INSTITUT LADY DAVIS DE RECHERCHES MÉDICALES / LADY DAVIS INSTITUTE FOR MEDICAL RESEARCH Full colour Bilingual_Horizontal.jpg Logo-Horizontal-Red.tif Cancer and Aging: Two faces of the same coin (6) Telomeres in Premature Aging and Degenerative Diseases Centre Bloomfield de recherche sur le vieillissement The Bloomfield Centre for Research in Aging Diseases of Premature Aging >Examples are Werner’s syndrome, Ataxia telangiectasia, Dyskeratosis congenita >External appearance of premature aging >Clinical symptoms not associated with normal aging, for example in WS, there is a lack of a postadolescent growth spurt and an underdevelopment of sexual organs (segmental progerias) >Will studies of such diseases provide keys to the understanding of normal aging? PREMATURE AGING SYNDROMES Hasty, P. et al. 2003. Aging and Genome Maintenance: Lessons from the Mouse. Science 299, 1355-1359 (Garinis et al, 2008) A list of syndromes carrying defects in genome maintenance ¨Autosomal recessive disorder ¨Discovered by Otto Werner in 1904 in a family displaying symptoms similar to premature aging ¨Gene affected: WRN: ¡180 Kda protein from RecQ helicase family ¡3’-5’ exonuclease and 3’-5’ helicase activity ¨Absence of WRN protein: abnormalities in DNA repair, replication and telomere maintenance ¨ ¨Affects 10/million individuals ¨First clinical sign: lack of growth spurt at puberty ¨Short stature: patients are 13cm shorter and 20kg lighter than general population ¨In 20’s and 30’s, manifest skin atrophy, loss of hair, early greying and cataracts ¨Progressive disease ¨ (Muftuoglu et al 2008) 15-----------à48yo 8---------------à36yo Clinical diagnostic criteria Cataracts (bilateral) Dermatological pathology (tight, atrophic skin, pigmentary alterations, ulceration, hyperkeratosis, etc) Short stature Premature greying, thinning of scalp hair Hypogonadism Neoplasms (rare sarcomas) Abnormal voice (high-pitches, squeaky or hoarse) Type 2 Diabetes mellitus Osteoporosis Atherosclerosis (history of myocardial infarction) ¨Activities of WRN similar to other RecQ helicases except 3’-5’ exonuclease activity (proofreading) ¡Exonuclease activity: can degrade a 3’end on dsDNA or RNA-DNA duplex ¡ ¨3’-5’ helicase, coupled to ATP hydrolysis ¡Prefers G quadruplex and triple helix DNA ¡ ¨RecQ C-terminal (RQC) domain ¡Prefers DNA structures resembling replication intermediates (forked and Holliday junction) and participates in protein-protein interactions (TRF2, BLM) ¡ ¨Helicase and ribonuclease D C-terminal (HRDC) domain ¨ ¨NLS: nuclear localization signal ¨ ¨ ¨ 1432 amino acids 162 KDa Muftuoglu et al, 2008 ¨conserved central helicase domain (seven helicase motifs) ¨The exonuclease (exo) domain of WRN is shown in yellow (Ouyang et al, 2008) ¨Nonsense mutations, changes amino acid to a stop codon ¨Insertion and/or deletion, leading to frameshift and subsequent termination ¨Substitution at splice junction, causing skipping of exons and frameshift ¨One case of missense mutation causing change in codonàprotein stability affected ¨Most mutations generate truncated WRN protein lacking NLS, found at the C terminal portion. ¨ (Friedrich et al 2010) ¨WS pathogenesis driven by defective DNA metabolism, leading to genetic instability ¨ ¨In absence of WRN, cells accumulate toxic DNA intermediates and/or critically short telomeres that lead to DNA damage and apoptotic responses ¨Cells from WS patients display accelerated aging characteristics ¨Increased chromosomal instability ¨Abnormal telomere maintenance ¨Premature replicative senescence in culture ¨70% reduction in mean population doublings ¨Prolonged S phase ¨Sensitivity to certain genotoxic