions which are to be removed at the corresponding level one arrives at the final stage of No More Learning. Both tUxn-thos and raň earu-rgyas attain the state of dgra bcom-pa (arhat) {nan-thos dgra-bcom-pa and raň-rgyal dgra-bcom-pa respectively). This is the highest state in the Hinaydna tradition.
Chaptkb 6
Theg-chen* (Mahäyäna)
The ultimate aspiration of the path of Theg-chen (Mahäyäna) or the Great Vehiole is not the seeking of tranquility and happiness for oneself alone. Rather the chief motivation of a follower of Mahäyäna is the magnanimous desire to secure a permanent release from saqis&ra for all sentient beings and to set on the path to total enlightenment those beings who, while liberated from re-birth, are yet suspended in a state of static bliss. The seeking of Buddhahood for oneself is only the first part of a dual aspiration.
When every act of worship and prayer, every charitable deed, all receiving and practising of religious instruction, and all meditating on them are carried out with the intention outlined above, then that is practising Mahäyäna. If this intention is not present, none of our acts — no matter how good or
remnant of afuiotšoas (smaU-small) — at the ninth level. Again, in analogy will help: a very dirty garment yields up most of its dirt at the first, easy rinse; with each successive rinse the amount of dirt to be got rid of decreases, but increasing effort is required as only the obstinate «tains are left. To eliminate and wash out the most stubborn stain (small-small) of worldly illusion requires extreme and repeated application (large-large). 1 General sources nos. 12, 151, 189, 200, 201, 231, 206, 299 and 300.
meritorious — can be said to belong to the Mahäyäna practice: this is what the Buddha has specified.
Whereas the Hinaydna tradition is based solely on the sütra teachings of the Šíxyamuki Buddha Mahäyäna is based on both the siira and tantra teachings given by the Buddha. However, the final aim of a Mah&yanist, whether he be a follower of Sütrayäna*—the Vehicle of the Sutra —or a follower of Tantrayäna — the Vehiole of the Tantra —, is the attainment of total enlightenment. There is no qualitative difference between a buddha who has attained enlightenment by way of the aütra and a buddha who has attained enlightenment by way of the tantra. Nor does one Buddhahood rank above the other. The difference between them lies in the means by which the end is achieved. It is only the aspiration of the Hinaydna practice, that of seeking happiness for oneself alone, which the follower of Mahäyäna rejects. In all other respects Mahäyäna (whether Sütrayäna or Tantrayäna) has the same basio principles as outlined in the Hinaydna texts. For example renunciation (nes-'byun) and the reasoning behind this renunciation is common to both Mahäyäna and Hinaydna. Similarly such subjects for mediation as the 'twelve interdependent qualities which together combine to produce all phenomena',8 'the six qualities which go to make one learned',* 'the sixteen aspects of the Four Noble Troths',* 'the thirty seven virtuous qualities of a bodhisattva'* and so on, and the vows for the laity and the monkhood given in the 'dul-ba roles of discipline by the adherence to which one is prevented from ill conduct in body, speech and mind -— all these subjects and vows are given in the Hinaydna texts, and also form an essential part of the Mahäyäna practice.
Two reasons can be given which briefly explain the essential sameness of Mahäyäna and Hinaydna principles.
Firstly, the ultimate goal aspired to by a Mahayinist is the state of Buddhahood which is 'all-pure' and 'all-knowing*. On the way which
1 Sütrayäna (mDo'i thtg-pa) is also known by the names Pha-rol-tu phyin-pa'i theg-pa {Pônmiidyána} or the Vehicle of the Wisdom Gone Beyond (abbreviated form, Phar-phyin theg-pa) and rOyu'i theg-pa (Hetoiydna) or the Cause Vehicle.
* rtm-'brel yan-iag beu-gnU {See Plate 6 and chap. 8, footnote 2.)
* TjtUuu-bya'i dnoe-po-drvg.
* Wen-6ž» mi-ňagasoga bcu-img.
* byoA-phyopt-so-bdun (See liah&vyntpatti Index no: 953—1004 [exoept 971-975]).
leads to the achievement of this state all faults have to be removed and all knowledge acquired. The area to be covered is of such an all-embracing nature that those faults discarded by a Hmavanist must of necessity also be discarded by a Mahayan-ist. Similarly the knowledge acquired by a Hinayan-ist must be acquired by a Mahay&nist.
Secondly, a Mahayänist wishes to save all sentient beings. The way in which he will have to achieve this is, in the main, by teaching the dharma in order to liberate beings caught in sarßs&ra, and to remove the blissful satisfaction of those who have been liberated from sarnsära so that they will wish to make further spiritual progress towards achieving total enlightenment. To be in a position to teach others he must first of all gain the knowledge and experience himself. It is therefore a necessity for a Mahayänist to know all the various ways of the HlnayaniBt.
To the end of achieving enlightenment there existed in Tibet three main schools of Buddhist studies: béaďgrva (teaching school), rt&od-grva (debating sohool) and Bgntb-grva (putting-into-practioe school). In these three schools scriptures belonging to both Mahäyäna and Hinayäna were compulsory subjects to be studied. The subjects were tehad-ma {jpramäna), étt-rab-kyi pha-rol-tu phyin-pa (prajňä-päramüä), dbu-ma (mädhyamika), mnon-pa-indzod {abhidharmahofa), and 'dtd-ba [vinaya). Of these the first three belong to the Mahäyäna scriptures, though they also contain interpretations given from the Hinayäna point of view. The last two belong to the Hinayüna scriptures. The Mahäyäna and Hinayäna texts which were studied in these schools were translations of the original Indian works. There were also textual commentaries written by Tibetans on these subjects.
Of the three main schools mentioned béad-grva (teaching school) is the school where a spiritual teaoher instructs his pupils by explaining the words and meanings of the scriptures, taken from the hka'-'gyur and bstan-'gytir and other texts and commentaries. Through the explanations given by the teacher the pupils come to get a good understanding of the scriptural contents.
rTsod-grva (debating school) is the school which extends beyond simply learning the meanings of the words of the scriptures. Here the pupils on their own initiative engage in repeated exchanges of questions and answers with one another so that in the process they gain clarity in even the smallest of their problems. This result« in a complete under-
standing of the scriptures in all their depth and detail.
»Orvb-grva (putting-into-practioe school) is a hermitage type of school consisting of a number of persons who have joined together to concentrate and meditate in quiet on the knowledge which they have acquired from their spiritual teachers, or it may be a place to which one retires to carry out intensive contemplation and meditation on a particular selected subject.
The Mahäyäna path, like the Hinayäna path, íb divided into five stages. The order of progression of these five stages, their names and the sub-divisions found within them, are almost identioal to those already outlined in the ohapter on Hinayüna. It will therefore not be neoeasary to write about them in length. However, there are a few essential points of difference and these together with a general outline of the five stages are given briefly below.'
The fir b t stage (of Accumulation) of the Mahäyäna path is entered with the birth of the bodhi-mmd or byan-chub-kyi seme {bodhidUa). This is a combination of two feelings -— the feeling of byams-pa or 'loving regard' (the wish that all sentient beings should find a state of permanent happiness); and «JwV-ne or 'compassionate regard' (the wish that all sentient beings should find a permanent separation from suffering). When a person, for the purpose of bringing benefit to others in the form of universal enlightenment and liberation, resolves to take upon himself the task of accomplishing this by first seeking to achieve the rank of a buddha — there and then is born in him the bodhi-mmd. This selfless genuine and unoontrived aspiration (as un-oontrived as a mother's natural love and concern for the welfare of her children), with its dual aspiration of Buddhahood for oneself and Buddhahood for all sentient beings, constitutes the bodhi-mmd. A being possessing the bodhi-mmd is known as a byan-chub sems-pa (bodhisattva).
The &od&»'-mind may be possessed by celebrated persons such as oSíb-oliň-pa or Jo-bo-bji dpal-ldan A-ti-ba (Atisa DIpamkaba ŠbIjňäsa) but it may equally be possessed by any unknown person no matter how humble, wandering about in quiet anonymity. Thus in Tibetan religious art when one tries to determine whether a figure representation is a bodhitattva or not one cannot take euch distinguishing marks as those manifested by
T Source no. 45.
rGyud-kyi theg-pa (Tantrayina)
13
the famous Se-ba'i sbas-chsh-bboyad* (the Eight bodhiaattvaa who are always depicted as having Lavish silk garment« and wearing crowns of jewels and so on) as being the only criteria.
The fcodÄť-mind is the essential core of the Máh&yäna tradition. To enumerate all the qualities which accompany the birth of the fodAi-mind and tú name the many various classifications of the bodhi-ramd is not possible here.*
The second stage (of Preparation) is that which leads to the path of the 'phaga-pa (ärya). This stage is entered when one has succeeded in getting an initial, conceptual realization of the 'emptiness' which has been the focus oi one's concentration in the meditations. This 'emptiness' is the ultimate non-existence or 'no-self nature' inherent in all existence. This initial, conceptual realization arises out of the wisdom born of the two states of meditation — 'abiding calm' or íi-gnas (iamatha), and 'penetrating insight" or ihag-mthoň (vipaáyanä).
After this second stage the bodhisattva continues, as before, to meditate on the nature of emptiness. In the course of his meditation he comes finally to a direot, face-to-face realization of the real and ultimate 'emptiness'. This is the moment when he enters the third stage — the Stage of Seeing (the 'emptiness'). Such a bodhisattva achieves the rank of 'phags-pa (ärya). In addition, as taught in the Mahäyäna tradition, such a being gains simultaneously the first of the ten levels — rab-tu dga'-ba (the Joyous).10
After the bodhisattva has reached the last of the ten levels (referred to above) and has succeeded in carrying out the ninth and final meditation he enters a state of deep contemplations which is continuous and uninterrupted. During this fourth stage the last of the stains and defilements are
discarded and the wisdom obtained from the highest level of meditation sets one free. With this total liberation the devotee enters the fifth and last stage. A being entering this stage possesses the two bodies of a buddha — ehoa-sku [dharmokdya) and gzugs-aku (rupakäya) — (the 'truth body' and the 'form-body1) and is a fully enlightened buddha,
Ghaftxb.7
rGyud-kyi theg-pa1 [Tantray&na)
rQyud-kyi theg-pa (Tantraydna) — the Vehiole of the Tantra or the Tantrio Vehicle — is an integral part of the Mahäyäna tradition of Buddhism. It is also known as: aŇags-kyi theg-pa IgSalí-aňaga-kyi theg-pa (Maniraydna)1 or the Mantra Vehicle; rDo-rje theg-pa (Vajraydna) or the Diamond or Thunderbolt Vehiole; and 'Brat-bu'i theg-pa (Pha-laydna) or the Effect Vehiole.
The starting point for a person aspiring to study and practise Tantrayäna is the some set of basio principles as expounded in Binaydna and Mahäyäna — namely, 'renunoiation' and the byaň-chub-kyi seme (bodhidtta) attitude of mind. That is to say that the person desirous of following Tantrayäna, having initially recognised the unsatisfactory nature of all worldly existence, should have turned bis back on it and developed a spirit of total renunciation, In addition he must also have that compassionate state of mind (bodhicitta) which is no longer solely interested in its own selfish desires, but instead desires Buddhahood for the purpose of releasing all other sentient beings from sainaůra.
1 for a full list of these eight bodhuaitvas see chapter 14, note no. 20.
1 The aouroes where these can be found are: nos. 12, M, 70, 94, 90, 161, 199 page 84, 200-202, 204, 231. 296 and 300. u Sources no«. 44, 191 and 303. These ten levels are: "the joyous, the pure, the light-maker, the radiant, the invincible, the turning towards, the far-ranging, the unshakable, the bene!ioial, the cloud of Dharma" ... refer Dalai Lama, The Opening of the Wisdom-Eye, Bangkok, 1968, page 80. Pot the progression of these ten levels and the Five Main Stages oi Progression within Theg-chtn [Mahäyäna) see diagram IV.
1 General source* nos. 36, 39, 40, 80, 107a page 200, 107, 159, 200 and 296.
It should be noted here that while it is the correct Tibetan translation for Tantrayäna, rGyud-kyi theg-pa is a title never in praotioe used by Tibetans, who refer to It by the
alternative titles given here.
1 gBan-anagt-kyi tiuq-pa, means, literally, 'the secret-mantn-vehiole'. gSan-tüagt, and its abbreviated form tnags, is the one most oommonly used by Tibetans when speaking of the tantrat. The moaning of the word gtaA-anogt is as follows. gSah, means 'secret' and refers to keeping 'secret' the practioe of this unique system of teachings from those wbo have not been initiated into any one of the manfaia; and from those who, although initiated, have neglected the practioe and the observance of precepts, vows, and mice of oonduot. tŇags, translates the Sanskrit word maním (mana-tra). Mana means 'mind' and tra "protection or rescue'. The complete word in Sanskrit would imply that the mind of one who follows this path is 'rescued' or 'protected' from his mental stains and defilements... source no. 107a, Tibetan Tripitaka, vol.3, page 200, line 4. Additional souroe nos. 36 and 39.
