Organization
18(6) 737­–745
© The Author(s) 2011
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DOI: 10.1177/1350508411428214
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Organizing Christmas
Philip Hancock
University of Essex, UK
Alf Rehn
Å´bo Akademi University, Finland
The origin of this Special Issue are to be found in a two-day event, entitled Organizing Christmas:
A Festive Symposium that was convened jointly (and festively) by the Royal Institute of Technology
(Sweden) and Warwick Business School in December 2008. The ambition of this event was
twofold. Firstly, it aimed to bring together scholars of organization in order to discuss and critically
evaluate the potential interconnections between organization, as both an economic and cultural
process, and the demands and expectations that accompany what is an increasingly global festival
of production and consumption. Secondly, it was to tackle the very simple truth that it is extremely
difficult for Christmas to be taken seriously as an event of organizational or even, in some quarters,
economic significance. For love it or loathe it, what it is difficult to deny is that Christmas is almost
inevitably rendered trivial within most academic discussions.
Now, why this is the case is open to question. It may simply be because as an event that encourages
us to cast off our serious orientation to the world, anything connected with it is necessarily
reduced to the realm of the flippant or kitsch. Alternatively, though not unrelated, it could be due
to the widespread association between Christmas and childhood. As such, in one fell swoop not
only is the subject matter rendered immature, but any serious interest in it can be identified as a
symptom of, at best, a childlike whimsy and, at worst, a form of regression in response to an inability
to deal with the demands of a mature and credible academic discipline.
Yet, whatever the reason, this is one of those somewhat rare cases when the skepticism and
dismissals simply do not stand up to the facts of the matter. Taken from a purely economic perspective,
Christmas is immensely significant. In those countries where Christmas is a state sponsored
festival, for instance, it performs an inordinately prominent role in the legitimation and continued
functioning of consumer capitalism. Nor is this in any sense a recent phenomenon. While Storey
(2008: 20) may somewhat overstate the case when he declares that ‘Christmas was invented first
and foremost as a commercial event’, certainly for those (Golby and Purdue, 1986; Miller, 1993;
Pimlott, 1978; Storey, 2008) who consider the 19th century to be the age in which Christmas was
rediscovered or reinvented––depending on one’s historical preferences––it was a festival centred
Corresponding author:
Philip Hancock, Essex Business School, University of Essex, Wivenhoe Park, Colchester, Essex, CO4 3SQ, UK
Email: phancock@essex.ac.uk
428214ORG
Editorial
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738	 Organization 18(6)
as much on supporting a fledging industrial economy as it was on promoting Christian celebration
and social altruism. Certainly it was during the Victorian era in particular that a host of Christmas
specific goods started to appear in shops in order to encourage consumers––on both sides of the
Atlantic––to overcome any aversion they might have to purchasing the newly mass-produced
products as what were supposed to be individualized and sacred tokens of love and respect
(Marling, 2000). So, for example, the first specific ‘Christmas card’ appeared in 1843 with mass
production well underway by the 1860s. Indeed, as Sansom (1968) observes, by the late 19th century
Christmas had become what it is today; the most frenzied shopping period of the year with, as
Belk (1993: 90) notes, it also being around this time that US business in particular introduced the
practice of paying their staff Christmas bonuses. This was in turn, an idea that quickly spread,
further inflating the Christmas economy while maintaining the idea that such spending utilized
special or even, once again, sacred money.
Throughout the 20th century the relationship between an increasingly Fordist regime of mass
production and consumption, and Christmas, continued unabated. By the 1930s, department stores
such as Macy’s in New York and Harrods in London were putting on lavish Christmas displays,
while Haddon Sundblom’s iconic images of Santa Claus for the Coca-Cola Company ensured that
what has come to be referred to as the ‘Anglo-American Christmas’ (Golby and Purdue, 1986;
Miller, 1993) began to represent a model of global economic ambition and cultural aspiration.
Indeed the increasing significance of Christmas to Western economic performance over the course
of the 20th century is no better illustrated than by the acquiescence to business lobbyists by
President Roosevelt in the recessionary year of 1939 and his controversial decision to move
Thanksgiving in the USA back to the penultimate Thursday of November. This was in order to
elongate the Christmas shopping period which traditionally started on Black Friday, the day after
Thanksgiving.
