Východné stredoiránske jazyky -VSI jazyky sú prakticky ohraničené na Seveovýchodné iran. Jazyky; pokrývajúc obdobie najmenej od 1.-13. Stor. n.l. Na rozdiel od západ. Stredoiran. Jazykov je to veľmi rozmanitá skupiny definovaná veľmi málo jasnými isoglosami Nemáme žiadnych zachovaných predchodcov typických východoiran. Jazykov,ako sú pašto alebo pamírska skupina V skutočnosti napriek blízkej príbuznosti medzi sarmatčinou a osetčinou resp. medzi sogdštinou a yagnobštinou môžeme povedať, že žiadny z východostred. Iran jazykov nemá priameho zachovalého potomka Zvyšky menej významných EMIran. Jazykov Nápisy kráľa Ašóka-3. Stor pred n.l., jazyk textov je považovaný za variantu aramejčiny s iránskymi výpožičkami alebo vic pravdepodobné najstarší dochovaný EMIran jazy. (kpty meno cesty, sogd. q´rtθ „ cesta, chodník“ Bucharština Jazyk a písmo sú identické sogdštine – mince panovníkov Buchary, krátke nápisy - al-Biruni miestami cituje EIran dialekty; Sístán, Termez, Zábulistán EMIran výpožičky v indických jazykoch gaf”avara – pokladník, stora – kôň, v sanskrite ga”javara-, sthora; niektoré výpožičky prežili v moderných dardických jazykoch; v khowarštine γrXnu-tehotná, v sogdštine γr´n EMIran výpožičky v tocharštine Obsahujú veľa foriem patriacich k EMIran jazykom, ktoré neôžu byť presne definované Tochar.B sXf „nepriateľ“, sogd. s´n, khotan. sXna, oset. son EMIran výpožičky v modernej perzštine - Väčšina výpožičiek je odvodená zo sogdštiny - falXxan „popruh, pás“ pravdepodobne z avesty fradaxšanX ; preto l < *d vo výpožičkach zo sogdštiny a x < *xš ako v chorezmštine Spoločná charakteristika EMIran jazykov Fonológia Zachovanie [θ] – konzervatívna črta EMIran jazykov, ktorá sa nevyskytuje v WMIran jazykoch; sogd. a chor. myθ „deň“, khot. thafj- „tlačiť“, baktr. ιθα „preto“ Jediný fonologický vývoj, ktorý sa zdá byť spoločný všetkým hlavným EMIran jazykom je vyslovenie frikatívy v OIran. Skupine *ft a *xt ; sogd. ´βt´, chor. ´βd „sedem“, < *hafta, baktr. ωσογδο „čistý“ < ava-suxta (-ka)-, Vo všeobecnosti OIran *b,d,g vyvinuli sa do frikatív v začiatočnej pozícii. Preto *baraka- „ovocie“, *dXt` - „zákon“, a *gav „krava, býk“ sú v sogd. βr´k, δ´t´kh, γ´w, chor. βrk, δ´dyk, γ´w manich. Baktr. βrg, *l´d v l´dβr „sudca“, a γ´´w. All the EMIran languages other than sogd. take part in the general depalatalization of OIran *č and *j. The resulting ˆ m are sometimes simplified to s, z. Bactr. σαδο “well” < *čXta Palatalization is much more marked in Eastern than inWestern middle Iranian. Thus the OIran prep./postp. *pati je bactr. πιδο with umlaut of *a but sogd. pač- (beside pat-). Another charakteristic EMIran. Tendency is seen inthe shortening or ultimate disappearance of OIran. Long vowels or diphtongs in certain circumstances; in Sogd. rƒxšn “bright”, Chor. rxn “light, down” < *rauxšna-, manich. Bactr. wš „grass < *vXstra. Morphology - principal significance of the retention of the old vocalic endings - in Khotan. and Sogd. several types of nominal declension remain distinct - morphology of Sogdian and Choresm is signifiantly less conservative than that of Khotanese, while Bactrian had already in the first century A.D. reached almost the same stage as WMIran. Lexikon - characteristic differences in vocabulary between East. and Weas. Middle Iran result from innovations on both sides. The lost in WEIran *gari- “mountain” > Khot. ggara , Sogd. γr, replaced by kef ; in EMIran *kapX „fish“ (Khot. kavX-, Sogd. kp-, Chor. kyb. *sXna – „enemy“ : Sogd. s´n, Oss. Son *maiθa- “day” : Sogd. and Chor. myθ, Most of the EMIran languages (except being Chorezm) have adopted a significant number of Indian loanwords - contact with Buddhism : XkX`a – „sky“ : Khot. XtX`a-, Sogd. ´´k´c, Parth. ´´g´c. Relationships within the EMIran group Sogdian and Saka Sogdian is the most similar to Khotanese and Tumshuqese Saka, partly because these are MIran languageswhich best preserve the morphological systemof OIran. Sogd. knθ “city”, r´f “disease”, nnšky “palm of the hand”. In both languages sufixal *k recieves special treatment. Whereas in persian *k comes to be lost in final position, in Sogd. and Saka it is lost