Thus the aspirant should have cultivated, in part if not in full, these basic preliminaries as outlined in the systems of both Hinaydna and Mahäyäna and become folly oonversant with his subject. Only with such preparation is he a fitting candidate for the tantra practice. Then suoh a person, having already highly developed faculties of mind, should seek a fully qualified tantric master who wül initiate him into one of the dltyil-'khor {mandala) of the four classes of tantra (given below). After this the aspirant abides by the precepts, vows and rules of conduct which, at the oeremony of initiation, he has pledged to observe faithfully. The aspirant is then ready to receive instruction in meditation.
The meditations on iünyaiä, bodhicitta and the practice of the Six Perfections {phar-phyin-drug) • are the same in both Sütrayäna and Tantrayäna. However, in the tantric practice these are accomplished by the special method of meditation known &s lha'i rnal-'byor (devayoga) — identification of the individual's self with that of the ohoaen medita-tional deity in which, during meditation, the initiate concentrates on the physical characteristics of his chosen meditations! deity, that is the principal deity of the mandala into which he has been initiated. Each mandala has its own central medita-tional deity or yi-dam. In his meditation, the tan-trio initiate identifies himself totally with the yi-dam of his mandala. It is this method, designed to accelerate the aspirant's attainment of the full enlightenment of Buddhahood, which is known as Tantrayäna.
The actual attainment of the complete enlightenment of Buddhahood implies the realization within oneself of both the spiritual and physical characteristics of a buddha — namely, the 'truth body' {dharmakäya) and the 'form-body' {rúpakäya).
The essential practice leading to the dharmakäya is meditation on 'emptiness' or Btoň-ňid {éůnyatd). This means the elimination of all belief in the independence and self-existence of phenomena.
From the very moment that the aspirant's mind starts to meditate oeaselessly on éunyatä he is laying the foundation for the attainment of dharmakäya in the future.
As for the attainment of rüpakäya, this depends upon developing concentrated mindfulness, right from the very beginning of tantric meditation, on a
1 Phar-phyin-drug — the Six Perfections or Supreme Vir-toes are: tbyin-pa (charity), tshtd-hhrim» (morality), hzod-pa (petienoe), brUon-'gru« (assiduity), bwm-gtan (meditation) and átsrcb (wisdom).
buddha'a form as represented in the meditational deity.
The body of the particular deity meditated on, from the very moment that meditation starts, becomes the body — the 'form-body' — that the aspirant himself will achieve in the future — when the efforts and exercises of his meditation come to fruition.
In the main it is in the practice of attaining the 'form-body* of the two buddha bodies that the difference between Sütrayäna and Tantrayäna is to be found. It is because all the tantric practices have as their basis this unique and special method of identification-meditation that this vehicle of the tantra is more profound and swifter. It is up to the person wishing to practise tantra to choose any one of the many meditational deities enumerated in the four classes of tantra. The choice as to exactly which deity will be the object of meditation is determined solely by the person's own preference and inclination, that is his own karmio tendencies.
The body and mind, defiled by the forces of delusion and karma accumulated over many aeons of time, must be disciplined and purged of all stains. To attain this perfectly oleansed body of a buddha ; the tantric aspirant must begin to meditate on his \ own physical make-up and visualize it as the body t of a buddha. The vast and profound mechanism of the meditations by which he effects this transformation — a subject so vast that it defies mean-• ingful abbreviation — involves the proper activation and utilization of the complex psychic nerve system of the body. Since the energies latent in this complex system are so powerful, such tantric meditations are designed to be followed only by ; dedicated and qualified students under the aegis of a fully qualified bla-ma.
The following remarks will be sufficient to give some idea of what is involved in tantrio practice iteelf.
A unique feature of tantrio practice consists in visualizing the Four Total Purities [yofu-tu, dag-pa bii) — characteristics of the meditational deity — from the very beginning of the meditation practice. The Four Total Purities are:
1.  The Total Purity of Enmronmmt {gnas yoňs-su dag-pa). This consists of the visualization of the supra-sensory abode {mandala) of the meditational deity.
2.  The Total Purity of the Body {lus ytms-su dag-pa). This consists of the identification of the
rGvud-kyi theg-pa (Tantrayana)
15
body of the meditator with the pure body of his meditational deity.
3,  The Total Purity of Acceptance and Usage (Ums-spyod yoňs-su dag-pa). This consists of visualizing oneself with the ability to accept and use the objeote and praises offered to one devotionally.
4.  The Total Purity of Deeds [mdaad-pa yoňs-su dag-pa). This oonsists of visualizing onself producing manifestations of the meditational deity and also dissolving these manifestations. Such manifestations of oneself are produced in order to secure the well-being of all sentient beings, to guide them in the attaining of the supreme state of Buddhahood.
In order to habituate his mind to dwelling upon the chosen tantric deity, an initiated aspirant has an image of the deity placed before him. This serves as the object of his meditation. He then proceeds to make a mindful examination of all the characteristics of the image. After he has made sufficient progress in this, the objeot of meditation is withdrawn so that there is no longer any direct physical link between himself and the meditational deity. Hereafter, his meditation is purely a matter of visualization. By constructing a clear and comprehensive picture of the deity in his mind, the aspirant develops a sure and steady analytical and concentrated meditation. In time, the visualized image of the particular deity, in all its detaÜB, becomes perfectly clear to the meditator. This accomplishment is accompanied by a full realization of the 'emptiness' nature of the object itself: that it is not a self-created entity, but is dependent on things outside iteelf for its existence. When these two realizations of the convincing life-like clarity of the deity, and of the awareness of it« 'emptiness' nature appear simultaneously to the mind of the meditator, then he has developed the power of dissimulating awareness. Everything that he sees appears in the form of the deity; and everything he hears is the deity's mantra. Whatever he experiences will be as the words, deeds and thoughts of the deity. He is no longer deluded into thinking that phenomena have independent self-existence; rather, he understands the 'emptiness' nature of everything and is therefore in a position to work skilfully* for the liberation of all those sentient beingB still caught in the delusions of samsära. In this way, his mind-contmuum beoomes progres- \
* 'skilfully' is used in the context of Üüb book to mean 'in
*  manner calculated to produce liberation from samtära.
sivěly purified. His active delusions and then* in-stinctive propensities will be cut off at their very source and the meditator will finally attain the supreme status of Buddhahood.
In the tantric system, there are many different wrathful and peaceful deities. Whichever deity one chooses, be it in its fierce or peaceful aspect, it is chosen for the sole purpose of aiding the meditator to liberate all sentient beings from the misery of tuunsära and to attain the supreme enlightenment of Buddhahood.
The four classes of (antra* are: (i) bya-rgyud [kriyä tantra); (ii) apyod-rgyud (choryü tantra); (iii) rnal-'byor-rgyud [yoga tantra); and (iv) mať 'byor bla-med-rgyud [anuttara yoga tantra).
These tantric teachings were given by the ŠÄKYAMtTNi Buddha to meet the require menta of aspirants of varying degrees of mental and intellectual attainment. Of the four classes of tantra the last is the most profound.
The bya-rgyud [kriyä tantra) was taught to those of the Buddha?a disciples who laid more emphasis on the cultivation of external activities such as bodily cleanliness than on the activities of the inner world of the mind.
Followers of the Buddha who laid equal emphasis on the cultivation of both the inner and the outer activities belonged to the spyod-rgyud [eharyä tantra).
To those of his followers who considered the cultivation of inner activities as more important than external activities, the Buddha taught rnal-'byor-rgyud {yoga tantra).
The tantric teachings of the fourth, or 'supreme' class, were given to those followers who cherished the cultivation of inner activities above everything else. Because there is no inner activity higher than this, it is called mal-'byor bla-med-rgyud [anuttara yoga tantra), meaning the 'tantra of supreme inner activity*.
The stages of progression within these four tantric classes are similar to the five stages as outlined in the chapters on Theg-dman and Theg-chm. However, each of these stages has its own individual degrees of progression. An attempt has been made to familiarize the reader, to some extent, with these main stages and degrees of progression by means of four separate diagrams.* Names of sub-
» Sources nos. 36, 39, 40, 85,167, 159, 250 and 296. • See diagram* V, VI, VII and Vm.
divisions within the four tantrio classes are also given.7
At this point, some questions about tantrio prac-tioe may arise. Why is the system of tantra necessary when there are other paths designed to lead to the same goal 1 Why arejthe teachings of tanira .always trarxamittftd andLpraotised in sforec^? Many explanations have been advanced to answer these questions: what follows is a selection of them.
The answer to the first question can be found if we take the widely quoted and generally known four distmguiBhing features which differentiate the Tantrayäna from the other non-tantric paths. These are;
1.  the distinguishing feature of being clearly defined (ma-rmons-pa'i khyad-par)
2. the dMmguishing feature of having many methods (thabs num-ba'i khyad-par)
3. the distinguishing feature of being not-difficult (dka'-ba med-pa'i khyad-par)
4. the dktinguishing feature of demanding sharper intellectual powers (dban*po rno-ba'i khyad-par)
Firstly in both the Sütrayäna and Tantrayäna teachings the ŠiKYAMtrai Buddha has proclaimed that it is essential to practice the Six Perfections phar-phyin-drug {sat päramitS) required of a bodhiaattoa in order to achieve Buddhahood. In his Sütrayäna teaching the Buddha taught only the external actions by which the Six Perfections might be achieved, so the practice is difficult and the accomplishment of Buddhahood takes many aeons of time. In other words the path to enlightenment outlined by the non-tantric systems of Mahäyäna is very long; and it takes many lifetimes for the desired goal of Buddhahood to be reached. But in Tantrayäna the Buddha also taught the internal, meditational actions by which the followers of tantra automatically and simultaneously fulfil the practices of the Six Perfections. By this path the desired goal may be, and has been reached within one lifetime. Thus for a person who wishes to see all sentient beings liberated from their sufferings as soon as possible and who desires the attainment of Buddhahood to further such altruistic ends, the relative brevity of the tantrio system is of great benefit. The tantric way, though not easy, is distinguished by its clarity and sharpness.
f Readers interacted in more detailed information are advised to consult the various texts available on the subject. Refer source« no«. 39, 40, 85 and 260.
Secondly in the tantric teachings given by the ŠÄKYAMTTHI Buddha, he has taught a great variety of different techniques, all of which fall within the four olasses of the tantra, to suit every individual and it is for this reason that the tantric way is Baid to be distinguished by the faot of having many methods.
Thirdly in the tantric practice it is easier to get rid of the afflictions. This is because one makes ..'"use of the afflictions which one has to help get rid of the remaining affliotions, and thereby one succeeds in eradicating afflictions from the very roots without much difficulty, just as the insects born out of a tree devour and destroy the tree itself. The Buddha has taught many different practices according to the amount or the seriousness of the afflictions which the followers possess. This explains the distinction of not being difficult.
Fourthly, considered from every aspect, the methods to be practised within Tantrayäna are muoh wider and more demanding than those within Svirayäna — hence those who follow the tantric path to attain Buddahood more swiftly are required to be of sharper intellectual powers.
The reason why tantric teachings are kept secret from the uninitiated and from those with no genuine belief in them is that they involve greater faith and greater effort than most people are capable of: without these two, results may be disastrous for the uninitiated. Prolonged meditation on a chosen deity, strenuous repetition of tantric incantations, concentrated meditations on the concepts of 'emptiness' and non-duality, and the symbolic performance of various mudräs are required of the initiate.
The initiate who practises the tantric method correctly, conforming to all the prescribed regulations, will however achieve unparalleled benefits and will be able to attain Buddahood more speedily than followers of the other paths.
On the other hand if the tantric practice is not carried out properly both the teacher and the initiate accumulate demerit. A oomparison is made concerning those treading the tantric path to a snake put in a bamboo pole: there are only two ways open — the one leading upwards to Buddhahood, or the one leading downwards to birth in the lowest form of existence, as a hell-being.
At this point, while dealing with the reasons for the secret nature of tantric practices, the author would like to stress that tantra is not a spiritual set of exercises to be treated commercially; it is not a commodity for sale in the market; it is not for
Yi-dam
17
exploitation or for use as a means to gain worldly fame; nor is it to be used for personal advancement or as a means to earning one's bread.
Tantric teachings are not for casual reproduction as one might narrate a 6tory: they are intended only for the ears of those genuinely qualified to receive them. No matter how curious the student, if he lacks faith he is an 'unfit vessel*.
The writer when having to give explanations regarding the tantras is always confronted with the difficult problem of deoiding just how much one may safely and legitimately impart. Exactly where the line of secrecy should be drawn isdiff i cult to decide and depends on the spiritual state of the enquirer.
