2004 British Nutrition Foundation Nutrition Bulletin, 29, 325­332 325
Blackwell Science, LtdOxford, UKNBUNutrition Bulletin1471-98272004 British Nutrition Foundation? 200429?325332Review ArticleFoods derived from animalsD. I. Givens and K. J. Shingfield
Correspondence: Professor David Ian Givens, Nutritional Sciences
Research Unit, School of Agriculture, Policy and Development,
University of Reading, Reading RG6 6AR, UK.
E-mail: d.i.givens@reading.ac.uk
1
These researchers are partners in the LIPGENE consortium; for more
information on LIPGENE visit
http://www.nutrition.org.uk/lipgene.htm.
REVIEW
Foods derived from animals: the
impact of animal nutrition on their
nutritive value and ability to sustain
long-term health
D. I. Givens*1
and K. J. Shingfield1
*
Nutritional Sciences Research Unit, School of Agriculture, Policy and Development, University of Reading, Reading, UK;
MTT Agrifood Research Finland, Jokioinen, Finland
Summary Foods derived from domestic animals are a significant source of nutrients in the UK
diet. However, certain aspects of some animal-derived foods, notably levels of saturated
fatty acids, have given rise to concerns that these foods may contribute to the
risk of cardiovascular disease, the metabolic syndrome and other conditions. However,
the composition of the many animal-derived foods is not constant and can
often be enhanced by manipulating the nutrition of the animal. This paper reviews
these possibilities with particular attention to lipids, and draws attention to the fact
that milk in particular, contains a number of compounds which may, for example,
exert anti-carcinogenic effects. It is clear that the role of animal nutrition in creating
foods closer to the optimum composition for long-term human health will not only
be more relevant in the future, but will be vital in attempts to improve the health of
the human population.
Keywords: animal nutrition, food, health, nutritive value
Introduction
It is well established that foods of domestic animal origin
make a major contribution to the UK diet. Although
the consumption of full fat milk and meat from ruminant
animals has declined during recent years, the
amounts of skimmed milk and poultry meat in the typical
human diet have substantially increased (DEFRA
2001). The contribution of various animal derived
foods to key aspects of the UK diet in 2000 is shown in
Table 1 expressed as both daily intake of nutrients and
as a percentage of the total dietary intake (for phosphorus
and magnesium as a percentage of the adult reference
nutrient intake). These data clearly show the major
contribution of these food sources to protein, calcium
and phosphorus intake, and a sizable contribution to
intake of magnesium and iron. The amounts of nutrients
derived from eggs and fish/marine products are relatively
small, and therefore these food sources are not
considered further.
Table 1 also indicates that while the supplies of protein
from milk/dairy products and meat are approximately
equal, milk is a major source of calcium, whilst
meat (predominantly red meat) makes an important
326 D. I. Givens and K. J. Shingfield
 2004 British Nutrition Foundation Nutrition Bulletin, 29, 325­332
contribution to iron in the diet. Overall, animal derived
foods contribute about 32% of the total energy intake,
but a high proportion (0.54) of this energy is derived
from fat. Furthermore, lipids in milk and dairy products,
and to a lesser extent in meat of ruminant animals
contain relatively high amounts of saturated fatty
acids, in particular lauric (C12:0), myristic (C14:0) and
palmitic (C16:0) acids. These fatty acids have been
associated with elevated plasma low density lipoprotein
(LDL) cholesterol concentrations in human subjects
(e.g. Katan et al. 1995; Temme et al. 1996). Some studies
suggest that C12:0 and C14:0 exert more potent
effects on plasma cholesterol than C16:0 whilst others
suggest that C14:0 and C16:0 are more potent than
C12:0. In any event, palmitic acid is quantitatively the
most important saturated fatty acid in milk fat. Most
of the C12:0 and C14:0 in the human diet is derived
from milk fat (Gunstone et al. 1994), and therefore the
consumption of milk and dairy products would be
expected to have adverse effects on plasma cholesterol
levels. However, the evidence from studies in adolescents
(Samuelson et al. 2001) and elderly men (Smedman
et al. 1999) suggests that consumption of milk
and dairy products does not have a detrimental impact
on blood lipid profiles and may even elicit beneficial
effects (Buonopane et al. 1992). Furthermore, a recent
prospective study examining the relationship between
milk and coronary heart disease concluded that there
was no association between the consumption of whole
fat milk and death from coronary vascular disease
(Ness et al. 2001). A more comprehensive treatise of
the effects of milk fat on plasma lipid profiles and
human health is provided by Lock and Shingfield
(2004) and Minihane (2004).