drugs ¨Apoptotic response attenuated Opreskofig1 Opresko, P.L. et al. 2003. Carcinogenesis 24, 791-802 Evidence suggesting that WRN functions to resolve aberrant DNA structures resulting from DNA metabolic processes, thus maintaining the genetic integrity of cells Exonucl Helicase RecQ HRDC NLS Ku80 Fen1 TRF2 DNA-PKCs Ku80/70 BLM Poldp50 p53 RPA Polb nDirect protein-protein interactions, IPs, Y2H, immunostaining –Nuclear proteins à cooperate in DNA interactions during replication, repair (recombination), etc –Shelterin proteinsàTelomere maintenance ie during replication of telomeres – (Opresko et al. 2003) WRN prefers: 1 G quadruplex and triple helix 2 DNA mol resembling recombination intermediates (D-loops, Holliday junctions, threeway junctions) 3 DNA replication and repair structures (bubbles, forks, flaps) and 3’ ssDNA tailed dsDNA Without WRN, these intermediates are resolved via recombination and deletionglobal genome instability ¨WRN binds to C terminus of p53 in vivo ¨WS fibroblasts display attenuated p53-mediated apoptotic response, rescued by expression of wild type WRN ¨Increased cancer incidence due to ¡Inability to suppress genomic instability úDisruption of p53-mediated apoptotic pathway úWrn/p53 double knockout mice: increased rate in mortality and increased rate of tumor development ú Function of WRN in DNA repair pathways opreskofig5 Opresko et al. 2003 Ku and DNA-PK are components of the NHEJ pathway for repair of DSBs Ku stimulates WRN 3’ to 5’ exonuclease Generation of 5’ ss flaps Phosphorylation of WRN by DNA-PK limits the extent of end degradation? WRN stimulation of FEN1 flap cleavage ¨Telomeres protect ends of linear chromosomes ¡Shelterin proteins remodel chromosome end so 3’ ssDNA tail is tucked into the D-loop ¡Prevent recognition as DS DNA breaks ¡Protects ends from enzymatic attack to avoid loss of genetic information ¡ ¡ ¡ Blasco 2007 opreskofig6 (Opresko 2003) ¨During telomere replication, the presence of WRN at the replication fork is postulated to enable the replication complex to efficiently replicate telomeric DNA ¨ ¨The presence of WRN at telomeres may facilitate unwinding of the D-loop, enabling telomerase to extend telomeres ¨ ¨TRF1, TRF2 and Pot1 stimulate and modulate WRN’s activity (Multani and Chang, 2007) ¨When WRN is inhibited : loss of G-rich lagging strand ¨WRN interacts with FEN-1 flap endonuclease, which helps process and join Okazaki fragments on the lagging strand. In WRN null cells this interaction with FEN-1 may be compromised ¨ (Sharma et al 2004) we set out to determine ifWRNstimulates yFEN-1 cleavage activity on proposed cellular DNA substrates of FEN-1. yFEN-1 acts during replication upon a double-flap structure with equilibrating 30 and 50 ssDNA tails that arise after strand displacement DNA synthesis by a DNA polymerase (37,38). Initially we tested double-flap substrates with a 1 nt 30 tail because the cleavage specificity of FEN-1 suggests that this is the preferred cellular DNA substrate. yFEN-1 precisely cleaves the double-flap substrate with a 1 nt 30 tail at a position 1 nt into the downstream annealed region to yield the 7 nt product. This cleavage pattern allows the 1 nt 30 tail to anneal and generate a nick suitable for ligation. WRN (100 fmol) resulted in a substantial stimulation of the yFEN-1 cleavage to yield the 7 nt product (Fig. 4A, lanes 2–9 versus lanes 10–17), whereas WRN alone did not cleave this substrate (Fig. 4A, lane 18). At a limiting amount of yFEN-1 (0.625 fmol), only 1.5% of the double-flap substrate was incised (Fig. 4A, lane 3, Fig. 4C). In the presence of WRN, yFEN-1 incision was increased to 