If the writer does not give some idea of the pro-founder aspects of Tantrayäna, the reader will not be able to achieve any understanding of the essence of this important branch of the Buddhas, teaching. Moreover, the writer feels that it is wrong that a number of recent interpretations of the tantra by various people whose knowledge is only superficial should go unchallenged. Some of these recent interpretations have been lengthy and the writer does not doubt the good intentions of their authors. Nevertheless, as a result of inadequate experience or understanding on the authors' parts many errors and misunderstandings are in danger of being accepted by Western students. Again, if the writer adopts a neutral stand the understanding of those genuinely interested in the practice or study of the tantras would suffer. These are arguments for speaking out that one cannot overlook.
On the other hand, to talk openly on a subject which enjoins great secrecy is to violate one's sacred vows and to make available material for the charlatan to exploit. Besides, Tantrayäna cannot be regarded in the same light as, say, history, i.e. as a subject to study but not to practice. With Tantrayäna, practice must go hand in hand with study and no further progress can be made in studying the subject unless one has also reached the required standard of practice.
On balance, the writer does not feel justified in going into any further detail on the subject.
Yi-dam
Bach of the four classes of tantra has its own system of psyeho-cosmic diagrams or dkyü-'khor
■ The mmyfala referred to here are of the visible type. There are &1bo categories of invisible manjala — suoh u those oonatructed in the mind of a person during meditation.
[mandala), consisting of one central deity and several other attendant deities. It is this principal deity of a mandala that is known as a yi-dam. A person practising tantra adopt« a particular yi-dam as the object of his meditation. The attendant subsidiary deities surrounding the principal one are different only so far as form and manifestation are concerned. In essence and nature, they are one and the same as the central deity.
While on the subject of tantra, the topic of mandala itself invites some discussion. A mandala is a diagrammatical representation of the mystical abode, or supra-sensory mansion, of a yi-dam deity. In other words, the real connotation implied in a mandala is that the variegated forms of supra-sensory mansion are simply a projection of the yi-dam deity and all the qualities associated with the yi-dam*B being. The mandala is just a symbol to help the meditator in the visualization of the supra-sensory abode of the yi-dam who is the object of his meditation.
Detailed explanations regarding the measurement, form and shape, oolour and so on, of a mandala are given in the special texts (thig-rtsa) of the respective yi-dam deities. Again, in each case, the meanings of the words have been condensed and put into shorter texts (múon-rtogs) in order to facilitate their recitation and committing to memory. These and the original texts are also elucidated in various commentaries.
Mandala» are of three types:* those drawn and painted on cloth (ras-bris-kyi dkyü-'khor) (See Plate 3); those made of coloured sands {rdvX-tshon-gyi dkyü-'khor) (See Plate 4); and those made of material structures (blos-bans-kyi dkyil-'khor) (See Plate 5) — such as wood or clay.
The making of a mandala is determined by factors of time and space. For instance, when there is inadequate space, instead of drawing the figures of the deities in full they are represented simply by symbols (tantric objects), or the single mantra syllables of a particular deity.1
There are countless numbers of yi-dam, but they can be broadly classified into three main types: peaceful (zi-ba), wrathful (khro-bo) and semi-peace-ful/wrathful {H-ma-khro).
A few examples of the better known peaceful yi-dam are: 'Jam-dfai^dbyaňs (MaAJtréBlaHO^A),
sPyAN-XLAS-GZIGS     (ATALOKITlBáVABA),     sGbüL-MA
(TI&Ä), Tshk-spaq-mxd (Amttäyus) and so on. • $» = bPyaw-bas-oziqs.
$1  = 'jAM-DFAL-DBYAfrS.
OŠIN-BJB-QŠKD    (YaMÄNTAKA),    PhUBPA    (KILA),
bTa-mgbin (HayagrIva) and Phyag-na bdo-bjb (Vajbapäíii) are examples of wrathful yi-dam. Among the semi-peaceful/wrathful yi-dam are oSak-ba 'dtts-pa (Guhyasamaja),      bDe-mchoo
(Ša^TVABA),   dGYES-BDOB   (HbVAJBA),   DTTS-'RHOR
(Kalaoaxba) and  rDo-bji phao-mo (Vajbava-
BAH!).
These yi-dam are portrayed in various forms: some have the normal features of one faoe, two arms and two legs, while others are multi-faced, multi-armed and multi-legged.
The different physical aspects and properties whioh go to make up a yi-dam's form symbolise the many diverse qualities of wisdom and omniscience of the buddha-mmd. It is for this reason that all yi-dam are regarded as belonging to the category of the Buddha Refuge.
Why is it that so many yi-dam of wrathful appearance have been given in the tantras ? Would not the peaceful variety have been sufficient 1 The answer lies in the fact that the essence of the Buddhist teachings lies in 'disciplining' or 'training* the mind of oneself as well as of others. The helpless sentient being, whose mind is in a state of affliction, resulting from delusion, is driven on helplessly into committing and amassing unskilful deeds. It is the state of affliction that is to blame for this and therefore this evü of delusion must be destroyed at its very roots. In order that the mind may grasp more readily the evil nature of this state of affliction it Í8 presented in concrete visual form.
Most beings are habituated to the idea of categorising other beings as their foes, friends, or mere acquaintances, and therefore they understand easily the feelings of hatred, love, or indifference which arise in relationship to each of them. So in the context of the tantra the state of affliction is regarded as one's enemy.
For instance this state of affliotion may be symbolised by the trampled prostrate figure under the feet of a deity. The viewer must understand that it is affliction that is being trampled underfoot, not a human being. In similar manner deities are portrayed wearing gruesome ornaments and bearing objects such as a severed head, a skull, shin-bone, human heart, intestines, blood and so on. The various offerings and surrounding decorations will also all be connected with wrathful activities. However these ornamente and decorations are not to be regarded as real in the sense that they have actually been taken from some human being who was killed specifically for this purpose. They merely
represent the supposed tangible existence of the personified enemy —- affliction; and the use of gruesome details of flesh, blood and so forth are only symbolic of the gruesome nature of the 'enemy'.
The attitude of a person practising tantric meditation should be one of regarding with compassion those afflicted with delusion; and one of wrath against this affliction. The Šäeyamuni Buddha expounded these tantric teachings using the wrathful forms to act as a means to arouse the devotee's aversion to affliotion — an aversion of such ferooity and violence as to act as a strong, speedy and totally effective means of destroying this evil. The terrifying appearance of a yi-dam therefore displays the wrath felt by the yi-dam towards affliction.
The tantric ceremonies are also performed with this same attitude of mind, namely of compassion towards those suffering from affliction; and wrath against the state of affliction itself. Such methods are amply described in the numerous commentaries on the tantra, and the rites and observances of tantric performances. By examining them, one will learn a great deal.
dPa'-bo mKh&'-'gro
dPa'-bo mkha'-'gro are beings who belong to both the world of form (human beings) and the world of the formless (deities, spirits). They possess tantric powers. The term dpa*-bo mkha'-'gro commonly implies those dpa'-bo mkha'-'gro of the 'twenty-four states of existence* (yul ňer-bíi'i dpaf-bo mkha'-'gro) who are depicted as the attendant deities of the yi-dam bDb-mohog (Šamvaba).
dPa'-bo implies the male (meaning literally 'hero'), and mkha'-'gro implies the female (literal meaning 'one who goes in the sky*).
In fact both words exist in male and female forms, as follows: dpa''bo (male), dpa'-mo (female), mkha'-'gro (male), and mkha'-'gro-ma (female).
dPa'-bo mkha'-'gro are of two kinds: 'jig-rten-pa'i dpa'-bo mkha'-'gro or Icu-kyi dpa'-bo mkha'-'gro — mundane, or 'karmic' dpa'-bo mkha'-'gro; and 'jig-rten-las 'das-pa'i dpa'-bo mkha'-'gro or ye-éts-pa'i dpa'-bo mkha'-'gro — transcendental or divine dpa'-bo mkha'-'gro.
Mundane or Tcarmic' dpa'-bo mkha'-'gro are further sub-divided into two kinds: those who have adopted the tantrio path and those who have not. The former have reached either the tantrio Stage of Accumulation or the tantrio Stage of Prepara-
Ghos-skyoů / Sruň-ma
19
tion. The latter are those who possess tantric powers by virtue of which they can, to some extent, benefit or harm other beings and can also perform limited miraculous feats such as flying through the air. Some of these are to be found in the class of yi-dvags such as éa-za mkha'-'gro-ma and phra-men-ma or gson-'dre-ma. Mundane dpa'-bo mkha'-'-gro however can under no oircumstanoes be taken as one's refuge or guide: they can only he called upon as a friend to help the individual in his spiritual practice.
Transcendental or divine dpa*-bo mkha'-'gro are exalted beings who have attained the Stage of Seeing of the tantrio path, or passed beyond it, and all possess the rank of 'phags-pa {äryá). The dpa'-bo mkha'-'gro mentioned in ohapter four are of this category and belong to the Samgha Befuge. Beoause they have attained the rank of 'phags-pa they are entitled to be taken as one's refuge or guide or spiritual protector.
Chos-skyon/ Srun-ma
Chos-skyoň or sruň-ma (dharmapäla) are upholders or protectors of the dharma. Like lha (deva) and 'áre — spirits — they belong to the world of formless beings. They are able to benefit or harm other beings and to perform miraculous feats. They were appointed by the Šákyamttni Buddha and other hory personages and have taken vows to champion the cause of the dharma, to uphold and protect it, and also to protect patrons of the dharma and guard them from internal and external misfortunes. Some of the best known chos-skyoňjsruň-ma are the Four Guardian Kings.
Chos-skyoňlsruň-ma, like dpa'-bo mícha'-'gro, are of two kinds: 'jig-rten-pa'i sruň-ma10 — mundane, or 'í&rmic' sruň-ma; and *jig-ritn-las 'das-pa'i sruň-ma or ye-ies-pa'i sruň-ma—transcendental or divine sruň-ma.
Mundane sruň-ma are deities subject to the operation of karma. Their real nature may belong to  the  transcendental realm but  they  manifest
u 'Jig-rten-pa'i srun-ma: When one gives a more detailed claemfication there «re aleo tome sruntna of this oategory known aa las-kyi srun-ma. It may, however, be worth-
themBelves as mundane sruň-ma in order to further their good offices. Mundane sruň-ma, like mundane dpa'-bo mkha'-'gro, may be subdivided into two kinds: those who have adopted the tantric path and those who have not.
In their previous births the mundane sruň-ma have been practising the tantrio teachings at random, without fully grasping or fulfilling the 'three essentials of the path' {lam-gyi gtso-bo rnam-gsum)— of renunciation, bodhi-miná and the perfection of the right view (éunyatä). This together with such immediate causes as the intensity of good or bad desires at the time of their death, created conditions whereby they were re-born as deities (Dia), rulers of a realm, demons (btsan), man-like demons (gnod-sbyin), evil spirits ('byuň-po) or powerful yi-dvags — all endowed with great tantrio powers for the performance of good or evil deeds. Because of these powers they have been appointed, under vowb, by the Buddha and various bla-ma to serve the cause of the dharma. This kind of sruň-ma cannot be taken as one's refuge or guide, but can be used as 'servants' for furthering one's religious practices.
Transcendental sruň-ma are exalted beings who have reached, or are already beyond, the Stage of Seeing and possess the rank of 'phags-pa (äWya). They are motivated by an intense, Belf-created desire to champion the cause of the dharma. This intense desire has caused them to assume the form of sruň-ma. It is these transcendental sruň-ma, who like the transcendental dpa'-bo mkha'-'gro, are inoluded in the Samgha Refuge, and are thereby entitled to be taken as one's refuge or guide or spiritual protector.
Chos-skyoňlsruň-ma assume various manifestations — peaoeful, wrathful •orSomi -peaceful/wrathful. Among the peaceful sHtn-ma the most well-known are TäBb-biň MCHBD-LNA and oYu-SGBOřr-MA. Amdng^the wrathful are mGon-po, Dam-can chob-boyÍx, dPal-ldan lha-mo and bGyal-po sku-uša; and well-known semi-peaceful/wrathful sruň-ma include Ma-qotq dpal-lha, rNam-thos-sras, Tshams-pa and Yab-lha Sam-po.
while noting here that unlike the las-kyi dpa'-bo mkha'-'gro whioh were identical with 'jig-rten-pa'i dpa'-bo mkha'-'gro, not all 'jig-rten-pa'i »run-ma can be called las-kyi sruň-ma.
SECTION II
Chaptbb8
Early Representations of the Buddha
Some writers hold the view that no image representations were made of the Buddha daring bis lifetime and that the first representations were made some centuries after his death. However, many Indian works translated into Tibetan state that portraits of the Buddha were made even during his lifetime. This difference of opinion can only perhaps be Bettled when a full comparison is made between the Tibetan translations on the subject of ioonography and such original Indian works as are still extant. Here the Tibetan viewpoint is given, based partly upon the old translations from Indian soripts whose contents are attributed to the spoken word of the Buddha, and partly on other learned treatises and commentaries of both Indian and Tibetan origin.1
Paintings of the Buddha Made During His Lifetime
The painted form of the Buddha seems to have preceded the statue-form. This painted form is said to have first been used during the reigns of king oZuas-oak 8ÍTŇ-FO (Bimbisära) of rGyal-po'i-khab, and U-TA Ya-Na of sGra-sgrog. Although the two kings
lived far away from each other and had never seen each other they became firm friends, and it became their custom to exchange presents. Once U-T-a ya-fa sent his friend a priceless ooat of mail. King oZuoa-oxK SŇIŇ-PO asked his ministers to summon experts to estimate the value of this present so that he might return the oompliment with a present of similar worth. They came to the conclusion that no present of equivalent value existed such sb the king might fittingly Bend in exchange to his friend. This knowledge filled the king with sadness.