Today, in the 21st century, when we are once again in the midst of global recession, Christmas
spending continues to account for around a third of the annual retail turnover in many Western
economies. In the UK, for example, retail sales, according to analysts at the Royal Bank of Scotland,
remained 30% to 40% higher in December than during the rest of the year, while department store
turnover increased by over 70%.1 This phenomenon is particularly favourable for the new breed of
on-line retailers such as Amazon. Paralleling the aforementioned Black Friday in the US, the 7th
of December was designated Cyber Monday in the UK, with British consumers spending around
£350 million on-line in a single day. Nor should we underestimate the role that Christmas plays in
injecting money into the consumer economy. Christmas bonuses, as we have already acknowledged,
have long been an integral future of Christmas for some, often functioning as a barometer
of the financial, and indeed cultural health of an economy. Even in these recessionary
times, the latter can run to significant six figure numbers. In the UK Goldman Sachs, for example,
was reported to be rewarding its 443 partners with an average Christmas bonus of more
than 3 million in 2008 (Duke, 2008).
In addition to this, there is the impact that festivals such as Christmas have on work and employment
more generally. In most cultures, there exists at least one major festival that is treated as a
holiday from work, creating a major cost to corporations. Those companies and organizations that
cannot, for whatever reason, completely cease operations, are forced to pay significant amounts in
overtime and temporary workers. For young workers, Christmas is often a period when one can
pick up extra work, and even a chance to establish oneself on the labour market. To this add costs
related to with rushing production to meet Christmas deadlines arising from the aforementioned
holidays as well as the monetary and psychological costs associated with corporate Christmas parties
(cf. Rosen 1988, see also Rippin in this issue). Simply put, for both organizations and their
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members, Christmas may come but once a year, but it does not come without significant organizational
costs.
Christmas as Lacuna in organization studies
With this in mind, it remains astonishing to realize that there is precious little serious research
conducted on Christmas from an organizational or economic perspective. While there exists
relevant research on the season from sociological, anthropological and cultural studies perspectives
(cf. Edensor and Millington, 2009; Miller, 1993; Thompson and Hickey 1989; Whiteley,
2008) these all represent fields that quite naturally study the joint rituals of our societies.
Marketing and consumer studies have also been quite prepared to study the festival, as ritualized
over-consumption and gift-giving obviously generates many fruitful avenues for research (cf.
Belk and Bryce, 1993; Fischer and Arnold, 1990; Kimura and Belk, 2005; McKechnie and
Tynan, 2006). Even here, however, one occasionally discerns a certain flippancy, a tendency to
facetious comments and telegraphing that on some level, this is more ‘fun’ than ‘serious’. In a
similar manner, journals such as BMJ (British Medical Journal) has published research on
whether Santa Claus is a public health pariah (Grills and Haliday, 2009), utilizing the mirth of
Christmas to present ‘fun’ things for, one assumes, the benefit of readers needing a smirk rather
than for the sake of research. Serious engagements from disciplines such as economics have also
been few and far between, unless we count the delightful Joel Waldfogel’s valiant fight against
‘the deadweight loss of Christmas’ (Waldfogel, 1993, 2009)––although there seems to be a tendency
among newsletters in economics, particularly those taking more of a free market-approach,
to also write humorous pieces on festive matters around the Christmas period.
In all this, a pattern emerges. In the more general social sciences, Christmas is an accepted field
of study, as these do not tend to discriminate against phenomena. In the hard sciences, such as
medicine, Christmas is something one can study as a joke––Roger Highfeld even wrote The Physics
of Christmas (1999). In those fields somewhat unsure of themselves, a fluid assignation that fits
economics beautifully for instance, Christmas can be studied, but preferably with a wink and a
smile. OK for a newsletter, maybe one article for a journal, for a laugh, but nothing more. But
where does this leave organization studies?