However, it is important to recognise that the composition
of animal derived foods is not fixed, and a
number of components vary considerably in response
to changes in the diet of productive animals. It therefore
follows that animal and human nutrition are intimately
linked and current research is actively
investigating ways in which the nutritional-medical
properties of animal derived food products can be
enhanced, whilst not diminishing their inherent and
widely acclaimed nutritional benefits. The purpose of
this paper is to review key aspects of milk and meat as
foods and how their qualities may be altered by animal
nutrition. Emphasis is placed on manipulation of
dietary lipids with reference to the important role of
animal nutrition within the LIPGENE project (see
Nugent 2004).
Table 1 Energy and selected nutrients provided by animal derived foods in the UK during 2000*
Nutrient
Milk and
dairy products
Meat and
meat products Eggs
Fish and fish/
marine products
Total
excluding fish
Energy
Intake (MJ/day) 1.12 1.15 0.09 0.04 2.36
% of MDI 15.3 15.7 1.2 0.5 32.2
Protein
Intake (g/day) 14.0 23.5 1.7 1.1 39.2
% of MDI 21.1 35.5 2.6 1.7 59.2
Fat
Intake (g/day) 17.8 15.2 1.5 0.45 34.5
% of MDI 24.1 20.5 2.1 0.6 46.7
Calcium
Intake (mg/day) 465 45.3 7.8 3.5 518
% of MDI 54.0 5.3 0.9 0.4 60.2
Phosphorus
Intake (mg/day) 366 223 27.5 13.7 617
% of RNI 66.5 40.5 5.0 2.5 112
Magnesium
Intake (mg/day) 37 28 1.7 1.9 66.7
% of RNI 13.0 9.8 0.59 0.67 23.4
Iron
Intake (mg/day) 0.13 1.6 0.26 0.05 2.0
% of MDI 1.3 16.2 2.6 0.5 20.1
*Data derived from a combination of the National Food Survey (DEFRA 2001) and Food Standards Agency (2002). MDI, mean daily intake from the National
Food Survey (DEFRA 2001). 
RNI, adult reference nutrient intake from the Department of Health 1991).
Foods derived from animals 327
 2004 British Nutrition Foundation Nutrition Bulletin, 29, 325­332
Milk and milk products
Milk is a food of outstanding interest, not least
because it was designed to be a complete source of
nutrients for young growing mammals. The role of
bovine milk in the human diet as a source of fat,
amino acids, calcium and other nutrients (see
Table 1) has been recognised for centuries. Milk is a
complex colloid consisting of globules of milk fat
suspended in an aqueous solution comprised of lactose,
proteins, minerals and water-soluble vitamins.
Typical milk from Holstein/Friesian cows contains
about 39, 33 and 45 g/kg of fat, protein and lactose,
respectively, with an energy content of 2.7 MJ/
kg (Food Standards Agency 2002). However, these
values vary considerably between different breeds and
in response to changes in nutrient supply. It is noteworthy
that in the UK, consumption of whole milk
has halved between 1990 (mean 1232 mL/person/
week) and 2000 (mean 664 mL/person/week), but
consumption of semiskimmed milk has almost doubled
during this period (mean 975 mL/person/week in
2000). At present, milk and dairy products are available
in many forms. The contribution of the major
classes of milk and dairy products to nutrient and
energy intakes of the UK human population during
2000 is shown in Table 2.
Milk proteins
The proteins in milk provide an excellent source of
amino acids, the composition of which closely resembles
the requirements of mammalian neonates. Proteins constitute
about 95% of total milk nitrogen and are comprised
of caseins (a, b, k and g), whey proteins (blactoglobulin
and a-lactalbumin), serum albumin and
immunoglobulins. Even though whey proteins are of
high nutritional value, only the casein fraction is important
to cheese makers. Casein accounts for between 76
and 86% of total milk protein (DePeters & Cant 1992).
The concentration of protein in milk is dependent on
both breed of cow and stage of lactation, in addition to
nutrient supply of the dairy cow. Breeds that produce
milk with a high fat content also tend to have higher
protein concentrations.
It is now recognised that dietary energy intake of the
dairy cow is the most important nutritional factor
affecting milk protein content. Across a wide range of
diets, an increase of 1 MJ of metabolisable energy (ME)
intake has been estimated to stimulate 2­3 g/kg
increases in milk protein content (Spörndly 1989).
