>Timeline
IIAS Newsletter | #27 | March 20021 2
> Afghanistan
By Nicholas Sims-Williams
nscriptions and
Manuscripts
This state of affairs began to change in
1957, when French archaeologists discovered
the first substantial Bactrian
inscription at Surkh Kotal near Baghlan.
The text was published by André Maricq,
who identified some important
words and phrases, including the name
of the Kushana Emperor, Kanishka.
W.B. Henning established that the
inscription deals with the construction
of a well, which was dug in the year thirty-one
of the era of Kanishka, that is,
early in the reign of his successor
Huvishka (early second century AD).
For forty years after its discovery, the
Surkh Kotal inscription remained the
most important source for the study of
Bactrian. More inscriptions were found,
but none sufficiently extensive or legible
to contribute significantly to our
knowledge of the Bactrian language.
During the last ten years, however,
the corpus of Bactrian texts has
increased dramatically. At Rabatak (in
the province of Baghlan) a stone
inscription was discovered in 1993
and published in 1995-1996 by Joe
Cribb and myself. The inscription, in
Bactrian language and Greek script, is
of great historical value, as it mentions
the predecessors of Kanishka and
describes some of the events of his
first regnal year.
Even more important for our knowledge
of the Bactrian language are over
a hundred documents in Bactrian cursive
script that appeared in the bazaar
of Peshawar and on the international
art market within the last ten years.
Many of these are now in the collection
of Dr Nasser David Khalili in London.
These documents were written on
leather, cloth, and even on wooden
sticks. They cover the whole period
between Sasanian rule in the fourth
century AD and the Arab supremacy in
the eighth century. It seems that many
of the texts derive from the Khulm Valley
in the northern Hindukush, from
places which were within the jurisdiction
of a ruler who is referred to in the
Bactrian documents as “the ruler of
Rob”.
Letters and Legalities
The Bactrian documents consist of
legal documents, economic documents,
Buddhist texts, and letters, many of
which are still sealed and therefore perfectly
preserved. However, most letters
are fairly short and difficult to understand,
since they often allude to previous
correspondence and events of
which we have no knowledge. Two of
the new documents are Buddhist texts,
perhaps associated with the Pure Land
school of Buddhism. A larger group
consists of economic documents. These
include texts written on wooden sticks
(with up to three short lines of writing),
which seem to be a kind of receipt or
tally for deliveries of foodstuffs, such as
wheat and onions. Other economic documents
consist of lists of personal
names, commodities, and amounts,
presumably recorded for accounting
purposes. Such documents contain
many numerals, whose correct reading
is important for the interpretation of
the dates in many documents.
Sealed Legal Contracts
Most of the dated documents are
legal contracts dealing with sales, leases,
gifts, the manumission of a slave, or
the settlement of disputes. There is
even a marriage contract, which happens
to be the earliest dated document.
Many such documents exist in two
copies written on the same parchment.
One copy is left open to be read, while
the other is tightly rolled, tied with
string, and authenticated with up to six
clay sealings impressed with the seals
or fingernail impressions of the contracting
parties and witnesses. Their
names are sometimes written on the
reverse of the document beside the
holes for the seal-strings. Probably this
format was employed so that the sealed
copy could be opened in the presence
of a judge in case of a dispute.
The dates attested in these documents
range between the year 110 and
549 of an unspecified era. From Bactrian
inscriptions found at Tochi, in
Pakistan, it has been deduced that this
era probably began in AD 233. This
would put the dated Bactrian documents
between AD 342 and 781, and
thus from the Kushano-Sasanian period
through the years of Kidarite, Hephthalite,
and Turkish rule, well into
Islamic times, when Arabic finally took
over the role of Bactrian as the administrative
language of the area.
Sasanian Presence
One of the earliest dated documents
is a deed of a gift dated in the year 157
(= AD 389) written on cloth, rather than
on the more usual leather. It exists in
two copies: one sealed, the other left
open to be read. The two copies give different
names to the place where the
document was written. The closed copy
refers to it as “the city of Rob” (modern
Rui), apparently the administrative cenDue
to a lack of native sources, our knowledge of the ancient history of Bactria is sketchy. The region is first referred to in the Avesta, the Zoroastrian
sacred book, and in the sixth-century inscription of Darius at Bisitun, where Bactria is mentioned as a province of the Achaemenid Empire. In
the fourth century the region was overwhelmed by the armies of Alexander the Great and, under his successors, Greek culture became strongly rooted
in Bactria. Great cities were built in Greek style, with temples, theatres, and gymnasia, and the Greek language, written in the Greek script, became
the exclusive language of culture and administration.