In organization studies, the silence has been almost total––Michael Rosen’s article from 1988
still remains a key reference––and although there are some articles that make allusions to the festival
(cf. Bartunek, 2006) it would seem that the collective of organizational researchers have
reached the conclusion that overall, Christmas is not worth studying. Exactly how this conclusion
was reached, however, and on what grounds, remains shrouded in mystery. As we have observed,
to deny that Christmas has organizational properties and economic consequences seems odd, as it
is clear that all organizations work very hard to organize labour, processes and tasks for and around
the holidays. Furthermore, it is clearly a period of exceptional entrepreneurial importance, as
Christmas has always been a time when we are predisposed to experiment with new products and
services. All in all then, there seems to be very few objective reasons to explain why Christmas has
not been studied in the field that claims to be interested in the manners in which human beings
organize their institutions. Which would obviously leave the sphere of subjective reasons.
As already alluded to, Christmas may be significant, but that does not mean that it is serious. It
is a festival of all the things that organization studies has problems with: excess (see Rehn and
O’Doherty, 2007), frivolity, children (see Kavanagh et al., 2011), gifts and the home. In the symbolic
economy of research, it represents things that are considered trivial and mundane. Studying
it, it would seem, even makes the researcher who engages with it appear trivial, and as researchers
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in organization studies are acutely aware of how they are viewed, Christmas is one of those things
that is ignored not so much because it is irrelevant, but because scholars in the field are more interested
in how they are perceived than with little details such as whether the field is actually studying
all it can, or indeed cannot.
In other words, Christmas may be a prisoner of the politics of organization studies, where laurels
are given not for studying what exists and affects people, but rather on the basis of whether the
current power-structure in the field supports an area of research or not. Organization studies has,
overall, been less interested in whether something is significant, and more interested in if it raises
the status of the field, leaving Christmas out and, bizarrely enough, keeping things such as a continuing
obsession with call-centres in. Were it possible to claim that Christmas lacks impact, this
might be understandable. Once again, however, this is palpably not true––certainly not in the West,
and in truth, not globally either.
The global impact of Christmas
Indeed, it would be unwise to simply consider Christmas in terms of its impact on Western economies.
The Anglo-American Christmas, driven by mass marketing and other cultural media––most
notably cinema (Connelly 2000)––is a truly global phenomenon, touching in one way or another
all corners of the planet. In Japan, for instance, where Christmas is not an officially state recognized
holiday, it has firmly established itself as a festival of largely romantic pursuits (Moeran and
Skov, 1993), combined with the consumption of Western Christmas icons such as lavish variations
on the ‘Christmas Cake’ (Kimura and Belk, 2005). Here young people celebrate Christmas Eve, in
particular, by exchanging expensive gifts, indulging in romantic activities such as meals, with the
evening often ending in shared hotel rooms. On Christmas Day, the family meal often consists of
a Festive Bucket of Kentucky Fried Chicken, promoted and often perceived as the traditional
Western Christmas dinner. In China, a similar pattern of youthful celebration has also started to
emerge, most likely influenced by the activities of its Japanese neighbours. Perhaps more importantly,
however, Chinese youth closely associate Christmas with the secular and commercial values
and lifestyles of Western capitalism, viewing its celebration as a symbolic realignment away from
the staid traditions of their families and the Chinese state. Indeed more is now spent at Christmas
in China than during the traditional Duanwu and Mid-Autumn Festival, while in its major cities
one can witness shopping malls and streets adorned with Christmas decorations and invitations to
consume and celebrate much as Levi-Strauss (1993) observed was the case in 1950s France, as the
Anglo-American Christmas offered an antidote to post-war austerity there.
The global spread of Christmas would also appear to have, alas, far darker economic and organizational
consequences, however. Staying in China, for example, questions have been raised as to
the ethical complexion of its capacity to meet the West’s colossal demand for Christmas goods and
decorations. In 2007, for instance, it exported $13.4 million worth of artificial Christmas trees and
$142.6 million worth of Christmas tree ornaments to the US alone. In that same year the National
Labour Committee in the US published its report, A Wal-Mart Christmas Brought to You From a
Sweatshop in China (2007), which highlighted the dangerous and poorly regulated working conditions
within which some child labourers were required to work in order to produce the West’s
­festive trinkets:
Wal-Mart Christmas ornament workers toil 10 to 15 hours a day, seven days a week, going for months
without a day off. Many workers earn as little as 26 cents an hour––just half of China’s legal minimum
wage. Workers handle toxic chemicals without protective gear. Some children as young as 12 worked in
the factory.