Whilst the impact of energy intake on milk protein synthesis
is widely accepted, improvements in milk protein
concentration only occur when additional energy is
derived from carbohydrates or protein. Use of fat
Table 2 Energy and selected nutrients provided by milk and dairy products in the UK during 2000*
Nutrient
Liquid whole
milk
Semi-skimmed
milk
Full skimmed
milk
Yoghurt and
fromage frais Cream Butter Cheese Total
Energy
Intake (MJ/day) 0.27 0.28 0.033 0.081 0.021 0.17 0.26 1.12
% of MDI 3.7 3.8 0.45 1.1 0.28 2.3 3.6 15.3
Protein
Intake (g/day) 3.2 4.9 0.82 1.2 0.08 0.03 3.8 14.0
% of MDI 4.9 7.4 1.2 1.8 0.1 0.1 5.7 21.1
Fat
Intake (g/day) 3.8 2.4 0.05 1.1 0.49 4.6 5.3 17.8
% of MDI 5.1 3.3 0.1 1.5 0.7 6.2 7.2 24.1
Calcium
Intake (mg/day) 115 173 29.4 31.2 2.3 1.0 113 465
% of MDI 13.4 20.0 3.4 3.6 0.3 0.1 13.1 54.0
Phosphorus
Intake (mg/day) 90.9 135 23.2 29.5 2.0 0.1 85.7 366
% of RNI 16.5 24.5 4.2 5.4 0.36 0.02 15.6 66.5
Magnesium
Intake (mg/day) 10.7 15.8 2.7 3.0 0.2 0.1 4.51 37.0
% of RNI 3.8 5.5 0.95 1.1 0.07 0.04 1.6 13.0
*Data derived from a combination of the National Food Survey (DEFRA 2001) and Food Standards Agency (2002). MDI, mean daily intake from the National
Food Survey (DEFRA 2001). 
RNI, adult reference nutrient intake from the Department of Health 1991).
328 D. I. Givens and K. J. Shingfield
 2004 British Nutrition Foundation Nutrition Bulletin, 29, 325­332
supplements to enhance dietary energy supply typically
causes a 1­4 g/kg depression in milk protein content
(Sutton 1989). The primary mechanism for increases in
milk protein synthesis in response to carbohydrate
energy is due to greater synthesis of microbial protein in
the rumen, that following digestion, leads to an
enhanced supply of limiting amino acids to the mammary
gland (Reynolds et al. 1997). This underlines the
complex relationship between diet, rumen microbes and
the supply of absorbed nutrients in ruminant animals.
Whilst the value of milk proteins as a source of amino
acids is well recognised, recent research has focused on
the functional properties of milk proteins and protein
hydrolysates. It has been shown that intact proteins from
both major protein groups exert distinct physiological
functions in vivo. The high concentrations of bioactive
whey proteins, such as the immunoglobulins and lactoferrin
in colostrum, reflect their importance to the new
born, but it is also thought that milk proteins have other
physiological functions due to the number of bioactive
peptides present. These bioactive peptides exhibit a wide
range of activities including anti-hypertensive, cytomodulatory
and anti-microbial effects (see review of
Korhonen & Pihlanto 2003). Full exploitation of the
properties of many of these bioactive peptides is a clear
priority for the future. However, as yet there is little
information on the potential of animal nutrition to modify
the relative amounts of specific proteins and associated
peptides in milk. Further work is required, but it is
highly probable that nutrition experiments will need to
be conducted in conjunction with studies on the genes
which encode for the various proteins in milk.
Milk fat
Based on both epidemiological evidence and controlled
intervention studies in human subjects, it is known that
saturated fatty acids increase blood cholesterol (and
notably the LDL fraction) concentrations in a predictable
and dose related fashion (e.g. Keys et al. 1965;
Mensink & Katan 1990). More recently, it has been
shown that myristic, palmitic and to a lesser extent lauric
acids, are primarily responsible for elevating plasma
LDL cholesterol concentrations (e.g. Temme et al.
1996), whilst the other major saturated fatty acid in
foods, stearic acid (C18:0), has been shown to be essentially
neutral (Bonanome & Grundy 1988). Most of the
interest in high saturated fatty acid intakes has been centred
around the increase in plasma LDL cholesterol levels
and associated increases in cardiovascular disease
risk, but there is now evidence that high intakes of saturated
fatty acids may also be related to reduced insulin
sensitivity (Vessby et al. 2001), which is a key factor in
the development of the metabolic syndrome (Nugent
2004). In a recent comprehensive study across 14
Western European countries (Hulsof et al. 1999), milk
and dairy products were shown to contribute up to 58%
of total saturated fatty acid intake, but these values
vary considerably between individual countries.