Then a minister from Magadha, Bram-ze dByab-tshul, spoke to the king saying:
"There is no need to be so despondent! In this world the most precious of gems is a aahi-rgyaa (buddha). Have a picture painted of the Šíkyamukt Buddha on a cloth and send that as a present."
The king requested the Buddha for permission to do this and the Buddha agreed, and added:
"Have also painted below my picture the 'twelve interdependent qualities which together combine to produce all phenomena'9 and below that some words of religious advice (See Plate 6)."
Artists were accordingly assigned to do a painting of the Buddha. But when they looked on the Buddha they were filled with such blissful contentment that they were unable to reproduce his magnificence. The magnanimous Buddha thereupon went and sat by the side of a pool, and the painters were able to paint his picture from his reflection in the
1 Source« noa. 8, 37, 03, 71, 98, 99, 121, 203 page 42.6.7.,
287-290 and 298
1 These twelve interdependent qualities, rUtnSbrd yan-Iag
bcu-gňit, form a oyole, each quality producing its MootMor. Soaroes no«. 124a page 237.4.7, 124b vol. 128, 3S.4.S and 129 page 36r3. Thus:
Twelve Interdependent Qualities
1) Ma-rig-pa	Ignorance produoe«
2) 'Dulyid	Sense-Imprecsione, which produce
3) rNam-hs	Oonsoioameaa, which prodaoea
4) UiA-gatgt	Name and Form, which produces
Ö) iKye-nched	The Six Sena« Organs, which produoe«
6) Stg-pa	Contact, which produoe«
7) Tihor-ba	Peeling, which produces
8) 8r«d-pa	Desire, which produoe«
9) Lai-pa	Sensual Bnthralmont, which prodaoM
10) Srid-pa	Prooreative Urge, which produoe«
11) tKyt-ba	Birth, which produoe«
12) rOo-Ji	Old Age and Death
ud    Pictorial Representations
—       A blind person
—       A potter moulding a pot
—       A monkey looking oat of a window
—       A man rowing a boat
—       A prosperous-looking house
—       A man and woman embracing
—       An arrow piercing the eye
—       A man drinking
—       A monkey picking fruit
—       A pregnant woman
—       The birth of a child
—       A oorpse being carried to cremation
Paintings of the Buddha Made Boring His Lifetime
21
water.' Thus the picture came to be known by the name of Chu-lon-ma, meaning 'taken-from-the-water'. Below the figure of the Buddha, the symbolic representations of the twelve qualities were painted, together with words of injunction calling upon the beholder to lead a virtuous life. The 'painting was put in a golden cylindrical container which in turn was put inside a silver one, and these two were placed inside a container made of copper. This container was wrapped up in rich and costly material and was then loaded on to an elephant. A messenger was assigned to aocompany it. The messenger was given detailed instructions regarding the present in his charge and he, with a party of retainers, was sent off to king U-ta ya-na.
"When the messenger was two and a half dpag-tshad {yojana)* away from his destination king U-ta ya-na and a party of retainers came to receive the royal gift in all reverence. This was in accordance with the wish of king gZtjqs-can bSin-po, made known to king U-TA ya-na in a message preceding the arrival of the party bearing the king's gift. Then, when they had all come to an open space, the painting was unrolled. In this remote borderland no one had even heard the name of the Buddha. However, there were some traders nearby from the central provinces who knew of the Buddha and when they saw the picture they cried out:
"Obeisance to the BuddhaV*
When king U-ta ya-na heard the name 'Buddha* pronounced a tremor ran through him and he asked to be told all about the figure in the painting, and to have the symbols below it and the written message explained to him. The king's questions were answered by the messenger and the traders. The king was thereupon filled with great joy and gladness and had the painting conducted to the palace where he made extensive worship and prayers. As evening fell he dwelt upon the meaning of the twelve interdependent symbols. It was then that the king realized the nature of the transmigratory existence and the path which has to be followed to attain release from it. At the same time he attained the Stage of Seeing (mtihoň-lam). Then he sang a song in praise of the Buddha:6
• Sources nos. 8, 37, 63 page GOrl, 99, 101 page U.5, 121 page 180Ü.7, 287 and 298.
4 A measure of dJstanoe (one dpag-téhad = 7 km, 680 m).
* Source no. 121 page 180.2.7.
"Praise be to the Buddha who ii far away from
here! He has bestowed on me the Wisdom Eye and has
removed my ignorance 1 He possesses such power to heal I Obeisance to the most perfect of physicians 1"
For this gift king U-ta ya-na sent a letter to king gZugs-can 8&IK-FO expressing his heartfelt thanks, and he also made known his desire to meet a disciple of this Buddha. King gZugs-cak sňzň-po communicated this, request to the ŠÍMSÁMUBI Bud-dha who immediately despatched *Phags-paKÄ-TTÄ YA-NA (Ärya KäxyIyana) with an entourage of five hundred to the court of king U-ta ya-na. And thus the Buddha's teaching spread to the borderland of sGra-Bgrog where the king had five hundred temples built.
Another account* of the origin of the painted representation of the Buddha is traced to the time when the Buddha taught in Ser-skya (Kapila).
At that time there lived there a man called Meň-chkn of the Šäky a clan whose wife had a maidservant called Ro-hi-ta. One day, just when the Buddha was teaching, the maid-servant was told to go and fetch a neoklace. Her mind was filled with grief at having to leave the Buddha*b presence even for a short while and she thought sadly:
"Alas 11 shall miss the religious instruction being given. Such is the misfortune of being a maidservant."
It so happened that on her way to fetch the necklace she was attacked by a oow and killed. She was re-born in Siňga-la as the daughter of the king of that land. When traders from mŇan-yod (Šrävasti) went to Singa-la and there spoke about the Buddha the princess Mu-na 'jraBi-árJr/Mu-no-can,? by virtue of her previous good deeds and her past faith in the Buddha, experienced a re-awakening of that faith. She sent a message to the Buddha asking him for a representation of himself. The Buddha let the rays from his body shine on a cloth and artiste outlined his form ;• and this bodily representation, which came to be known as 'Od-zib-ma, meaning 'taken-from-the rays', was sent to the princess with a letter. Thus it is from about this
*  Sources nos. 98, 99, 101, 287 and 298.
*  Sources nos. 98, 99, 101, 289 and 298.
* Source no. 123 page 336v 1-340r 1 (Lhasa edition GA).
22
Chapter 8   Early Representations of the Buddha
period — within his own lifetime — that the practice of representing the Buddha pictorially on cloth came into widespread UBe.
Statues of the Buddha Mode During His Lifetime
The first statue representation of the Buddha ia traced* to the time when a householder by the name of Dad-sbytn invited the assembly of monks to a midday meal. Beoause the Buddha himself was not present it was felt that the gathering lacked splendour and so another householder by the name of mGon-mbd zaS-sbytn sought and received the Buddha's permission to make a statue oi him. The same householder had many statues made out of precious materials, in keeping with the specifications laid down by the Buddha.
Another account10 explains that on a certain occasion the Buddha went to a heavenly sphere to give religious instruction to his mother (who had been re-born there) and to the other divine beings residing there. In the Buddha's absence from earth the king of gSal-Idan" wishing to be reminded of the Buddha, wanted to erect a sandal-wood statue of him and asked the Buddha's disciple Mo'u 'gal-qyi Bu (Maudgalyayana) for help. Mo'u *oal-GYI bu exerted the wondrous magical powers which he possessed and transported the craftsmen, who were to work on the statue, to the heaven where the Buddha waB giving instruction. There they observed the exact shape and form oi the Buddha and returned to gSaJ-ldan where they erected a full-length statue in the Buddha's likeness. In front of the gisug-tor (upnifa) — the flame-shaped tuft or growth on the head of the Buddha — they placed a dazzling sun-stone. It is said that when the Buddha returned from the heaven of divine beings the sandal-wood statue took air steps forward to greet him. In fulfilment of a prophecy made by the Buddha on that occasion the' statne was subsequently taken to China. There it came to be known by the name of Tsan-dan-oyi jo-bo.11 (This form of the standing Buddha was later portrayed in embroidery work in the famous Zi'u-thaňu style.)
* 8ouroe* nos. 99, 101, 287 and 298.
» Sources nos. 8, 101, 287, 290 and 298.
u King U-f a ta-ma of iGra-igrog according to aonroes
noa. 63 »nd 290.
Yet another account1' traces the origin of the statue-form to the time when the Buddha was about to pass away from this world. In order to set his teaching on a more permanent basis and to subdue the other non-Buddhist teachings he asked that a statue be made of him. After he pronounced this command three rays of light shone forth from his mouth. These rays touched the three gods Tshams-pa (Brahma), Kkyab-'juo (Vigiju), and bbGya-byin (Karika) and they were drawn to the spot where the Buddha was. These three undertook to make representations of the 'three bodies' of the Buddha: the 'spiritual or truth body' — ehos-sku [dharmakäya), the 'enjoyment body' — loAs-shi {sarpbhogak&ya), and the 'created body or the body of magic transformation'—sjirul-sku (nimäiyakáya).
Tsuahs-pa had a magnifioient mchcd-rUn erected to represent the 'truth body' and this served as an object of worship for the mícha'-'gro-ma [důkini) in 0-diya-na (= O-rgyan).
Khyab-'juo took many jewels of the klu \n&ga) and made a statue called kNam-snaít oaíts-oan-MTSHO to represent the 'enjoyment body' of the Buddha and this was placed in the ocean to serve aa an objeot of worship for the klu [näga).
brGya-bytn took five kinds of earthly and celestial jewels, and glass jewels of five hundred and one varieties and had statues cast in the Buddha's image by Bi-ávA xab-ma. In all Bi-ávA KAR-MA made three statues of the Buddha, representing the Buddha at different ages. Following descriptions given by the Buddha's nursemaids, the first and second Btatues represented the Buddha as he was at the ages of eight and twelve; and the third one portrayed him at the mature age of twenty-five. Eaoh of these three statues represented the 'body of magio transformation'. The Buddha let the rays of his body shine on these statues and blessed and consecrated them. The largest of these Btatues bbQia-byik took to lHa-yul {a heavenly sphere). The other two smaller ones were taken in turn to lHa-yul, O-di ya-na, Klu-yul (a sphere inhabited by klu), and rDo-rje-gdan." It is said that during the reign of king Dbvapala the statue of the twelve year old Buddha was taken to China and the statue of the eight year old Buddha to Nepal.
u See Swat Chandra Das, Tibetan-English Dictionary,
Kyoto 1069, page 996.
u Other ipelU&gt of this word are: Si'u-OaA and Si-tha*.
»* Souroes no». 99 Port 1 page 68, 279 and 287.
u Bodh Qaya in modem Bihar.
The Rím of the Various Schools of Buddhist Art
23
The Statues oř the Buddha Portrayed As ait the Ages of Eight and Twelve
In the seventh oentnry A.D. the thirty-third Tibetan king, king Seoň-btsan soam-po, took as one of his consort« the Nepalese princesa Khbi-BT3UV, daughter of king 'Od-zxb go-cha (Am^o-varha), better known to Tibetans as Bal-bza' — meaning 'the Nepalese Consort". The prinoess when she came to Tibet brought with her the statue of the Ôakyamitni Buddha portrayed as he was when he was eight years old. This statue was kept in the temple Ra-sa 'phrui-anaň in Lhasa which Bal-bza' had specially built. This temple later became popularly known by the name of Jo-khaň. The image came to bear the name Jo-bo Mi-bskyod bdo-bjb.
King Sbxw-btsan soam-po also took as one of his consort« the Chinese prinoess Wüü-sik blow-jo (W*n-ch'skg Kttmo-cku), better known to the Tibetans as bGya-bza' (*the Chinese Consort'), daughter of the emperor Thah tha'i texts (Tai tstwo). She brought with her as part of her dowry the image of the Oakyamtoti Buddha, portrayed as he was at twelve years of age. This statue was enshrined in the Rva-mo-ohe temple in Lhasa which sQta-bza' had speoially built.