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More generally, Christmas results in a vast absorption of environmental resources and the
production of significant quantities of waste, both of which have been condemned by numerous
environmental and anti-consumerist organizations. For example, in 2005 The Australian
Conservation Foundation reported that in keeping this Northern Hemisphere celebration in the
style enjoyed by their colonial ancestors, Australians’ were costing the environment 20 litres of
water and 3.4 square metres of land for everyAustralian dollar spent on clothing as Christmas gifts.
The report also revealed that Christmas gifts such as DVD players and coffee makers produced
around 780,000 tons of greenhouse pollutants, even before they were unwrapped and used. More
recently, in the UK, The Vegetarian Society’s 2010 report, The True Cost of Christmas, highlighted
the dire consequences of mass production for those animals that traditionally provide for the
Christmas table including regular mutilations such as beak trimming in Turkeys and the unsupervised
teeth clipping and castration of piglets. And this is in a country that reportedly spent an estimated
£100 million on their pets over Christmas in the same year.
Christmas as an arena for innovation and identity work
Returning for one moment to the capacity of Christmas to generate economic value, however, in
parallel with the continued importance of Christmas for the consumption of goods, both general
and seasonally specific, there is also a new kind of Christmas marketplace opening up; that of the
specialist Christmas service provider. In a culture of the relatively cash rich and time poor
(Bauman, 2000), the provisioning and packaging of Christmas services has become a lucrative
industry in its own right. At one level this can be witnessed in the host of magazines (and indeed
websites) that appear every November––some special issues of established titles, some unique to
the season––offering efficiency tips and tricks for ‘having the perfect Christmas’ or for making
‘Christmas simple and relaxing for everyone’. Yet while such publications trade on techniques to
save, and therefore, make time across the festive period, clearly for some such efficiency practices
are not enough to combine a busy working life with the pursuit of the perfect Christmas. It has
been in response to this need that a host of Christmas industries have emerged including specialist
on-line domestic party organizers, home Christmas decorating services and a range of Christmas
themed events, leisure activities and even theme parks.
In the UK, franchise companies such as The Christmas Decorators offer decorating services not
only for corporate clients and venues, but even for the domestic home, providing a full service that
includes not just the installation and dismantling of all one’s decoration, but their rental as well. For
some, therefore, long gone is the romanticized image of the family bringing down the treasured and
gradually accumulated Christmas decorations from the loft, or the magical moment when the
youngest child places the topper of choice on the freshly cut tree. Now, one phone call can ensure
that professional expertise can take ‘the hassle out of decorating’.2 Similarly, the annual Christmas
themed tourist attraction based in the south of England, Lapland UK,3 is promoted, in large part, as
a more convenient alternative to those similar attractions based in the Sápmi region of Finland.
Mimicking the authentic sub-arctic experience, Lapland UK is not only a more cost effective destination
for clients from the UK and other central and southern European states who want to experience
the authentic home of Santa Claus, it reduces excessive travel at a time of the year when time
is itself a scarce resource.
Now, the growth in such service providers opens up what is another dimension within which we
might wish to think about the various interfaces between the organizational and the festive within
this particular context. Organization, while ostensively concerned with critical research into organizational
forms, has never shirked from exploring the realm of organization as a socio-cultural as
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well as an economic process. And it is at this interface between that of Christmas and how we go
about organizing both our beliefs about, and activities during, this seasonal hiatus, that perhaps
offers some of the most telling insights into how the realms of commerce, organization and everyday
life serve to produce and reproduce each other as common cause. The idea that the mundane
and ordinary aspects of people’s lives are now somehow subject to some all pervasive and highly
organized logic of instrumentalization is of course, nothing new (cf. Hancock and Tyler, 2009).