Against this background there has been considerable
concern surrounding the consumption of fatty acids in
milk and dairy products and possible risks to health,
and therefore research has been undertaken with a view
to producing milk containing lower levels of saturated
fatty acids and enhanced amounts of mono- and
polyunsaturates.
Manipulating milk fatty acid composition
Milk fat typically contains 70­75% saturated fatty
acids, 20­25% monounsaturates and small (2­5%)
amounts of polyunsaturated fatty acids (Lock &
Shingfield 2004). Fatty acids secreted in milk originate
from two sources, either by direct incorporation from
the peripheral circulation or from de novo synthesis
using short chained (C2:0 and C4:0) precursors in the
mammary gland. Mammary de novo synthesis accounts
for all C4:0 to C12:0, most of the C14:0 and typically
about half of C16:0 secreted in milk, while all C18 and
longer chain fatty acids are derived entirely from circulating
plasma lipids (Hawke & Taylor 1995). A distinctive
feature of the bovine mammary gland is its ability to
release fatty acids from the synthetase complex at various
stages, resulting in the secretion of a wide range of
short and medium chain fatty acids. Due to extensive
biohydrogenation of dietary unsaturated fatty acids by
rumen bacteria, C18:0 is, under most conditions, the
predominant long chain fatty acid available for absorption.
However, increasing the supply of long chain fatty
acids (of chain length C18 and above) to the mammary
gland inhibits the synthesis of short and medium
chained saturates (Chilliard et al. 2000). It is also notable
that the secretion of oleic acid (cis-9 C18:1) in milk
exceeds its uptake by the mammary gland due to the
activity of stearoyl Co A (D-9) desaturase in mammary
secretory cells that convert C18:0 to cis-9 C18:1
(Kinsella 1972). Conversion of stearic to oleic acid is the
predominant precursor to product process of the D-9
desaturase, and about 40% of C18:0 taken up by the
mammary gland is desaturated (Chilliard et al. 2000).
As a result of the complex process by which milk fatty
acids originate, several nutritional approaches can be
used to manipulate milk fatty acid composition. Both
the amount and source of dietary lipid affect the extent
Foods derived from animals 329
 2004 British Nutrition Foundation Nutrition Bulletin, 29, 325­332
and type of change that can be achieved. A summary of
the effects of including various lipids in dairy cow diets
is reported in Table 3. In general, supplements of plant
oils or oilseeds reduce short and medium chain but
increase long chain fatty acids in milk, resulting in an
overall shift towards C18:0 at the expense of C16:0 due
to decreased de novo synthesis and/or reduced mammary
uptake of absorbed C16:0. Reductions in milk
unsaturated fatty acid content are characterised by small
increases in the concentration of the predominant fatty
acid in the lipid supplement. In all cases, feeding plant
oils increases milk fat C18:0, cis-9 C18:1 and trans
C18:1 content due to extensive ruminal metabolism of
long chain fatty acids, leading to an increased supply of
biohydrogenation intermediates (both trans C18:1 and
C18:2 fatty acids) and C18:0 to the mammary gland.
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) are not synthesised
in any appreciable quantities in ruminant tissues
and therefore concentrations in milk are essentially a
reflection of the amount leaving the rumen. Consequently,
oils rich in linoleic (C18:2 n-6) and linolenic
(C18:3 n-3) acids have been used to increase the concentrations
of these PUFA in milk or ruminant meat. In
addition, the potential to enhance the concentrations of
the long chain n-3 PUFA eicosapentaenoic (EPA, C20:5
n-3) and docosahexaenoic (DHA, C22:6 n-3) acids in
milk and beef has been examined typically using fish oil
as a source of EPA and DHA.
However, the transfer efficiency of EPA and DHA
from the diet into milk is very low due to extensive biohydrogenation
in the rumen and subsequent transport
of absorbed n-3 PUFA in phospholipid and cholesterol
ester fractions of plasma that are poorly utilised by the
mammary gland (Rymer et al. 2003). In addition, inclusion
of fish oil in dairy cow diets reduces levels of C18:0
and significantly increases the amounts of trans C18:1
and trans C18:2 in milk (Shingfield et al. 2003).