During the reign of king Maň-sboň maň-btsan, the grandson of Sboh-btsan soam-po, there was fear of a Chinese attack on Lhasa and because of this the statue which had been brought to Tibet by the Chinese consort of Sroň-btsan soam-po was taken for safekeeping from Rva-mo-che to Jo-khan where it was hidden, and walled up. A picture of 'Jam-dpal-dbyaňs (ifAŇJuáRlOHO^A) was painted over the entrance to the hidden spot to mark it. Later when the danger was over this image was taken ont of its hiding place and housed as the oentral statue in Jo-khaň while the statue of Jo-bo MJ-B9KYOD RDO-BJTt which had formerly occupied the oentral position in Jo-khaň, was transferred to Rva-mo-che. Thus an exchange in the position of these statues took place1* whioh remained tin-changed up to the reoent Chinese occupation of Tibet. The names by which the statue of the Šäktamtoi Buddha in Jo-khan (i.e. the one brought by the Chinese consort) came to be known are several: Jo-bo Rabtyamuki, Jo-bo Yid-bžzn nob-bu and Jo-bo Rrjr-PO-OKK.
u Souroo no. 20 page 28—34, M page 76,
" The appellation Jo-bo oame into being after Tsoft-KBA-?A
had both these «tatues crowned.
u Sources not. 37, 63, 99,101 page 101.22,102,287 and 298.
These two images of the Buddha in Jo-khan and Rva-mo-che were the two most venerated of all images in Tibet.17
Other Statues of the Buddha Made Shortly After His Death
About eighty years after the Buddha's death when 'Phags-pa Nbb-SBAS was the chief upholder of the Buddha's teaching there lived three Brahmin brothers in Magadha.u The eldest of the three, bGyal-ba, had a temple built in Var&nasl with a statue of the Buddha inside made of precious stones. He also composed verses in praise of the Buddha. After his conversion he took the name
mThO-BTSüJ» OBTTB-BJE.1*
The second brother, Lkos-bgyal, had a temple built in Ka-len ta-ka a spot in 'Od-ma'i-tahal (a grove in rGyal-po'i-khab) and for it a statue was made of earth brought from 'the eight holy pilgrimage places'.
The youngest of the brothers, named bDi-bybh bdaq-po (= kGyal-ba) had a mchod-rten built in rDo-rje-gdan which housed a small temple within. The mchod-rten was built next to the 'bodhi' tree under whioh the Buddha gained his total enlightenment. Inside its temple was a statue of the Buddha as he was at the age of thirty-five, made out of the finest sandalwood and pulverised jewels. The sandalwood used was that whioh grew on the banks of the river Ganga at a bathing spot frequented by the Buddha. The eyes were made of precious stone. The statue came to be known as the Mahä Bodhi. In time numerous patrons had many statues made to fill this temple in rDo-rje-gdan, of which the most celebrated were 'the Eight' (statues) whioh included  the  famous  one  known  as   'Jam-dpal
RŠA-SOBA (MaÄJTJSBI DTnTDT7BHISVABA).
The religious king Aóoka (Mya-ňan-mxd) in the course of his reign had various beautiful adornments made to the mchod-rten in rDo-rje-gdan among whioh the most famous are the beautiful railings of the innermost of the three ambulatories. King AáoBLA also built mchod-rten in 'the eight holy pilgrimage plaoes'. Later Indian workmanship» although incomparable in its way, could not match the magnificence of these early works.
u However, source no. 101 page 101.25, contradict*  the assumption that bOyal-ba is tie same person as mTho-
BT8T75* OXVB-BJB.
24
ChApter 9   The Function of Religious Statu« and Paintings
The Rise of the Various Schools of Buddhist Art
Among the best of these later works were the statues made by the sculptor Boibisara who lived in Magadha during the reign of king Saäs-boyas-fhyogs. This craftsman took as the model for hia statues the 'Od-zib-ma ('taken-from-the-rays')10 representation of the Buddha, and from his work originates the Central school of Buddhist art in India.
During the reign of king Naň-tshttl there lived in Ma-ru the artist Phbxit-'dzih (SragdhabÁ). It is he who originated the Old Western school of Buddhist art in India.
During the reigns of the kings Dxvafäla and dPal-lda» chos-skyoň there lived two master craftsmen, father and son, in Wa-ren-dra. They were Dhi-uak-da u and his son Bft-pa-lo. Later the son went to Bhan-ga-la and resided there. From the father and son originated the Eastern school of Buddhist art in India. The statues made by the Eastern school oame to be known by the name of ŠaT-gyilha (gods of the East); and they also took the 'Od-zeb-ka ('taken-from-the-rays') as their model.0 The father and son were also responsible for establishing the Eastern style in painting although later the son inclined more towards the Central style.
The Central, Old Western, and Eastern schools were the three main schools of art in India at that time.
The earlier Nepalese works are similar in style to the Old Western school but later they appear to be influenced by tbe Eastern school, Much later still the art form in Nepal followed no Bet school but became a complete mixture.*1
Kha-ohe (Kashmir) at first followed both the Central and Old Western schools, but later the Kha-che artist Hasuraja started a new style of art which came to be known by the name of Kha-ehe-ma.u
In Pukkam and south India the art of statue-making found wide expression. The schools of art followed there are said to be of a three completely different kinds.14 The founders of these schools of art were bGyal-ba, oZaN-las bgyal-ba, and hNam-pab royal-ha, and together they are known as the Southern school [Iho-ma). Little is known
10 Source« no«. 98 and 298.
" Dbi-hak-da aooording to louroe no. 287 and Dbj-xa-va
socording to 101170» nos. 37 and 101 page 213.26,
" SouroM nos. 98 page 18 r 7, and 298.
** SouroM no*. 37 and 287.
u Sources nos. 37 and 287.
about them in Tibet however since their influence does not appear to have reached that far.
Chapter 0
The Function of Religious Statues and Paintings
According to Tibetans all branches of learning fall into five major divisions. These are: arts and crafts (bzo rig-pa); medicine (gso-ba rig-pa); Sanskrit grammar (sgra rig-pa); logic {tshad-ma rig-pa); and philosophy [nail-don rig-pa). In addition there are five minor divisions of learning which are included within the major divisions.1 These are: astrology (akar-rtsis); composition (sdeb-sbyor); prosody (snan-ňag); the study of words (ntňon-brjod); * and drama, dance and music (zlos-gar). So in total there are ten branches of learning.
In the branch of arts and crafts (bzo rig-pa) three distinctions are made depending on whether the creative process involves the functioning of the body, speech, or mind.1 Within the first category fall the making of icons such as those representing a buddha or a bodhisattva (byaú-chub sems-dpa'); the making of other sacred objects such as mchod-rten (cailya/stüpa); the writing of works of a religious nature; and the making of all kinds of articles for daily use. In the second category are included the reading and expounding of the religious texts, and all other sounds such as song, melody, and tonal rhythmic incantation. The third category embraces the mind's pursuit of all learning and knowledge, without limitation, religious or other wise.
Of the works which are said to originate from the physical body the highest kinds are considered to be the making of religious images whether in statue or painting form. These works fall into three divisions depending on which of the 'three buddha bodies' they represent. Ghoe-sku (dharmakdya) — the 'spiritual or teeth-hodx' — is represented in works such as dkyü-'lchor (mandala), 'khor-lo (cobra), mehod-rttn (cailya/stüpa), and satsatsha — miniature olay images. Loňs-sku (sambhogaJcäya) — the 'enjoyment body' —is represented in those images of d ivine being b who have hair knots, silk garments and ornaments,  including head ornaments. sPrulsku
■* SouroM nos. 101 and 287.
1 SouroM no». 99 Part 8 page 865, 244, 287, 288.
1 See  Sarat Chandra Dat, Tibetan-Kngliih Dictionary,
Kyoto, Japan, 1969, page 363.
1 Sources no«. IS, 16, 98 page 18r7, 226, 244, 297 and 298
page 204 v7.
The Function of Religions Statues and Paintings
25
[n\rmä%ak&ya) — the 'created body* or the 'body of magic transformation' — is represented in images of unadorned divine figures suoh as the ŠIxxaxvbi Buddha wearing the plain monk's robea. These religious images are considered the highest kinds of works because of the use they serve to worshippers, who by looking upon the figures represented and reflecting upon their gracious qualities may thereby be led to meritorious achievement. As a result of such virtuous thoughts as these, religious zeal is born in the devotee. Theae religious objects are symbolio representations to which reverence and worship is paid, whereby the worshipper gains merit. It is therefore only fitting, and indeed of the greatest importance, that these objects of worship should be made accurately in accordance with the dimensions and measurements laid down.4 If these measurements are not complied with then the merit earned by the maker of the object may be outweighed by the demerits he accumulates for his faulty workmanship. Moreover an ill-proportioned or badly-ezeouted work has the effect of inviting irreverent thought« and remarks from beholders, and thus demerit will be earned by these people also. A badly-executed work inspires no faith or devotional zeal in the worshipper, and as a result no blessing is acquired, for the blessing is commensurate with the devotion of the worshipper. It is only when a deep understanding of the Buddha's teaching is gained that one appreciates more clearly the real meaning of these symbolic representations. Then one's regard for them is increased; then one oomes to distinguish dearly the uses served by a work of religious content, as distinct from a mere plaything or, for instance, a carving representing a monkey such as one might find decorating a table. All religious works of art are collectively referred to as 'aku-gauň thugt-rten'. The Tibetan word 'rten' means literally 'support' but in it* religious oon-notation it has no exact equivalent in English. 'rTen' in the religious sense means an aid to memory, an aide memoire or reminder of the real thing which the object stands for (henoe a 'support'). For example all religious statues portraying a buddha, deity or holy being belong to 'eku-rien' (physical reminders); all religious written works belong to 'gauň-rien' (verbal reminders); and all objects directly related to religious practice, such as mchod-rUn, mandola and attributes, belong to 'thugs-rien' (spiritual reminders).
' Sources nos. 6, 8, 37, 108, 109, 112, 128, 161, 180, 183, 198, 206, 207, 244-248 and 310.
There exists the practice of having certain religious images for apeoifio purposes. For example, a person who wishes to commission a work for use in his own religious practice can make his own choice Írom the whole range of deities. Of course particular rolea are fulfilled by certain deities. Thus a devotee may turn to a particular deity when making a request for a long life in order to be able to praotlse religion. Or an image of the sGbol-VKXR (SitatIsI), or the White TLrI, may be commissioned by a person who seeks to remove impediments which hinder his' practice of religion. There are also Btatuea or portraits which are executed after a person has died: 'Od-dpao-mid (Amttäbha), or the Buddha of Unmeasured Splendour/Boundless Light, is one of the deities oom-monly portrayed on suoh oocaaions. The name given to these works, executed after a person's death, is ekyes-rtagt. The roles that these deities play for certain specific oocasions and purpose« are outlined in the mdo (aütra) and rgyud (tantra) scriptures. However, it should be borne in mind that there is no hard and fast rule whioh r ©striata the portrayal of a certain deity for just one single, apeoifio purpose. Certain deities who are not referred to in the scriptures for a particular case may be used equally appropriately and a deity quoted for one role may be employed for other purpose as well. The result is that the patron has a very wide choice at his disposal; and of oourae the original purpose in mind also varies greatly. For this reason it is sometimes difficult to say with any certainty what the original role of a particular work was intended to be.
In pain tings,, apart from the details directly connected with the figures portrayed, there is also the background Bcenery adorning it to be considered. ThJB inoludes the landscape, animate and inanimate object«, and heavenly objecto suoh as the sun, moon and stars, all of whioh contribute to make the painting pleasing to behold. However some of these details are not mere adornments but have underlying significance, being symbolio representations of the spiritual achievements of the bla-tna (guru) or \ha (dem) portrayed. These symbolic illustration» of abstract qualities, whether they be symbolised by trees or flowers or anything else, should be viewed in their entirety and explanations should not be looked for in every line and stroke as that is not in keeping with the artist's intention. There exist« no written work which enumerates the significance of such details. The understanding and ability to interpret the great variety of symbolio representations will come only after one has made
a thorough study of the religion. Those people therefore who readily give a host of plausible interpretations and explanations of what they feel their listeners want to hear are often only laying down self-conoooted generalities which mis-represent the true religion and culture. The writer himself lacks the temerity to attempt such facile interpretations.
If one compares the work of two artisto on an identioal subjeot the dimensions and measurements should tally. In other respects however there is a free choice in the extent to whioh adornments such as symbolic ornaments, clothes and other surrounding details are used by the artist. Such differences as one may find in two works on the same subject are purely personal embellishments by the artist and have no religious significance.
Some representations have for their subject more than one personage and these may be portrayed either in one composite work or in a set of works. The rules pertaining to such works vary, but for convenience they are divided into three categories. In the first category are included such works as 'khrvAs-rabs* brgyud-rim (See Plate 7)' and tshogs UA (See Plate 8)7 whioh portray a host of figures for whom there exiata a definite prescribed order, laid down in the sacred texts, which determines the number and arrangement of the figures. In the second category are deities fulfilling a similar role — say, for long life — which may be grouped together. But the majority of these group portrayals, whether portrayed in a set or in a composite group, belong to the third category which is determined solely by the ahoioe of the pereon commissioning them. It will be obvious then that one cannot say with any certainty why a certain group of figures should be grouped together when no absolutely hard and fast rules exist.