In the second century BC, Bactria was overrun from the north by nomadic peoples, including those known to the Chinese historians as the
Yüeh-chih and to the Greeks as the Tokharoi. Amongst these new rulers, the tribe or family of the Kushanas achieved supremacy and, by the end of
the first century AD, their empire extended far beyond Bactria and across much of northern India and Central Asia.
The rule of the Kushanas was roughly contemporary with that of the Parthian Arsacids in Iran. In about AD 224, the Parthians were ousted from
Iran by the Sasanians and, within a few years, the Sasanians had also conquered Bactria, which they ruled thereafter, either directly or through a
viceroy known as the Kushan-shah (“King of the Kushans”). These rulers continued to issue coins with Bactrian inscriptions. In place of the angular
Greek letters of the Kushana coins, however, the Kushano-Sasanian coins use a cursive form of the script.
In the middle of the fourth century, Bactria was again invaded from the North by nomads referred to as “Chionites”, apparently a variant form
of the name “Huns”. Under their chief, Grumbates, they soon reached an understanding with the Sasanians and fought on the Persian side against
the Romans at the siege of Amida in AD 360.
Thereafter, control of Bactria passed to a people known as the Kidarites, or “Kidarite Huns” (possibly another name for the Chionites), until
the Hephthalites entered Bactria from the north in the fifth century and drove the Kidarites south of the Hindukush. The Hephthalites often achieved
great success in their wars against the Persians; however, just after the middle of the sixth century they too were swept aside by an alliance between
the Sasanians and the Turks, who had recently established their empire in the lands beyond the Oxus. The overlordship of the former Hephthalite
territories was divided between Sasanians and Turks, though Hephthalites and other local rulers may have retained control here and there.
One further episode in the turbulent history of Bactria is the coming of Islam and the Arabs. The Arab conquest of Iran was completed in AD.651.
The conquest of Bactria took much longer, although the city of Balkh was first raided by the Arabs as early as AD 653. By the time that Balkh succeeded
Marv as the capital of the Arab province of Khurasan (in AD 736), the whole area was probably largely subdued. - NSW <
Until very recently, Bactrian, the ancient language of northern Afghanistan, had been one of the least known of the Middle-Iranian
languages. During the first half of the 20th century, the Bactrian language was known only from legends on coins and seals,
which naturally contain very limited data, while the later cursive script — a local development of the Greek alphabet — remained
undeciphered for lack of comparative material.
Research >
Afghanistan
I
On Kings and Nomads:
New Documents in Ancient Bactrian
Reveal Afghanistan’s Past
A sketch map
of northern
Afghanistan showing
the principal places
mentioned in the
Bactrian documents.
Ancient History of Bactria
Achaemenids
from 6th century BC
Bactrian Greeks
from 3th century BC
Yüeh-chih and Kushanas
from 2nd century BC
Inscriptions from Rabatak
and Surkh Kotal
2nd century AD
Sasanians and Kushano-Sasanians
AD 233 = year 1 (local era)
First dated legal documents in
Bactrian
AD 342 = year 110
Chionite and Kidarite ‘Huns’
from ca. AD 375
Document on a gift at the city of Rob
AD 389 = year 157
Hephthalites
ca. AD 460
Document mentions the Sasanian
emperor
AD 471 = year 239
Documents on taxes paid to
Hephthalites
AD 492-527 = years 260-295
Sasanians and Turks
from AD 560
Document mentions Turkish titles
AD 639 = year 407
Document mentions a ‘Turkish
princess’
AD 710 = year 478
Arabs
from early 8th century AD
Last dated document in Bactrian
AD 781 = year 549
CourtesyofDrD.N.Khalili
CourtesyofEllenRaven
Bactria
from 6th century BC to
8th century AD
Bactrian letter dated
in the year 239
(= AD 471?) and referring
to a Shahanshah
of Iran, probably
Peroz (ruled 459-484).
CourtesyofDrD.N.Khalili
IIAS Newsletter | #27 | March 2002 1 3
> Afghanistan
tre of the region, whose ruler is known
as the ‘khar of Rob’. The open copy
refers to “the city of Kandban”. This
seems to be an earlier name for the
same town, which is found only in the
earliest documents.
A letter dated in the year 239 refers
explicitly to the Sasanian emperor, the
Shahan-shah. The writer identifies
himself as “Meyam, the steward (and)
ruler of the houses of the illustrious,
successful Peroz Shahanshah”. If the
era indeed began in AD 233, the year
239 should correspond to AD 471,
during the reign of the Sasanian ruler
Peroz. The apparent reference to his
name, therefore, seems to confirm
the chronological framework which
had been deduced from the inscriptions
of Tochi. However, “peroz” may
also have been intended as a mere epithet
meaning “victorious”. Similar
formulae in later documents suggest
that this may, in fact, be the correct
interpretation.