Milk as a source of anti-carcinogens
As a result of the emphasis which has been placed on the
hypercholesteraemic properties of some of the saturated
fatty acids in milk fat, it is not always recognised that
milk fat contains a number of potentially powerful anticancer
compounds. Two of the most important groups
of compounds are isomers of conjugated linoleic acid
(CLA) and the sphingolipids.
CLA is a generic term used to describe a mixture of
geometric and positional isomers of C18:2 that contain
a conjugated double bond. There is now increasing evidence
based on studies in rodent models that cis-9,
trans-11 CLA exhibits anti-carcinogenic properties
(Parodi 2003). Numerous studies have provided evidence
that mixtures of CLA inhibit the growth of a
number of human cancer cell lines and suppress chemically
induced tumour development (Kritchevsky 2000;
Roche et al. 2001), while studies in animal models have
confirmed the anti-carcinogen properties of CLA are
exerted by the cis-9, trans-11 isomer (Ip et al. 1999).
Even though studies in human subjects are limited, there
is tentative evidence to suggest that consumption of milk
fat is inversely related to breast cancer risk in menopausal
women (Knekt et al. 1996; Aro et al. 2000),
while subsequent studies have been unable to demonstrate
protective effects of CLA on post-menopausal
breast cancer (Voorrips et al. 2002; Chajs et al. 2003).
Dairy products are the major source of CLA in the
human diet (Lawson et al. 2001), and the cis-9, trans-11
isomer is the most abundant isomer in ruminant derived
foods. In view of the potential benefits to human health,
Table 3 Typical milk fatty acid responses to dietary lipid supplementation (from Givens & Shingfield 2003)
Lipid source
Mean response*
C14:0 C16:0 C18:0 cis-9 C18:1 trans C18:1 C18:2 (n-6) C18:3 (n-3) Total saturates MUFA
PUFA
Rapeseed oil -0.03 -0.20 0.55 0.39 0.30 -0.09 0.11 -0.07 0.30 -0.04
Rapeseed oil -0.19 -0.33 0.51 0.67 2.00 -0.04 0.60 -0.18 0.60 0.15
Soyabean oil -0.29 -0.28 0.45 0.23 4.61 0.33 ­ -0.19 0.53 0.33
Sunflower oil§ -0.32 -0.32 0.14 0.27 3.07 -0.05 -0.24 -0.22 0.53 0.12
Sunflower oil -0.23 -0.26 0.15 0.11 2.79 0.07 -0.21 -0.17 0.36 0.21
Linseed oil -0.11 -0.15 0.27 0.26 0.94 -0.14 0.17 -0.07 0.23 -0.06
Fish oil 0.04 -0.01 -0.45 -0.25 8.08 0.24 0.03 -0.09 0.24 0.29
Fish oil 0.30 0.35 -0.77 -0.73 2.19 0.39 0.07 -0.05 -0.10 2.17
Tallow ­ 0.06 0.04 0.22 0.19 -0.37 -0.37 -0.06 0.19 -0.36
*Responses calculated as proportionate differences between treatment controls and lipid supplemented diets. MUFA, monounsaturates. PUFA polyunsaturates.
§
Sunflower oil rich in cis-9 C18:1.
330 D. I. Givens and K. J. Shingfield
 2004 British Nutrition Foundation Nutrition Bulletin, 29, 325­332
there has been considerable interest in understanding
the mechanisms that regulate CLA synthesis in the dairy
cow, with the overall aim of producing CLA enriched
milk. The evidence so far indicates that nutrition, rather
than genotype, parity or stage of lactation is the single
most important factor affecting milk fat CLA concentrations.
A number of nutritional strategies involving
extended grazing or lipid supplementation have been
developed to enhance CLA concentrations in milk. Concentrations
of CLA are higher in milk fat from cows
offered fresh compared with conserved forages, and can
also be enhanced using whole oilseeds or oil supplements
(Griinari & Bauman 1999). Fish oil is more effective
than plant oils for increasing milk fat CLA content
(Chilliard et al. 2000), and these responses can be further
enhanced when fish oil is fed in combination with
C18:2 rich supplements.
Milk is also a rich source of sphingolipids, sphingomyelin
in particular. Sphingolipids are digested throughout
the whole digestive tract including the colon. A
number of studies in animal models have shown that
milk-derived sphingomyelin reduces colon tumour
development (Schmelz et al. 2000). This work needs further
development, including an examination of the
potential of nutritional strategies for the enhancement
of sphingolipid levels in milk.