In reoent years there appears to have been a growing interest in the West in meditation; at least
* 'Khnňs-Tobs; refers to works where the subjeot matter traces th» historic» 1 line of sucoession of incarnate beings, ».g. the line of descent of the Dalai T Aman or Pao-chen Rmpochas (known also asPanohen Luna to non-Tibetans) or other incarnations.
1 brOyud-nm: refers to works where the subject matter traoes the line of spiritual teachers through whom • teaching has been transmitted, These teachers need not follow one another but a number may exist at the same time, as contemporaries. The line of continuity here is not one of incarnations but simply of handing on a particular doctrine.
the word 'meditation' has come into increasingly widespread use. Beoause of this the role that images play in the practice of meditation has also come to be investigated. But simply to take an image and to say immediately precisely what connection it has to meditation is extremely difficult. If meditation is to be sincerely practised it is customary, and essential, first of all to train the mind. In order to do this, small stones, bits of sticks or an image may be employed on which one concentrates and focuses the mind. Where possible an image such as that of the Buddha should be employed. The devotee then concentrates clearly on every detail of the form, retaining the picture of the object in his mind. In this way a dual purpose is served. In the first plaoe, by suoh concentration the devotee trains the mind and prepares it for the practice of meditation proper; and in the second place, the mere act of having looked upon a holy image is itself a means whereby merit may be earned.8 As pointed out above, images are made for a variety of purposes and not solely for use in meditation.
It is only after one has succeeded in training the mind that one can seriously start to meditate in order to advanoe along the path leading to enlightenment. By the time this stage has been reached it is pointless to concentrate on the physical image in front of one. Instead, the concentration has to be on the projected image seen in the mind, for the realm of tiň-ňe-'dzin (samädhi) is not accessible through the physical organs of perception. The main endeavour on the way to enlightenment is the practice of dpyadsgom (examination, investigation) into stoň-pa-ňid [éúnyatá), and 'jog-sgom (reflection upon the knowledge so gained). The meditation upon a real or imagined image forms only a part of the meditation. If one wan to to have a full and accurate understanding of the practice of meditation in Buddhism, this can only
7 Tšhogs-tiň: refers to works whose subject matter is similar to ryyud-rim exoept that UKogé-iih embraces • host of additional refuge-givers. (See chapter i on th» Additional Kinds of Refuges.)
It might be appropriate at Ulis juncture to point out that this word in Ute past has often been misinterpreted by some writers, who hare translated it as 'assembly tree'. The U& in teaopi-řiii is spelt with a i and not with i, which is Ute spelling for a tree. The literal meaning of Wkogt-Hh is 'merit sphere or object'. The figures represented bestow merit and wisdom upon those who make prayers and offerings to them. 1 Sources nos. 12 and 146.
The Professional Artist and Hú Preparation                                                27
be achieved by making a study of the sutou, tan-tras, and other learned commentaries, and by taking instrnotion personally from an experienced spiritual teacher. The question of such meditation is far too complex to be dealt with here.
Chapter 10 The Professional Artist and His Preparation
Before commencing on a particularly important work, be it a statue or painting, oertain religious rites may be performed.1 The ceremony consists of reading from the scriptures, making offerings and distributing alms to the poor. A bla-ma bestows blessings on the place where the work is to be carried out, and on the materials and tools to be used for the work. The artist or craftsman carrying out the work is also blessed by the bla-ma. This is done after the bla-ma has entered a state of meditation in which he invokes a divine being — usually the deity ' Jam-dpal-dbyaňs (MAŇJtréBloHO^A) god of Wisdom — to enter into the human maker of the image.
If the subject of the work is a yi-dam — a medi-tational deity, or a srun-ma — a guardian deity, it is especially necessary that the maker of the image be an initiate of the tantric class to which that deity belongs. If he is not already an initiate then he receives the consecration necessary to initiate him into the appropriate mandala of the particular deity whioh he is about to portray. Once an artist has received initiation into one of the four tantric classes1 he does not require further initiation before embarking on a work of any yi-dam and srun-ma belonging to that olass. If however the subject of a new work is a deity belonging to a class different from the one into whioh he has already been initiated the artist must receive an initiation into the appropriate olass.
In addition to this a rite known as rjes-gnaň is performed by a bla-ma before the making of representations of yi-dam and srun-ma. During this ceremony of rjes-gnaň, meaning 'permission given', the artist receives the bla-ma'z blessings whioh enable him to recite and meditate on the mantras of the yi-dam or srun-ma on which he is about to start work.
In the case of oertain yi-dam and srun-ma the artist has also to spend a period of tame in medi-tational retreat.
A harmonious relationship between the artist and the person commissioning the work is also considered conducive to the success of the work. Also there should not be any feelings of discord between the artist and the patron's bla-ma and the subject of the work about to be undertaken.
The place of work should be in quiet surroundings and except for those persons directly connected with and helpful to the artist's work, suoh as the patron, bla-mas, and physicians, curious visitors should be barred.
The direction in whioh the artist faces whilst carrying out his work is another consideration. This depends on the subject of his work. East is the favoured direction faced when making portrayals of 'peaceful' deities and persons; south for those deities appealed to for 'increasing' merit, long life, prosperity etc; west for some tantric deities; and north for the 'fierce' or 'wrathful' deities. If for reasons of lighting the favoured position is not advisable then the artist sits for a short while racing in the auspicious direction before taking up a more convenient position.
Depending on the subject of his work certain personal restrictions may be placed on the artist during the period of his work, such as abstinence from meat, alcohol, onion, and garlio; and strict personal oleanliness may be enforced. These restrictions always apply during the making of representations of any of the deities belonging to the first tantric class — bya-rgyud (kriyä tantra). Details of these restrictions are prescribed in the text concerning the particular deity.
There also exists the praotioe of adding small amounts of certain ingredients to the material to be used in making the portrayal, for example earth and water collected from sacred pilgrimage spots; reKos of holy bla-ma; powdered bit« of gold, silver, turquoise, coral and pearl; sweet-smelling medicinal herbs, powdered saffron flowers and so on.
For certain deities special ingredients are recommended in the texts and, if available, these special ingredients should also be added. If the statues are made of clay these ingredients are either mixed with the clay or added to the paint. In the case of metal statues the ingredients are made into
1 8ouroea no». 15, 10. 161, 180, 206, 207 and 245.
1 Refer ohapter 7, page 15.
28
Chapter 10   The Professional Artist and Hie Preparation
a liquid which is then usually painted on the inside of the statue. In paintings these ingredients are either applied direct on to the surface to be painted or added to the paints; or they may be mixed with the ink or vermilion used for the writings at the back of a thaA-ga,
Worn garments of bla-mas may also be used for painting on though this is rare. More often the oloth to be painted on is kept for a short period in close proximity to a holy person before being prepared for painting on.
The maker of an image does not necessarily have to be a monk: there are both lay and cleric artists. A traditional concept of a person engaged in making some religious work and the qualities ideally required of him are outlined in a certain text.8 In this it is said that the ideal artist should be free of fault« and shortcomings such as an inadequate knowledge of his work; should be free of conceit or arrogance; should not be un-cooperative or difficult to live with; should be free from the desire to be flattered or shown respeot by others; should be free of rudeness; free of acquisitiveness; should not be demanding in his fees or in the quality of food and drink provided for him; should be free of dishonesty (i.e. not given to stealing from his work materials); should not be slothful or given to making excuses readily; should not be fond of wine and women. The positive good qualities which he should possess are: modesty; devotion to his religion; middle-age; soundness in all his senses; diligence and conscientiousness in his work; good temper; a freedom from back-biting and a kindly disposition.
Here it might be appropriate to say a few words about the profession of the religious artist.
The profession of the artist was most often dictated by his being born into a family of painters (Iha-bris-pa) or image-makers {lha-bzo), though there were, of course, also those who turned to this profession as a result of their own interest and talent. Many years of apprenticeship were spent working and learning under a master. In painting the final test was said to come when an apprentice had perfected his skill in drawing. the eyes and mastered the art required in the delicate application of outlines and drawings in gold paint.
Li the Tibet of old the makers of images were always kept busy with works commissioned from them. The artists worked either in their own homes
or else got board, and sometimes lodging, and a fee for doing the work at a monastery or in a private household.
When new temples or shrines were added to monasteries, statues and thaň-ga would be required for them. Donations from rich patrons requesting that certain statues or thaň-ga be made and housed in a monastery were another source of work for the artists. There were many occasions which might result in the commissioning of a new work whether by the lay or monk population. For example statues or thaň-ga might be commissioned as part of the prayers and ceremonies for the recovery of someone ill or for a newly deceased person (See Plate 42).* Other occasions were to ward off ill influences at certain ages, say at the ages of thirteen, twenty-five, thirty-seven, forty-nine etc. The most general reason for the making of new works was to create objects of worship in order to accumulate merit. ^The commissioning of a work was an act of worship
itself and between the completed work and the
tron there existed a very close personal link. Sometimes after a person's death religious works of art belonging to him might be offered to a bla-ma or to a monastery. This might be the wish of the deceased or the request of a close relative. Or such a presentation might take place during the lifetime of the person. People in Tibet never treated these religious works as mere antique pieces. The I quality and significance of a work was more important than its antiquity. It was quite often the practice to 're-do' or 'touch-up' old statues so that they might be kept in good condition. There existed no shops where one could buy thaň-ga and religious statues and even today it is considered morally reprehensible and disrespectful to the deity involved to make money out of the buying or selling of religious works of art.
The few Tibetan artists who left Tibet in 1959 and who are now living in India have to contend with very different circumstances. Although some of them continue to carry out works of religious art for patrons, naturally enough a Tibetan population of refugees cannot be compared as a souroe of patronage with the original population of their own country, who lived at a different tempo, and with other values than those which prevail outside Tibet. Some of these artists are now compelled to seek a livelihood by painting thaň-ga and making statues in order to sell to tourists.
Souroe no. 70.
* The name given to these Utter work» ia tkyu-rtag*. Refer alio chapter 0.
Dimension« and Symbolic Adornment« of Statu« and Painting»
29
Chapter 11
Dimensions and Symbolic Adornments of Statues and Paintings1
There are eight sets of thig-khaň? whioh are the measurements and dimensions for all images, whether portrayed standing or seated, whether peaceful or wrathful. These measurements cover the whole figure.
1. In this category are those figures shown seated in an erect position such as the portrayals of the Šäkyamtjni Buddha wearing monk's robes;8 and bGyal-ba bigs-lna (the Five Jina) wearing jowelled ornaments.
The set of dimensions for this category is given in the tantrio text Dus-*khor-gyi rgyud (KtUacakra-tantra).
2.  In this category are those ii-ma-khro or semi-pe&ceful/wratbiul deities such as the yi-dam bDjc-mohoo (Šamvaba), dGybs-bjdob (Hbvajba), and Dus-xhob (Kälagakba) who wear bone ornaments.
The set of dimensions for this category is given in the tantric text bDe-mchog sdom-'byuň-gi rgyud.
3. In this category are the figures of those yi-dam with a thousand hands and multiple heads such as some statues of sPyan-bas-gzigs (Avaloktte-svara) and gDugs-dxar. (Sttatapatra).
The set of dimensions for this category is given in the tantrio text dPal gdan-bii'i rgyud [Sri-catur plthatantra).
4.  This category includes various other yi-dam, shown either seated or standing, suoh as bDo-bjb phag-mo (VajbaväbähI) and sGrol-ma (Tará).
The set of dimensions for this category is also given in the dPal gdan-Mi'i rgyud tantric texts.
5. This category inoludes in general the wrathful yi-dam and srwi^ma deities. They are the ones who are heavily built and have thick arms and legs, and are short in stature with large bellies. They are powerful-looking. Phyag-na bdo-bjb (Vajbapä$i) with one head, two hands and two legs is an example in this category. Other examples with more than one head, two arms and two legs are bTa-mgbin (HayagrXva) and Phub-pa (KIla). An example with multiple heads, arms and legs, is 'Jigs-bytcd ; while dPaj>ldan lha-mo is shown riding. All these yi-dam or srun-ma wear not only the bone ornaments but also ornaments of snakes, intestines, garlands of severed heads etc. These
1 Bource« nos 81,98 page 29 v 1,108,109128,161, 180 page 187, 198, 206, 207, 232, 312 and 316.
ornamente are called 'chol-ba'i-rgyan, meaning literally 'inappropriate ornaments'.
The set of dimensions for this category is given in the tantric text gŠin-rje-géed dmar-nag-gi rgyud.
All these five sets of dimensions were given by the Šäxyamvni Buddha himself in his tantric teaching.
6.  In this category are stunted figures such as mGon-po-qttb and klu {näga) figures whioh have the lower half of the body in serpent form.
7.  In this category are iian-thos {Srävaká), raií saňs-rgyas (Pratyehabuddha) and ordinary mortals.
The sets of dimensions in these two categories were derived from the statues and paintings whioh were first taken from India to Tibet.