With its origins in Weber’s recognition of the extension of formal rationality into the ‘phenomena
of social life’ (Feenberg, cited in Crook, 2004: 5) it is a critique that perhaps reached its zenith in
the Frankfurt School’s condemnation of a world in which all human activity––even its most hidden
desires and dreams––are subjected to ‘rationalization and planning’ (Horkheimer, 2004: 65) and
the manipulations of the ‘culture industry’(Adorno and Horkheimer (1979). Nonetheless, one cannot
help but get the feeling that it is at Christmas that such phenomena are most starkly brought into
relief for those who encounter and subject themselves to the demands of the season.
The celebration of Anglo-American Christmas is considered to be a time, at least in its established
heartlands, of family unity, the precise enactment of established rituals and traditions, the
preparation and consumption of often excessive quantities of food and drink, along with the carefully
calculated exchange of gifts and cards. Yet this is a version of Christmas that only comes into
being in this way through the mobilization of a host of what are essentially organizational practices.
Despite the ideal, as Kuper (1993: 171) suggests, that Christmas represents an ‘alternative
reality’; one that celebrates spontaneity and an ethic of generosity and is shorn of the instrumental
demands of the everyday secular world, it is an event that relies deeply on the continuation of
such demands.
First and foremost, the gendered division of labour is one that appears almost untouched in
many households (see Vachhani and Pullen in this issue). When it comes to Christmas shopping,
for example, studies such as that by Fischer and Arnold (1990), justify what is perhaps the commonly
held recognition that it is women who carry the burden in most families for ensuring that
gifts of an appropriate character are purchased in plenty of time. Nor is gift giving itself an innocent
or purely generous act of course. As Mauss (1923) reminds us, gift giving is itself a vital
lubricant of social organization (see Lemmergaard and Muhr in this issue). Christmas cards and
presents, especially when they extend beyond the immediate nuclear family, not only reaffirm the
recognition of significant interpersonal relationships but also serve to enmesh individuals, groups
and communities into significant networks of mutual obligation. Even the most seemingly mundane
aspects of the Christmas experience, from the planning and preparation of the Christmas
menu, to the collection and disposal of Christmas wrapping paper and other waste, can require
extraordinary calculation and instrumentality when they involve not only immediate family but
extended groups of relations and friends (see Warren and Brewis in this issue).
In other words, the contemporary Christmas is nothing so much as a total phenomenon––
corporate and private, local and global, with both positive and negative externalities. A key driver
in the global economy, and yet connected to the often female labour of organizing the home.
Christmas is a complex activity, taking on many forms, and often transforming as one attempts to
approach it and organize it, as this issue will show.
This festive issue
The aim of this issue is to raise the topic of Christmas and festive seasons within organization studies,
not in order to create a final word on the matter, but to raise awareness of the fact that the world
still contains a number of issues of great organizational significance but which have received short
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shrift from the field. Interestingly, the original call for papers advertised the title Organizing
Christmas and Beyond and explicitly encouraged submissions that not only explored the organizational
dynamics of Christmas, but all and any festive occasions. While a range of submissions were
received in response to our call not one of them, however, sought to stray beyond the Christmas
theme. In one way this might be indicative of a greater openness and awareness of the questions
Christmas raises for the field of organization studies. What is perhaps more likely though, is that
even despite the relative freedom a special issue such as this one offers, the risks and perceived
lack of support for exploring organization above and beyond relatively narrowly defined parameters
(albeit in this case that of Christmas) remains a difficult impediment to overcome.
Nevertheless, from those Christmas related submissions we did receive, we were able to cull the
current set of articles. Covering areas ranging across corporate gift giving, festive headwear, female
work, popular cultural representations and the issue of sacralization, not to forget the complex matter
of Santa Claus, they showcase the different ways in which Christmas can be approached.
In the first article in this issue, ‘Have yourself a merry little Christmas? Organizing Christmas
in women’s magazines past and present’, Sam Warren and Jo Brewis engage with how the organizing
of Christmas appears as a series of normative engagements in popular culture. Utilizing a
strategy of closely reading historical and contemporary cultural representations of Christmas and
the perfect execution of the same, the authors highlight both the manner in which female ‘festive
labour’is organized and how issues regarding the problem of gift giving have clear historical precedents.