Meat and meat products
Table 1 clearly shows that whilst the amount of energy
in the human diet derived from meat and meat products
is similar to that from milk and dairy products, meat
provides more protein, marginally less fat (with a different
fatty acid profile) and substantially more iron.
However, these data disguise the fact that meat from
ruminant animals (cattle, sheep) is of markedly different
composition to that from non-ruminants (pigs, poultry).
In this regard, it is important to note that the consumption
of ruminant derived meats has dramatically
declined over the past 25 years, whereas that of nonruminant
meat sources (poultry meat in particular) has
substantially increased.
In general, fat in ruminant derived meats is comprised
of approximately between 45 and 55% of saturated
fatty acids, 45­50% monounsaturated fatty acids and
relatively minor amounts of PUFA (Mir et al. 2003).
Most of the research effort on manipulating the fatty
acid composition of beef, and to a lesser extent lamb,
has been directed towards increasing the ratio of PUFA
to saturated fatty acids (P : S) and enhancing the ratio of
n-3 PUFA : n-6 PUFA. The most effective means of
manipulating the fatty acid composition of beef is
through nutrition, using high forage based diets or the
use of oil supplements rich in PUFA. Of particular note
are the advantages associated with feeding grass which
is an important feed for beef cattle in Northern Europe.
Beneficial effects of all grass diets relate to a-linolenic
acid (C18:3 n-3) being the major fatty acid in grass
(Dewhurst et al. 2003). Even though most is metabolised
in the rumen, a small proportion of C18:3 n-3 can
escape and, once absorbed, is available for incorporation
into tissue lipids.
In contrast, the fatty acid profile of non-ruminant
meat is essentially a reflection of that in the diet, since
limited transformation of dietary fatty acids occurs during
digestion. As a result, it is much easier and feasible
to enhance long chain n-3 PUFA levels in non-ruminant
tissue lipids using dietary sources. Both EPA and DHA
are generally only associated with oil-rich fish, and
therefore supplements of fish oil have been the most
common means of enriching pig and poultry meat with
EPA and DHA (Table 4). Whilst this nutritional strategy
is relatively effective it can result in the production of
meat with a metallic taint, fish-like flavour and reduced
shelf-life (Leskanich & Noble 1997). Because world
stocks of oil-rich fish are declining and concerns exist
about heavy metal contamination, one of the key challenges
ahead is to identify novel alternative sources of
EPA and DHA.
Conclusions
Foods derived from animals are a significant source of
nutrients in the UK diet. However, certain aspects of
some animal derived foods, saturated fatty acids in parTable
4 The effect of including fish oil in the diet of broilers on
selected fatty acids in the thigh meat (from López-Ferrer et al. 2001)
Fatty acid (g/100 g total
carcass lipids)
Dietary inclusion rate of fish oil (g/kg)
0 20 40
C14:0 0.77 1.26 1.47
C16:0 33.8 32.1 29.0
C18:0 8.54 9.42 8.54
C18:1 n-9 34.7 31.8 29.3
C18:2 n-6 11.7 11.4 12.9
C18:3 n-3 1.63 2.46 2.98
C20:5 n-3 0.20 0.77 1.33
C22:6 n-3 0.10 1.03 2.42
Total saturates 43.8 43.6 39.8
Total monounsaturates 41.3 38.7 37.6
Total polyunsaturates 14.9 17.5 22.2
n-6:n-3 6.11 2.50 1.73
Foods derived from animals 331
 2004 British Nutrition Foundation Nutrition Bulletin, 29, 325­332
ticular, have led to concerns about the contribution of
these foods to increased risk of cardiovascular disease
and the metabolic syndrome. The fatty acid composition
of various animal derived foods is not constant
and can, in many cases, be enhanced by animal nutrition.
In the future the role of animal nutrition in creating
foods closer to the optimum composition for longterm
human health will become increasingly much
more important. Furthermore, certain animal derived
foods contain compounds which actively promote
long-term health. Research is required to fully characterise
the benefits associated with the consumption of
these compounds and to understand how the levels in
natural foods can be enhanced. The development of
nutritional strategies for the production of milk and
poultry of enhanced nutritional characteristics is an
important component of the LIPGENE Project (see
Nugent 2004; see also Graham et al. 2004). LIPGENE
is an integrated project within the EU funded
Sixth Framework Research programme (see http://
www.lipgene.tcd.ie).
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