8.  This category deals exclusively with tiie various postures, and gives dimensions where appropriate. The postures are as follows:
rĽo-rje'i skyü-kruft: this is the cross-legged posture in which the soles of the feet are turned upwards.
Padma'i shyH-knm: this is the lotus posture in which the right foot is tucked under the body while the left foot rests on the right calf. It is slightly looser than the rdo-rje'i skyu-bruu, but the knees are kept flat on the ground.
Sems-pa'i skyil-kruň: in this posture the left foot is tucked under while the right foot rests on the left thigh.
dPä'-bo'i 'dug-staňs: in this posture the left leg is in the crossed position but the right knee is drawn upright and close to the body.
dPa'-mo'i 'dug-staiis: this posture is similar to the last but the ball of the right foot is placed on the left thigh.
bZaň-jw'i 'dug-staňs: in this posture the body is seated in the western fashion with the two legs slightly apart.
gYas-rol: in this posture the left leg is crossed while the right leg is flexed loosely in such a way that the inside calf touches the left foot.
gYon-rol: this posture is the reverse position of the last.
bDe-géegs-can: in this posture the two legs are sharply bent in suoh a way that the soles of the feet touoh one another completely while both knees are kept on the ground.
rTiň-dum: this is a posture in which the knees are flexed akimbo with the heels touching and toes pointing in opposite directions.
1 Source« noe. 81 and 244. * Source no. C2.
mŇam-pďi rkan-stabs: this posture is a standing posture with the heels and feet together, as if 'at attention'.
rOyai-po rol-pa'i-stabs: this íb a seated posture in which both legs are loosely drawn up in a pose of relaxation.
The set of dimensions used in this eighth category is derived from the measurements used by the Nepalese artists such as the oelebrated artist Ratna
BAK$TTA.
The Tibetan artist sMan-thaň-pa and those following his school of art have another system of eight sets of dimensions; while the sOar-bris1 and Btt-ston have a system with eleven sets of dimensions. The contents in all cases are the same as above although in the latter case they are presented in more divisions (See Plate II).
Portrayals in statuary and painting of beings above the rank of 'phags-pa (ärya) are distinguished by the presence of some, or all, of the following symbols: the dbu'i 'oďkor — the circle of light round the head (halo or nimbus); the shu'i 'od-zer — the rays of light emanating from the body; the ni-zla padma'i gdan — the seat covers of the sun, the moon and lotus flowers; and the khri rgyab-yol— the throne and backrest.
dBu'i 'od-kor: the halo or nimbus is a neat circle round the head taking as its centre the point at the top of the forehead, in between the eyes, and re-presents radiating rays. The diameter of the halo is two cubit« (khru) — i.e. twice the length of the forearm from the elbow to the closed fist of the personage represented. The colour of the halo is usually green or light red (See Plate 12).
However, there are two classes of beings above the rank of 'phags-pa (ärya) who are never portrayed with the halo — the very wrathful yi-dam or mecütational deities (all of whom are above the rank of 'phags-pa); and the very wrathful ye-ées-pa'i sruň-mal'jig-rten-las 'das-pa'i sŕvň-ma*
sKu'i 'od-zer: The rays of light round the body are enclosed within an oval circumference, the top part of which touches, or very nearly touches, the top of the halo. The lower part of the oval merges into the lotus seat. The background colour of this body halo is dark blue. On it are drawn fine curved lines in either gold or yellow paint which represent
4 ■Gar-bria: a school of Tibetan Fainting. See Chapter 14, page 37.
* The group of guardian deities known collectively as ye-ées-pa'i eruArmafjig-rtm-lat 'das-pa'i srun-ma are the
the rays of light emanating from the body (See Plate 12).
At the edges of the head halo and the body halo there are sometimes elaborate curling patterns called nor~'dzin pa-tra interspersed with the jewel nor-bu. Sometimes the nor-*dzin pa-tra design is on its own; sometimes on its outside there is either a single or a double band of rainbows; sometimes there is a Bingle or a double band of rainbows on the inside; and sometimes there is both an inside and an outside band of rainbows. Then again there are caseB when the nor-'dzin pa-tra pattern is absent altogether and there may be just a rainbow border. In some cases there is only an orange border. At its simplest level there may be no border at all round the halo or the rays of light round the body. In all cases, whatever the decoration or absence of decoration, the original size laid down for the haloes must be adhered to. ThuB, if any of the above elaborations are present they must come within the size originally laid down and must not be added on to it (See Plate 12).
In the oase of the semi-wrathful aspects of yi-dam and ye-ées-pa'i sruň-maj'jig-rten-las ''das-pa''i sruA-ma the rays of light round the body do not have a border of nor-'dzin pa-tra but in its stead there is a ring of fieroe flames (See Plate 18) or gusts of wind (See Plate 14), or sometimes both flames and wind together (See Plate 15). Details concerning each of the deities are given in the texts and must be complied with.
Images may generally be found seated on the triple seat covers of the sun, the moon and lotus flowers (ňi-zla padma'i gdan) or on the cushion Cbol-gdan).
The triple seat covers have an uppermost layer of gold (representing the sun); a middle layer of white (representing the moon); and a bottom layer of lotus flowers, which can be in all colours.
The cushion often has on top of it a red coverlet with a silk border called stan-dmar (See Plate 9); and sometimes over this the monk's rug or carpet called gdvhrba (See Plate 10) in red or maroon. However, unlike the triple seat covers of the sun, moon and lotus flowers, and the cushion, the two top covers (stan-dmar and gdiň-ba) can be used by even those who have not reached the 'phags-pa (ärya) stage.
highest-ranking sruň-ma or guardian deitiea and are all above the rank of 'phags-pa and ao technically entitled to the halo. (Refer chapter 7.)
Dimensions and Symbolic Adornments oi Statues and Paintings
31
As a rule the peaceful aspects of deities have only the moon seat cover. If the sun seat cover is also present it is below that of the moon. Similarly, the wrathful aspects of deities usually have only the sun seat cover. If the moon seat cover is also present it is below that of the sun. These variations are given in detail in the special texts belonging to a particular deity.
The seat oover of lotus flowers comes below the seat covers of the sun and moon.
As a rule in portrayals of Ma-ma and those sruň-ma who are above the rank of 'phags-pa the sun, moon and lotus seat covers are not to be found. There are however exceptions to this rule — for example in portrayals of Slob-dpon che»-po Padma-
SAMBHAVA, Jo-BO-BJB DPAL-LDAN AtIÓA and TSOŇ-
KHA-PA all of whom have the three seat oovers.
Most portrayals of bla-ma show them seated on either one or two cushions {'bol-gdan) together with the red rug (stan-dmar) and the monk's rag {gdin-ba)* A portrayal of one'B own special Ha-ma to whom one wants to pay extra respect has a seat of three cushions {'boLgdan) and on top of this the usual stan-dmar and gdin-ba. Because these por-trayals do not have the lotus seat they do not also have the rays of light surrounding the body, since the two always go together. Instead there is & backrest similar in shape to the oval circumference enclosing the rayB of light. In rare cases the backrest may be square in shape. The oolour of the backrest is dark blue, and on it are outline drawings in gold of flowerB, cloud formations, waterscapes, rock shapes etc. which give the backrest the appearance of brocade silk. Draped over this backrest is a long flowing silk scarf (kha-btags) which has its ends hanging over the sides of the backrest (See Plate 16).
If the portrayal is on a more elaborate scale then there is, in addition, a throne below the triple seat covers or cushion, complete with backrest of varying elaboration.
The most elaborate thrones may have up to twenty-one or twenty-two stages.7 A description of a throne which is fairly elaborate and often seen is as follows. The height of the lowest stage, called ategs-bu meaning 'base support' or 'stand', dictates the height of the throne. Above this stegs-bu is a flight of three steps called them-sbas. The height of each step is a third of the stegs-bu. Next comes the main part of the throne support known as gdati-
chtn which measures in height twice the stegs-bu. On top of this is another stage, *ruň-ma, which is wider than the gdoň-cken and in height equals a third of the stega-bu. Above this is the pad~chwň which is of the same height as the trutň-mn but Blightry wider. On top of this is the part called ba-gam which is two-thirds the height of the stega-bu.
The faces of all these stages of the throne are decorated with lotus flowers, pa-tra designs and nor-bu. In front of the throne is represented a narrow silk drape, called khri-hhtba, which oovers the central portion of the throne. The lions which generally support the throne appear at the edges, of the gdoň-chen. If, instead of the lions, elephant« or peacocks support the throne they are found in the same place (See Plate 12).
The ornate backrest of the throne, where present, has six varieties of ornaments. Outside of the halo and the rays of light surrounding the body is a decorative surround, in the centre of which is a (i) bya-kkyuň (garuda) — a mythological eagle-like bird — holding outstretched in its hands a serpent, which it is also clasping with its beak. On either side of the bya-khyuň come in pairs (ii) Idu gdene-ka-can (näga) — water-spirits (with a human-like upper half and a serpent-like lower half) with multiple hoods behind the head; (iii) chu-arin (makara) — a crooodile-like sea monster with oriss-cross ornamental patterns on its body; (iv) mdzea-pa'i bu-chuti, — fine-looking youths, wearing leaves of trees as garments; (v) ri-dvaga aa-ral-can — large unicorn-like animals having a mane of flesh and only one horn; and (vi) glaň-po-che rgyan-ldan — an elephant adorned with ornaments and holding a vase in its trunk (See Plate 12).
The spaces in between these six ornaments are heavily decorated with nor-bu. Other decorations which fill the surround are rainbows, cloud formations, flowers etc. A throne with the six varieties of ornaments is known as Jchri drug-'gyoga meaning a 'throne of six supports', or hhri rgyan-drug meaning 'throne with six varieties of ornamente'. The exact size of these ornaments and the spaces in between them, depending on the stee of the central figure, are clearly laid down in tiie religious texts.'
The triple seat oovers, the type of throne itself, and the ornaments of the baokrest symbolise the spiritual qualities possessed by the figure seated on
• Source no. 62.
7 Source« nos. 78 and 81.
Source no 81.
32
Chapter 12   Sacred Contents and the Ceremony of Consecration
the throne.* Aooordingly the three main essences of the Buddhist path which are: the byaii-chub-hyi sems (bodhicitta), eíoň-ňid (éunyat&), and úes-'byuii — renunciation of worldly things — are symbolised by the moon seat cover, the sun seat cover and the lotus seat respectively.
The lions supporting the throne symbolise mi-'jigs-pa b& (catväri vaiáäradyäni) — the Four Fearlessnesses.10
The six varieties of ornaments on the baokrest represent phar-phyin-drug (sat päramUä) — the Six Perfections (of one who has 'gone to the farther shore*).
In image portrayals, be it in painting or statue work, the Thirty-five Buddha« of Confession used during a special ceremony when prayers of repentance are offered for general sins committed, have thrones supported with white elephants, instead of lions. The elephant symbolises 'strength* and it is hoped that we may likewise be/endowed with strength to rid ourselves of defilements. The colour white symbolises purity.
Representations of Tshe-dpag-med (Amitíytjs) made to ensure a long life have peacock supports. The peacock symbolises long life because it is not destroyed by poison.
The 'bol-gdan, the cushion, which is a type of seat commonly used by Tibetans, also has a significance. It serves to remind na that the figure on the throne, whether he be alive or dead, is a homely figure always present amongst all sentient beings with the magnanimous desire to help them all.
Craptbb12
Sacred Contents and the Ceremony of Consecration1
When a work of religious art has been completed a ceremony of consecration called rab-gnas is performed in which religious articles or writings are
' Sources nos. 81 and 161.
M The Four Fearlessnesses are: "confidence of being perfectly enlightened as to all dharma«; of knowledge that all impurities are destroyed for him; of having described precisely and correctly the obstructive conditions (to religious life); of the correctness of his way of salvation for realization of all (religions) success" — Franklin Edgerton,
permanently associated with the new work of art in order to make it a focus of spiritual blessings.
In the case of a statue the inside is not left empty but is rilled with holy articles — gzuňs-giug. gZuns-giug is normally composed of some of the following artioles: ckos-aku'i riň-bsrel (sacred writings); sku-bol-gyi riň-bsrel (physical relics of holy men); ywhs-bru Ua-btľi rvn-bsrel* (meaning "relics which are like grains of mustard seeds"). The Bacred writings are mostly mantras taken from the holy texts and there are many passages which are specifically prescribed as being appropriate for lodging in different parta of a statue. Sacred writings for lodging in the head are known as dbu-gzuns, for lodging in the neok as mgrin-gzuús, for lodging in the breast as thugs-gzuns, and for lodging in the lotus base as pad-gzuňs. The physical relics of departed holy men may consist of such things as their nails, teeth, hair and so on, or some personal item which belonged to the holy man such as a piece of clothing or some other article that has been in close contact with the holy person during his life. Bone relics or the embalmed bodies of holy men are also sometimes used. Holy images, scriptures and mchod-rten are also commonly placed inside large statues. Which of these particular fiUing8 is used depends entirely on what is- appropriate and available. Certain medioinal plants or other articles considered to possess purifying effect« — such as the dried and powdered form of the saffron flower or pieces of the juniper tree (whioh is traditionally used as a form of incense) — may also be used.