This latter topic is echoed in the issue’s second article, where Jeanette Lemmergaard and
Sara Muhr engage with corporate gift-giving and asymmetrical relationships. The corporate
Christmas gift, which many might see as merely a trivial and ritualized exchange, is in this article
studied as a phenomenon which can show how corporate relationships are organized as social.
Analysing the complexities of reciprocity and debt, the authors show us that Christmas is far from
unimportant in the corporate world, and can in fact be a time of expressing and strengthening the
bonds of business relationships.
The third article in our issue, Robert Cluley’s ‘The organization of Santa fetishism’, takes a
somewhat different tack. Here the question is, how does Santa Claus––unquestionably the primary
signifier of the season and commercially its most powerful icon––work? By this we mean that in
this article, Cluley explores how this mythological figure, drawn from a myriad of sources and
traditions, continues to have such a hold on the modern psyche. Drawing on classical Freudian
psychoanalytical theory, he reinvigorates concepts such as fetishism and ambivalence in order to
demonstrate the pivotal role played by parents in the psychodynamic organization of the Santa
story in order to address their own wish fulfilment both in and through their children, and the continuation
of its associated rites and rituals. This approach can be contrasted with our fourth article,
where Jean Bartunek and Boram Do discuss how (American) Christmas commerce has been
sacralized over the last centuries, to a point where this specific version of the sacred trumps the
religious theme of the festival. By opening up some of the paradoxes of Christmas, in both a historical
light and in our late modern age, the authors draw our attention to the inherent complexity
of festivals in an assumedly secular age. Both sacred and profane, Christmas appears as an organization
as complex as anything humanity has subsequently created.
Still, for many, Christmas is connected to the home, and to the notion of rest and time away from
the world of organizations. However, nothing takes as much organization as appearing utterly
effortless, something that Sheena Vachhani andAlison Pullen adroitly dissect in their article ‘Home
is where the heart is? Organizing women’s work and domesticity at Christmas’. By way of a critical
discussion of women’s domestic work, the authors problematize the multitude of binaries that
exist in the organization of Christmas, and show how an understanding of this can be fruitful for
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exploring feminine subjectivity. Rather than accepting the simplistic view of Christmas as a space
free from the power-relations that otherwise organize our world, the authors show how Christmas
can show both oppressive sides and create a space for subversion of the same. Our issue closes with
Ann Rippin’s ‘Ritualized Christmas headgear or “Pass me the tinsel, mother: it’s the office party
tonight”’. Here, the phenomenon of festive headgear––paper crowns, Santa hats, tinsel halos and
reindeer antlers––are examined as instantiations of organizational rituals with links to the power
structures of the corporation. The apparent frivolity that defines much of the season––and which is
mirrored in the manner in which organizational scholars have turned a blind eye to Christmas––is
in this article studied as a ritualized suspension of organizational rules that enables the organization
to maintain the same over time. As Bakhtin reminded us, the carnival (and other festivals) might
be most important in that it enables institutions to re-establish themselves. Festivals may be something
more than merely organized merry-making therefore, they may be the thing that makes
organization possible.
So, please enjoy this introduction to studying Christmas as organization and organizing.
Mulled wine and mistletoe are, of course, optional.
Notes
1	http://www.rbs.com/investors/economic-insight/transcript/transcript-031209.ashx
2	http://thechristmasdecorators.com/residentialdecorating.htm
3	http://www.laplanduk.co.uk/
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Biographies
Professor Philip Hancock is Head of the Management Group and Director of the Essex Management
Centre at the University of Essex , UK. His research has encompassed areas such as corporate
feudalism, embodiment, the uses and abuses of organizational aesthetics, and space and architecture.
Currently, he is researching a planned monograph on the organizational contours of Christmas
and, in light of the current economic climate, is appearing as Santa Claus at a local Shopping Mall.
And yes, you can tip on the way out. phancock@essex.ac.uk
Professor Alf Rehn is the Chair of Management and Organization at Åbo Akademi University,
Finland. His research has focused on creativity in organizing and organization studies, the ideological
underpinnings of economic theory, and moralization in management studies. He is a devoted fan
of Patsy Cline and the divine Ethel Merman. For further information: www.alfrehn.com
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