Hephthalite Arrivals
A later group of documents reveals
the presence of the Hephthalites as a
new political power. Three documents,
dated in the years 260 (= AD 492) to
295 (= AD 527) refer to a property tax
payable to the Hephthalites or to “the
Hephthalite lords”. The vendors are
referred to as servants of the king
(“shah”) and the purchasers as servants
of a lord with the Persian name
“Shabur Shaburan”. The persistence of
a Persian aristocracy suggests that there
was no abrupt break whereby the rule
of the Hephthalites succeeded and
replaced that of the Sasanians. On the
contrary, it is likely that the local
dynasty of the “khars of Rob”, at whose
court this contract was drawn up, continued
to wield power at a local level,
acknowledging the long-established
overlordship of the Sasanians, but also
paying tribute to the Hephthalites, who
had more recently arrived in the region.
Unfortunately, the references to the
Hephthalites do not indicate even
approximately the date of their arrival
in the northern Hindukush. They provide
only a terminus post quem: by the
year 260 (= AD 492) at the latest, the
Hephthalites had arrived and established
themselves in sufficient strength
to be able to exact the payment of taxes
or tribute from the local population.
The Turks as Overlords
The next new arrivals, the Turks, are
first attested in the year 407 (= AD
639). The khar of Rob now has Turkish
instead of Hephthalite titles, but his
name and patronymic in the texts show
that he is no Turk. In the year 478 (=
AD 710), a Turkish ruler is named in a
deed recording a donation by “Bagaziyas,
the great Turkish princess ...”.
Although she is described as a princess
of the Turkish tribe of the Khalach, her
name is evidently Bactrian. She belongs
to the Bredagan family, which is attested
as far back as the year 247 (= AD
479) as the ruling family of the otherwise
unknown city of Lan. Probably
Bag-aziyas was the daughter of a local
ruler, who had been given in marriage
to a Turkish qaghan.
Increasing Arab Domination
The Arabs are named in two of the
latest texts. The first of these is a purchase
contract dated in the year 507
(AD 739). While earlier texts had
expressed prices in gold dinars or in
Persian silver dirhams, here they are
given in “Arab silver dirhams”, which
are specifically described as locally current.
A further stage in Arab economic
domination is revealed in a document
from the year 525 (= AD 757), which
refers to the payment of taxes to the
Arabs. In a document of two years later,
a son of the local landowner bears the
name “Khamir”, probably a local form
of the Arabic title amir. Soon afterwards,
Arabic would replace Bactrian
as the language of the local administration,
as is clear from a group of Arabic
tax records which appear to have
come to light together with the Bactrian
documents.
The documents described above have
already made it possible to decipher
Bactrian script, revealing a previously
unknown tongue which, in its heyday,
was one of the world’s most important
languages. In this brief survey, I have
By Osmund Bopearachchi
ot a single coin is now left in the cabinets where once
over 30,000 coins were stored; among them were coins
from hoards recovered at Mir Zakah, Chaman-i-Hazuri
(Kabul), Qunduz, and from the excavations at Aï Khanum
and Begram. Most of the artefacts stolen from the Kabul
Museum surfaced a few days later in the Peshawar bazaar
and, from there, found their way to private collections.
Among them are the invaluable ivory plaques excavated at
Begram by French archaeologists in 1937.
Hoards of Ancient Coins
The Mir Zakah II hoard was the largest ancient coin deposit
ever attested in the history of mankind. It was named after
Mir Zakah, the village where it was found in 1992, 53 km
north-east of the city of Gardez. The hoard must have consisted
of approximately 550,000 gold, silver, and bronze
coins. Of these, I managed rapidly to examine six sacks full
of coins, each weighing at least fifty kilos, in February 1994
in the Peshawar bazaar. We still do not know under what circumstances
the Mir Zakah deposit was found. According to
witnesses who visited the findspot, the Mir Zakah II hoard
also contained more than 300 kilograms of silver and gold
objects. Of course, such second-hand information should be
handled with care, as informers tend either to exaggerate or
to romanticize the event.
Among the artefacts were gold and silver vessels: for example,
a gold censer in the shape of a high beaker on a round
base from which thin trails imitating wisps of incense twist
upwards. Another piece among them was a squat silver bowl
with an out-turned rim, with, on the inside of the base, the
impressed image of a sea-horse or Hippocampus, its curled
tail terminating in a crescent-shaped curve.