However these contents cannot just be placed inside the statue in a haphazard fashion. A special ceremony — gzuns-'bid-gyi cho-ga — in accordance with the religious rites and rituals laid down in the holy texts, must be performed and it is during this consecration ceremony that the gzuňs-gíug should be lodged in the appropriate plaoe. In the case of larger statues a stick, preferably of sandalwood and of about the same size as the statue, is usually inserted in the centre of the statue at the same time, along with the sacred contents. The stick is oalled srog-éin (literally "life-stick").
Buddhist  Hybrid  Sanskrit   Grammar  and Dictionary,
Delhi, 1070, page 612.
1 General sources nos. 85,66 page 83,67,160,161,236,236,
239-242, 268. 259, 263, 266, 269-288, 311.
■ These hard particles, off-white in colour, are to be found
in the burnt ashes of certain holy men and also on statues.
The name by which they are more commonly known is
'phel-gduň or rin-btrel.
Some General Pointe about Buddhiam
33
For those statues which have a base, such as the lotas cushion Beat, there is a cover, called žabs-bhag or fabs-siom, which is made to fit the bottom of the statue exactly. In the case of clay statues this bottom cover is usually made of wood, though it can also be made of gold, silver, bronze or brass. After the cover has been firmly secured to the base of the statue two "crossed" rdo-rje or vajra (rdo-rje rgya-gram) are usually engraved on the outside surface. Secure sealing ensures that no outside agent, such as insects, rodents and the like, oan get at or damage the contents and also serves to keep the inside water-tight. Statues without a lotus oushion seat have openings in the back. The covers and sealing process are similar to those already described.
Unless there is a genuine necessity to repair the statues — as a result of some natural catastrophe for instance, or accidental serious damage — these sacred contents should not be tampered with. When such a replacement of the old sacred contents with new ones does become necessary it too is performed in strict conformity to the rites and rituals laid down for this purpose.
Where masks and sacred paintings, euoh as than-ga, are concerned — objects which have no 'inaides' to hold religious articles — sacred writings are inscribed on the inner surface or reverse side of the work of art. The three syllables om-afyMun generally appear, together with syllabic combinations for the names of various deities, and speoial invocations or prayers making a speoial request or simply offering praise. The practice of taking the hand-print (or finger-prints where there is not enough space) and personal seals of holy teachers is also widely observed.
When all is completed and prepared the consecration ceremony (rab-gnas) is performed. During rab-gnas the grace and wisdom of the particular deity represented is invoked to the end that it will be infused into the work of art and the prayers being uttered in such a way that this grace, now transferred to the work of art, will continue to exert its benign influence. The consecration ceremony is not reserved exclusively for performance on the completion of a new work but oan be repeated thereafter as often as desired.
This ceremony of consecration may be on a simple or elaborate scale. It is carried out in accordance
* Borne of the best known of these texte «re: sources nos. 105,126, 103, 174, 229, 262—257, 260-262, 264, 266, 268, 308 and 309.
with the rites laid down and is a combination of meditation, incantation, and the recitation of prescribed mantras, together with the appropriate gestures and movements and the use of tile correct ritual objeots.
The detaile outlined above for filling statues with sacred contents and the consecration ceremony that accompanies it are not the choice of the persons performing the ceremony but are in accordance with the Buddha's injunctions as contained in the Buddhist texts and commentaries of holy Indian sages.'
Up to the present day the line of this ritualistic tradition remains alive and unbroken.
CHAPTB&13
Religious Worship and Offerings — mchoďpa1
The word mchod-ja can mean either the worship and reverence paid to a sacred objeot, or the actual items used to please the sacred object.
Items deemed suitable for offering may include any beautiful thing; sounds pleasant to hear; things pleasant to smell or taste; clothes which are light and soft to wear; and valuable ornament«. For certain religious ceremonies the Buddha has specified certain articles which are an essential part of the ritual. Apart from these, any other wholesome articles can also be used as offerings depending on their availability according to the season and the country where the offering is made. Thus the types of offerings which were made in India tallied with a particular district and its customs. The Tibetan's traditional love of elaborate ceremonies was responsible for the making of oHerings on a grand scale. One sees this love oi the elaborate even in Tibetan painting where the objects used as offerings — such as nor-bu (jewel/gem), flowers, fruits and so on — are included as marks of reverence and worship. For the same reason the brocade mountings surrounding the than-ga, as well as the clothes for statues, are made of the finest material. Similarly the scripture books are wrapped neatly in pieces of cotton, silk or brocade cloth. Worship and reverence may also be paid by having the gilded parts of statues renewed or touched up.
1 General sources »oe. 10,63 page 175 v6. 63a page263.1.7, 63b page 276.2.1, 170, 177 page 166.5.1, 198 page 142.4.2, 199—202, 204, 231, 305 and 310.
34
Chapter 13   Religione Worship and Offering? - m chod-pa.
mCKod-rten. standing ont-of^doors are also constantly maintained in. good condition, for the same reason.
The traditional Tibetan offering is the gtor-ma (meaning literally 'that which is strewn or scattered'). gTor-ma come in a variety of shapes and different colours (white, red and yellow)* and may be offered in large or small quantities (See Plates 17 and 18). gTor-ma are made from the ground, barley jaowder -whioh is the staple food of Tibetans. If the gtor-ma dough were offered just as it ia they would be an unattractive sight and so the practice of presenting them in pleasing shapes and decorating them with coloured motifs and butter grew up. There are even books on the subject of preparing these offerings whioh define and illustrate various set shapes appropriate for different occasions. Actual classes demonstrating the preparing of these elaborate gtor-ma used to be conducted. Additional merit could be earned by the offerer through, the making of the dough more pleasing both in shape and colour.
In the early times holy and learned Indians used bread as the main part of their offering. The reason for this is that bread constituted one of their staple foods. Even to this day the word bread ('rotT) is used in the general sense of 'food' even in areas where rice is now the staple diet.
These offerings are accompanied by the recitation of prayers which are chanted in various tones and depths and accompanied by the beating of drums, clashing of cymbals and the blowing of long trumpets {duú-chen), conch shells and an oboe-like wind instrument called rgya-gUň.
Incense sticks, f! o were and the burning of lamps are offered just as is the usual practice in most religious worship. The offering of clean water was a widely practised form of worship and reverence in Tibet.* Jo-bo-bji DPaJL-LDANATiéA praised the water of Tibet as possessing eight good qualities and remarked that the offering of this alone would be sufficient. He said:
"Oool and good to taste;
Refreshing and smooth;
Clear and sweet of omoll;
Harming neither the throat nor the stomach when drunk —
Suoh are the eight qualities of the water of Tibet".
So when an offering of water is made merit is earned for each of the eight good qualities enumer-
' Souroaa nos. 40a page 247,0,7,  184a page 79.8.1  and 188a page 167.2.2. • Source no. 305.
ated. The easy availability of water also ensures that the person making the offering will not acquire demerit through begrudging the cost of his offering. Offerings of water may be presented in containers {mchoďtm) made of gold, silver, brass, bronze or glass — or indeed any material. A poor person may even use his drinking cup after oleaning it. There is no fixed shape for the container — whatever is pleasing ia best — but the container should if possible be larger than one's own cup.5 There is no fixed number of water-offerings that have to be made, but multiples of five, seven, ten and a hundred are most commonly used.
Manda]
The word maii4oí is derived from the Sanskrit word ma^daia and can be applied to a variety of different objects: here we speak of the mayrfal offering.6 This is a symbolic offering of the spheres of the universe and is a widely practised form of offering. The significance of this offering rests on the belief held by Buddhist« that the spheres of the universe are the product of la» (karma) — actions of all sentient beings. Each person by his own karma has contributed to the total sphere of the universe and is involved in the whole, and so when a maiydal offering is made he offers the entire universe, through his own share in it. This offering, like all offerings, is made to accumulate merit. As the amount of merit acquired depends on the articles offered, it may be expected that the offering of the spheres of the universe will result in the accumulation of merit on a vast and extensive scale. There are containers of various shapes in which this martdal offering is made. The most generally used type consists of a round plate with high side (See Plate 19), on top of which are placed three or four hollow conoentrio rings (Icags-ri) of decreasing diameter, held in position by the grain-offering that is placed within. On the top is placed an ornate decoration (log) which usually has the wheel of the dharma in the oentre. A maridal container may be made of gold, silver, copper, brass, wood, stone, slate or even clay depending on a person's wealth and taste.
Briefly the manner in whioh this offering is made is as follows. The baae container is held in the
4 Sources nos. S3 and 151.
• Source» no. 151.
•  Sources nos. 12, 03.151,199, 204,215-225 and 231.
Handal
36
hand — with the base plate facing upwards, and the first ring is placed npon it. The space inside this ring is carefully piled high with handfuls of barley, wheat or rioe grain, often mixed with medicinal seeds and precious stones suoh aa turquoise, coral, pearl, pieces of gold, silver or other metals. The next ring is then placed on top of the grain and the process repeated until all the rings have been used. The toff is then placed on top. The offering may be made of only one kind of grain, or precious stone or metal just mentioned. Lacking other materials bits of stone or sand can also be used.
Throughout this prooess the speoial prayer connected with this offering is ohanted. In all, thirty-seven handfula of grain are generally heaped onto the container to complete the offering. (Thirty-seven is the largest number: there are other counts of twenty-five, twenty-three and seven.) The different layers symbolise the component parts of the universe, as well ae offerings such as the Seven Jewels of a Universal Monarch (rgyalsrid ana-bdun) and so on. Each heap placed on the oontainer represents a vital part of the offering and serves to act as a reminder of the actual thing offered. Concentrating fully on each part of the offering, the person makes a total offering in miniature, of the universe. It is as if one were viewing a bill through tbe eye of a needle or seeing the oomplete reflection of a face in a small hand mirror. In this way the person making the manual offering regards it as embracing the entire universe.
Offering are also divided into different categories such as the following.7 The offering may be of an article which has an owner (bdag-poa bzvA-ba'i mchod-pa) — e.g. a flower growing in a private garden; or of an article which does not have an owner (bdag-poa ma-bxuil-ba'i mchod-pa) ~ e.g. a flower growing wiid. It may be a tangible object that is offered in reality [dňos-su biams-pa'i mchod-pa); or one that is abstract and imagined in one's mind (yid-iyis epnd-pa'i mchod-pa). It may be of an 'external' nature (phyi-yi mchod-pa) — one designed to please the five senses; or, in tantrio practice, it may be an 'internal' offering (naA-gi mchod-pa) — such aa tea or an alcoholio drink which has been blessed by the offerer during the process of meditation when, he identifies himself with a certain deity. (In this case the blessing is considered
to come from that deity.) The offering may be a 'seoreť one (gsaii-ba'i mchod-pa), such as the offering of a female consort. The devotee can also offer the sUm-pa-flid (éunyaiá) — (de kho-na ňid-kyi mchod-pa) — view of emptiness — after he has acquired it. 'Karmio' offerings are those made by a person who has not as yet reached the 'phags-pa stage (bla-no y od-pa'i mchod-pa or 'jig-rten-pa'i mchod-pa); while 'transcendental' offerings are those made by someone who has achieved the rank of 'phags-pa (bla-na mcd-pa'i mchod-pa or 'jig-rien-las 'das-pa'i mchod-pa or chos-kyi mchod-pa).
Other categories or sub-divisions of offerings into groups of sixteen' or ten' also exist. These divisions vary according to whether one takes as one's basis for classification the subject of the offering, the object of the offering or the kind of offering itself.
Although not all these forms of worship were originally practised in Buddhist India they cannot be dismissed as non-Buddhist forms of worship. It may well be that some of these forms of worship were prevalent in religious practices in Tibet before Buddhism came to that land and were absorbed into the new religion. However, there is no ground for denying the validity of these traditional forms of worship in the practice of Buddhism. Some writers of books on Tibet, without studying in depth the religious practioes of Tibetans, have observed these ceremonies which are strange and colourful to their foreign eyes, and on the superficial impression they have gained have claimed that the Buddhism practised by Tibetans is something different from the Buddhism of India, and have even given it a separate name of its own — TiamaJBm. It is unfortunate that the use of this coinage has already become widespread, but it is not my intention at this junotore to express arguments for or against the use of this term. Examples of the influence of a country's indigenous traditions and customs on an imported religion can be seen in most religions of the world. Moreover most outward religious practices are the outcome of developments which have taken plaoe well after the 'teacher' of a religion has passed away. The different modes of worship have no effect on the actual religion practised.
7 Source« no«. 12, 63, 161 and 231.                                         • Source« no«. 12 page 07rl,  173 p*ge212.2.7 and 202
■ Source no. 106 page 188vl.                                                p&ga 187.4.6.