intervocally. Bactrian - more closely connected with Sogdian and Choresm. than with Saka. Bactrian and Sgd. Share the use of *uti as an enclitic particle and the fem. suffix – ανζο / ´nc. Bactrian and Chor. share the change of *št to t(t) and the plural ending – ε/ -i. Common features of all three languages are the use of an article (*y`- in Bact. and Chorezm., *im` - in Bact. and Sogd.) Bactr. also has western connexions esp. with Parth.as in the third pers. plur. opt. ending – ονδηιο, Manich. Bact. lh – “to give” and l´hw´n “gift”, coresponding to Parth. -yndy®, dh-, d´hw´n. EastIran connexions of Partian -Parhian occupied an area adjacent to those of Bact., Sogd. and Chorezm; correspondences between Parth. And Sogd. include those between parth. pdyc “towards”, ´h´z “was, is” drwgmyg “lying, false” and Sogd. pt´ty “in the presence of”, ´´z “was, žγm-, “lie”, swntk “liar”. EIran connexions of Old Persian development of *θr into a sibilant (OP. I, Sogd. š); the existence of the verb gaub- (OP. gauba- “to speak”, Sogd. γwβ, Chor. γwy “to prise” ; the irregular replacement of *3 by u in the present stem of kar- (OP.kun(au)-, Sogd. kwn-), the compounding of a preposition and pronoun as in OP. hačXma, Sogd. c´mk, Chor. cm(y)k “from me”. - Persians could live in vicinity of the Sogdians; this explanation is scarcely applicable to the development of * *θr into I / š since in Sogdian this change evidently had not yet occurred at the time of the adoption of the Aramaic script. Sogdian - land Sogdiana is first mentioned in Avesta, in the OP inscriptions and by classical greek writers; conquered by Alexander in the 4. cent. B.C. and by the Arabs at the beginning of the 8. cent. A.D. - the limited material for the era of the Muslim invasion inclues the coins issued by the rulers of Bukhara and Sogdiana - Samarkand, the capital of Sogdiana had a strategic position of the profitable Silk road Sogdian became almost a lingua franca of Chinese Turkestan - evident differences in Sogd. texts are more often chronological or merely orthographical than dialectal - one dialect survives in modern Yaghnobi. - δ and θ merge as l, is indirectly attested by many Sogd. loanwords in Persian. Ad‹m voh« - sogdian version of prayer offers display sogdian charakteristiks features such as palatalization in –yšt´y “is” (later Sogd. iči) - Av. astò. -christian literature – texts from a single site – Nestorian monastery at BulayÈq - apart from a single fragment in Brahmi script, the Sogdian texts are in 3 scripts : Sogdian, Manichean, Syriac – all derive ultimately from Aramaic scriptand they have many features in common Sogdian script main varieties :a, archaic script of the Ancient Letters and other texts up to 5. cent. b, the formal or S«tra-script chiefly employed for Buddhist texts c, the cursive script with various local sub-types Ideograms are far fewer than in MPers or Parth.; while the 22 Aramaic letters all retained their place i alphabet, four of them (d, s, ‛ and q) were not used as phonetic symbols The voiced stops (b,d,g)are represented by the same symbols as their conterparts, the letter beth β, and gimel γ being reserved for fricatives. Aramaic lamed stand for δ and θ and l in sogd. pt γ´ δ – NP pay%Xla “cup”. Except for initial (X) (´´) and (´-) long vowels are not consistently distinguished. Manichean script - manichean sogd. orthography is influenced by conventions of the sogd. script and manichean MP and Parth. The addition of the special letters β, δ and γ leaves b,d and g to represent only the voiced stops. - (b) and (d) can also by written phonemically (as p and t); initial (æ) can be indicated ain, (–) by nn (e.g. srδnng beside srδng leader) – borrowed from WMIran. - the letters s and q are interchangeable with t and k; the frequent doubling of the letters y,w, δ and t has no phonetic significance while ® is always silent Syriac script to the 22 letters of the Syriac script the sogd. Christians added new characters f,x and ž. (γ) is generally represented not by gimel (g) but by ain (γ) and (δ) and (θ) are kept distinct, being written with delath (d)and tau (θ). an important advantage