Among the sculptures from the deposit, many depict
Zoroastrian priests, figurines, gold plaques, rings, and
intaglios from the Hellenistic period. A repoussé intaglio
depicts a galloping biga; two repoussés show the Greek god
Hermes wearing a conical helmet; two carnelian intaglios
depict a standing helmeted Athena holding a long spear and
a shield in typical Greek style. The jewelery in the hoard, in
particular pendants, earrings, and bracelets, amounted to
several kilograms in weight!
The numerous coins in the Mir Zakah II hoard were mainly
early Indian bent-bar and punch-marked coins from Greek,
Graeco-Bactrian, Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian, Indo-Parthian,
and Kushana origins. Coins of the Indo-Scythian King, Azes
II, and posthumous imitations of coins of Hermaeus comprise
the largest portion. The hoard also brought to light an
unprecedented number of new varieties, such as a tetradrachma
of Attic weight standard struck for King Menander I with
unknown type and legend arrangement.
The most sensational numismatic discovery was a coin of
Nasten, a hitherto unknown Iranian ruler in India. On the
obverse, within a bead-and-reel border, the coin carries a bust
of the diademed king to right wearing a helmet with a long,
flowing crest and a mantle. The reverse shows the king on a
prancing horse riding to the right. He wears a helmet with a
long, flowing crest. The Greek legend reads Nastenes /
Xatrannou, “Nasten, son of Xatran”. Judging by his name,
Nasten was presumably not a Greek, but an Iranian, probably
a Bactrian Iranian.
The reconstruction of the history of the Greeks and their
nomadic successors in Bactria and India depends mainly on
the evidence offered by numismatic finds such as these.
only been able to hint at the contents
and importance of an immense new
body of material. The new documents
cover a period of more than four centuries,
including some periods for
which we have hardly any authentic
sources. The publication of these texts
will soon be completed with the appearance
of the second volume of my Bactrian
Documents from Northern
Afghanistan, which will include the letters
and Buddhist texts. Then the whole
of the material will be available to students
of many disciplines, to be compared
with Chinese and Arabic sources
and confronted with archaeological and
ethnographic data. I confidently expect
that the result will be to cast new light
on many aspects of the history and culture
of ancient Bactria and modern
Afghanistan. <
References
- Sims-Williams, Nicholas and Joe Cribb, “A
New Bactrian Inscription of Kanishka the
Great” in Silk Road Art and Archaeology 4
(1995-1996):75-142.
- Sims-Williams, Nicholas, “Nouveaux documents
sur l’histoire et la langue de la
Bactriane” in Comptes rendus de l’Académie
des Inscriptions & Belles-lettres
(1996 [1997]):633-654.
- ——- , NewLight on Ancient Afghanistan:
The Decipherment of Bactrian, London:
SOAS (1997).
- ——- , Bactrian Documents from Northern
Afghanistan, Vol. I: Legal and Economic
Documents, Oxford: Oxford University
Press (2000 [2001]).
- ——- , “From the Kushan-shahs to the
Arabs: New Bactrian Documents Dated in
the Era of the Tochi Inscriptions” in
Michael Alram and Deborah E. KlimburgSalter
(eds), Coins, Art and Chronology:
Essays on the Pre-IslamicHistory of the IndoIranian
Borderlands, Wien: Denkschriften
der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften,
Philosophisch-Historische
Klasse 280 (1999); 244-258.
Professor Nicholas Sims-Williams of the
SOAS in London is an expert on Sogdian and
Bactrian languages. Together with Joe Cribb
of the British Museum, he deciphered and
interpreted the newly discovered Rabatak
inscription in northern Afghanistan.
E-mail: ns5@soas.ac.uk
The Destruction of Afghanistan’s
Cultural Heritage
Afghanistan’s civil war, raging between rival groups fighting for political power, gave birth
to the systematic looting of archaeological sites, such as Aï Khanum, Begram, and Hadda.
Their willful destruction, coupled with illicit diggings and vandalism in pursuit of material
gain, obliterated the ancient heritage of sculptures and paintings. On 22 March 2001, three
weeks after decreeing that all the statues of Afghanistan should be destroyed, the Taleban
briefly opened the National Museum to journalists. They revealed a gloomy, near-empty
labyrinth of rooms missing virtually all of its treasures.
More info >
Forum >
Afghanistan
N
The ancient site of Aï Khanum, before the illicit
diggings.
The ancient site of Aï Khanum, after the illicit
diggings.
Faïence head of a
Graeco-Bactrian king
from Aï Khanum.
Kabul Museum after its destruction
Hin-Ichi-Ono,May1993.
OsmundBopearachchi,1999.IlGiornaleDelle’Arte,no.119,February1994.
ProfessorPaulBernard,1978.
c o n t i n u e d o n p a g e 1 4 >
See also http://www.gengo.l.u-
tokyo.ac.jp/~hkum/bactrian.html
(in English and Japanese).