is the system of vocalic points which makes it possible to distinguishe between vowels of different qualities. (X) and (5) are regularly distinguished in internal position by the presence or absence of aleph Phonology - consonants - conservative feature of sogd. is the preservation of the voicless p,t,k. and affricate č. in almost all positions including after a vowel S,M ´´p, C ´p “water. The fricative f, θ,s,š,ž,x are similarly well preserved : S n´p, n´ β, M,C n´f “people”. In other EIran languages the voiced plosive b,d,g and affricate Æ have become fricative β,δ,γ,ž even in initial position. As a result of these changes b,d,g and Æ do not occur in sogd. except as allophones of p,t,k and č. M sng “stone” < * asanga – beside zng “kind” < * zanaka. OIran h is either lost or strenghtened to x. Consequently h occures only in foreign words, except for an isolated instance of disimilation in M hwnx besides xwnx “ that,he”; l is attested only in one native word C wlrz “to tremble” . Sogdian shows no aversion to clusters of consonants such as xšn,xst,pθt,čxw or tkw. Certain groups display an unexpected absence of assimilation e.g. ms and mt in verbs such as S,M ptyms- “ to come to an end”. Combinations of voiced fricatives +voiceless plosive are particulary charakteristic : M ´zprs “pure”, wjp “terror”. Some other combinatory changes which help to define the position of Sogd. amongst the Iranian languages are of initial čy to š, of tsv (IE *%„) to sp and of dzv (IE *’h„) to zβ as in S,M,C šw- “to go”, S,M ´sp-, C sp- “horse”. OIran dv gives δβ S,M δβr , C dbr; sr and θr likewise give š except that agθr results in Xr. Alternatively δr and θr are sometimes metathesized to rδ and rθ. palatalized s and z become š and ž. The loss of final h and m is accompanied by the change in the quality of the preceding short vowel, whereby –ah becomes –i. while –am and –im become u. Loss of h and m does not affect the oreceding X. Intervocalic k disappear in certain circumstances C z´ty “son” i.e. zXt² < * zXta´i < * zXtakah. This treatment is found chiefly but not exclusively. In some cases k seems to have survived as a result of a strenghtening to kk. Phonology : vowels - the treatment of the OIran vowels in sogd. is extremly innovatory; most of the innovations may be attributed to the effects of a strong word stress - vocalism of many sogd. words bears little resemblance to that of their OIran etyons e.g. *b#zdyah “bad” > *βéži > βeží > βži > ‹βži. The long vowels X ( < OIran X, Xi Xu ), ² (< ai, aya palatalized X ) e (< au, ava), ò ( < ò , iya ) and « ( < «, uva) are amongst the more stable sounds in the sogdian phonological system despite certain cases of secondary shortening. To the OIran short vowels a,i,u which preserve their identities under certain conditions must be added e ( < palatalized a, e.g. C fnyš “to be deceived “ < *fra-nasya-). The treatment of OIran 3 in Sogd. is complex. In some circumstances is lost, in others it is converted into a sequence of r plus short vowel. In general, n and m occur before vowels and before y,w,r and n, while g occurs before fricative, plosives and affricates : S knδh, M knδ, C knθ “city”. Stress and the Rhytmic Law - the position of the stress in the period before the operation of the Rhytmic law is sometimes revealed by palatalization thus : S,M,C zyrn “gold” implies * záranya. Some prefixes esp. preverbs are proclitic, the stress being immediately following syllable e.g. S xwt´ynh, C xwtyn “queen” < * hva-tZunò- . The shift of stress, which affected a large portion of Sogdian word-form, appears to have in a fixed stres on the long vowel or difthong, if any, otherwise on the final syllable of the word. Final - ya and –wa contracted to – ò and « , e.g. S m´nyh (mZnò) “in mind” < mZnya < *mZnayX. Suffixal k was dropped after unstressed ` and the resultig combinations of vowels underwent contaction (` + ` >X, ` +e/÷ >² a+u >e) - unstressed final short vowel were lost - almost any sogd. word exemplifies one or another of these developments Although the Rhytmic Law is primarily a phonological law, its importance for students of sogdian is largely due to its far-reaching consequences for morfology. The loss of unstressed final vowels and contraction of unstressed –ya to ò , resulted in separation of almost every class of inflection into two distinct types known as “light stems” and “heavy stems”. Morphology – nouns and adjecives Sogd. preserves the three numbers and three gendes of OIran. Survival of neuter is marginal. Many old neuter nouns have become masc. or fem. All ordinary Sogd. plurals derive from collective nouns formed with the OIran fem suffix *-t X. This sufix suffixe seems to have been attached to directly to the stem. Light stems distinguish six cases, the old dative and instrumental having merged with the genitive and ablative respectively. The inflexion of heavy stems is reduced to a system of two cases, direct and oblique, whose functions cannot be easily correlated with those of the six cases of light stems. The declension fo light stems is ”inflective” type while that of heavy stems is “aglutinative”. In the plural all light stems are declined alike, with nom. –acc. in –ta, gen. loc.-abl. in –tya regardless of gender. The voc. plur. was probably * -te. Light stems in –y- regurarly have heavy plurals (e.g. (a)ny- “other”, plur (a)n òt; those in –r- are also sometimes treated thus. The great majority of nouns and adjectives have been wholly absorbed into the *a and * X – declensions. - small group of * ³ - stems have retained a partial independence as a sub-species of light stems. The attested forms af masc. light stem in *u- (apart from thematized forms) are nom. acc.sing. –u < *-uš , *- um and nom. acc. numv. –u < «. Heavy stems af all genders are declined alike : dir. Ø, obl. –ò , dir. plur. –t, obl. – tò. Heavy stems denoting persons quite often attested voc. forms borrowed from the light stems. Contracted stems are of two types : *aka-stems and *XkX-stems. Masculine stems in *aka are very numerous. The plural is declined in the same way ( except for occasional occurence of the old gen.plur. – Xn < *-a´ Xn). *aka stems are often found besides heavy or light stems : pXδ² - pXδ “foot”. Sometimes stems other than contracted stems use a plur. in -²t e.g. sarδ²t beside sarδt “years” , sar²t “heads”. In general adjectives are inflected like nouns, except that no num. forms occur. Asin other Iran. languages, wisp- “all” has a partly pronominal declension. Adjektives in –k sometimes form their fem. in the same way e.g. maz²xk “great”, fem. maz²xč. The superlative in -tam occurs rarely, the suffixes -star and -tar being employed for both comparative and superlative. The suffix –tar has also been added to most of the few surviving comparatives and superlatives in *-yah- and *-išta-, e.g. fryX-tar, (‹)fyXtar, fr²štar “more” (cf. Av. frXiih, fr²šta). A speciality of Sogd. is the elative, which is formed by means of the prefixes čX- “how!”, wX and (before s) wat – “so”. e.g. čX-tex-t “how very fast”. Morphology-numerals and pronouns Most sogd. numerals including S ´yw, M ´yw, C yw “one” are indeclinable. The greatest variety of forms is presented by ôtwo”, which has separated forms for the masc. (S,M (´) δw´, C dw´) and for the fem./ntr. (S ´δwy, C dwy). The cardinal “7” to “10” are basically light stems. In the cardinals “11” to “19” *-dasa- has been reduced in unstressed position to –ts, as most clearly shown by C pncc (pagÆaˆ) “15”. Obl. forms in – nu are occasionally attested (“6, 11,12,50”). C stw “100” is treated as a ntr. light stem, abl. S,M st´; as an enclitic in the compounds C dwyst “200” and šyst “300” it loses the vocalic ending. Ordinals are generally formed with the suffixes –m and most often mòk. The basic forms of the first and second pers. sing. pronouns are S,M ´zw, C zw “I”, S,M,C tγw “thou” (nom.) and S,M,C mn´ “me,my”, tw´ ”thee, thy” (originally gen. but used in many texts in all non-nom. functions). The equivalent plur. forms, S m´xw, M,C m´x “we, us, our”, S šm´xw, M (´) šm´x “you, your”. The usual forms of the encl. pronouns are : 1.pers. sing. –m, -mò, plur. –man, 2 pers. sing. –f, (chiefly acc. and. abl.), -t (chiefly gen.), -fò, tò, plur. – fan, - tan; 3. pers. sing. –šu (chiefly acc.), -š, -šò, plur. – šan. Sogd, dem. pronouns are mostly based on the two suppletive systems y-/m- “this” (<*ayam, *ima-) and x-/w- (< *hau, *ava-). the stem y-, and x- supply nominatives, esp. masc. and fem. sing., the remaining forms being derived from m- and w-. The extended forms, which functions as stronge demonstratives, are created by the addition to the simple forms of particles or suffixes, notably -²θ or ²δ, gd, and *-nak`. The first of these series S,M xyδ, wyδ “that”, yδ, myδ “this”, C xyd, wyd, yd, myd; for the second cf. the plurals M x´md, w´nds, C x´nt, w´nt, “those”, S,C y´nt, m´nt “these. The prepositioned forms are simple or extended demonstratives compounded with prepositions, e.g. S,M prw and prm “in the”, S,M cywyδ, C cywyθ, cywyd “from that”, S cyw´nt, M cywnd, C dywnt “id”. Still more complex demonstartives can be created by combining various pronominal elements, e.g. S cym´ntšnw “from them” (w)nyw´nt(y) “to that”. Morphology - verbs Sogdian present stems represent many OIran classes. Those derived from stems in *-ya, and *-aya- show charakteristic palatalization, e.g. fneš- “to be deceived” < *fra-nasya-, fneš “to deceive” < *fra-nXsaya-. All past stems end in –t. They derive from the OIran past part. in *-ta, which the abstract noun in *-ti- has merged. Several common verbs, e.g. wXβ/waγt- “to say”, derive their present and past stems from different roots. A secondary past stem can be formed by adding -`t to the present stem, e.g. tkeš`t to pres. tkeš “ to look”. This formative, like Partf. – Xd, has probably been extended by analogy from forms of root stX-, e.g. ešt/ ešt`t “ to stand”. While the augment was lost in initial positions, it coalesced with the final short –a or –i of the verb to form a long vowel –X- or –ò- (e.g. f‹VmXy “to order” < *fra-mXya-, imperf . frXmXy < *fra-a-mXya-. Of all MIran languages, Sogdian possesses the greatest range of forms expressing the various tenses, moods and aspects. The future tense is formed by the addition of the particle –kXm (later –kXg, - kX) to the present. ind., less often to the opt. subj. or inj. In C2, -kX is attached to Xz-imperf., giving a form with past prospective meaning, e.g. zwrt´zq´”was about to return”. The most common durative particle whih is often suffixed to the pres. ind., impf. and Xz-impf., is –(‹)skun, later -sk‹n, -sk (after forms ending in –t/-d, also -k‹n, -k). The rare particle S -´štn appears to be synonymous. The past inf. ends in –te (light stem) or –t (heavy stem) and always follows the governing verb. Its formation and usage remains constant in all types of Sogdian. The old past part. in -t forms the basis of the pret., but is seldom used adjectivally, this function being taken over by an extended form in -t² < *-taka (fem. –tč). Fut pass. participles consisting of present stem + - ò < *-ya, -nòk, or čòk are occasionally found. The productive suffix forming pres. participles is -²n², fem. -²nč. Certain christ. texts employ an uninflected form in -²k or –(²)sk together with inflected forms of (w)mXt as a periphrastic imperfective preterite. A few late sogd. docum. attest a gerung in –kya (light), -kò (heavy). The intransitive preterite in the third pers. sing. consists merely of the nom. sing. of the past stem : light stems can distinguish masc. –ti and fem. –ta while heavy stems end in –t. Few sogd. prefixes appear to be productive. Apart from the prefixes magd-, nX-, ne-, (‹)pu-, the most important are Xw- “co-“ and frò- “philo”. Many words in *a-, and other masc. and ntr. stems have been extended by the addition of *-ka-, e.g. mart‹xm² “man” < *marta-tauxma-ka-. Similarly fem. in *X and *ò- are often extended by *-kX and *-čò (plus *-X-), e.g. (‹)psXk “wreath, crown” < *pusX-kX. The suffises forming -Xmagd² and Xkč form verbal abstracts. Suffixes forming adjectives from nouns include –čò, -čòk (also òčk, -(»)n², -òk and -m»(g)č (oiginally fem of -m(»)n². Many adverbs end in ²θ/²δ, e.g. yen²θ/δ “at once”. Lexikon - vocabulary of Sogd. derives chiefly from the common Iran. stoch, with a proportion ofspecifically EIran words, MIndian and WIran, chiefly Parth.