32% (22-fold). G-Quadruplex Stabilization Leads to Telomerase Repression 5’ 5’ 3’ 3’ G G G G G G G G G G G G Fakhoury, J, Nimmo, G, Autexier, C. Anticancer Agents in Medicinal Chemistry, 2007 The G-rich strand may fold into G quadruplex structure which can stall the replication fork ¨-G-quadruplex formation on the lagging telomeric DNA is normally resolved by WRN ¨-In absence of WRN, G-quadruplex formation on the lagging telomere leads to replication fork stalling and deletion of lagging strand telomeres ¨ (Multani and Chang, 2007) ¨The resultant dysfunctional telomeres in absence of WRN can initiate a DNA-damage response, leading to premature onset of replicative senescence ¨ ¨Cells from WS patients undergo premature replicative senescence ¨ ¨However telomeres in WS cells erode at rates similar to normal control cells (in some studies, telomere length of senescent WS-derived cells are longer than normal) ¨ ¨WS cells may be sensitive to presence of few dysfunctional telomeres-one may even be sufficient to limit replicative potential ¡(one dysfunctional telomere signals to cell that it is time to enter replicative senescence) ¨ ¨ ¨ ¨WRN knockout ¨WRN deletion of helicase domain (retains exonuclease activity) ¨Transgenic expression of human Lys577Met WRN variant, lacks helicase domain ¨ ¨None of these mice display obvious premature aging or spontaneous cancer predisposition ¨Murine WRN might be functionally redundant with other RecQhelicases ¨ Chang, S. 2005. IJBCB 37: 991-999 Late generation mice with short telomeres exhibit nearly the full spectrum of WS syndromes Cross telomerase null mouse with WRN null mouse to obtain mice with short telomeres Recapitulates premature aging: greying, loss of fur, osteoporosis, diabetes mellitus, cataracts Symptoms worsen with each generation, correlates with loss of telomeric DNA Features in late G4-G6 mice most like WS patients: wound haling defects, osteoporosis, hypogonadism, cataracts, diabetes mellitus and premature death Kudlow, B.A. et al. 2007. Werner and Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndromes: mechanistic basis of human progeroid diseases. Nature Reviews Mol. Cell Biol. 8: 394-404. WRN function and disease pathogenesis ATAXIA TELANGIECTASIA Pleiotropic, autosomal recessive inherited disease with a complex clinical phenotype Phenotypes typically appear in the second year of life Frequency of ATM gene carriers 1/100; estimated frequency of affects 1/40000 Clinical diagnostic criteria Early onset progressive cerebral ataxia Oculocutaneous telangiectasia: angioma of skin of face, brain Susceptibility to bronchopulmonary disease Susceptibility to lymphoid tumors Absence of or rudimentary thymus Immunodeficiency Progressive apraxia of eye movements: inability to move eyes voluntarily Insulin resistant diabetes Clinical/cellular radiosensitivity Cell cycle checkpoint defects Chromosomal instability DNA damage recognition/repair syndromes defective in DNA double-strand break repair Lavin, MF. 2007. Oncogene 26, 7749-7758. (Lavin, 2008) ¨Serine-threonine protein kinase ¨Member of the PIKK family (Phospho-inositide-3-kinase-related protein kinase family) ¨Kinase domain includes the ATP binding site and the catalytic residues ¨FAT domain function unknown; contains the serine 1981 that is autophosphorylated during ATM activation ¨FATC domain C-terminal domain conserved in those proteins that also have FAT domain ¨Leucine zipper usually involved in forming helices involved in protein-protein interactions; thus far this region in ATM doesn’t interact with other proteins or mediate ATM dimerization ¨Proline-rich region mediates interaction with SH3 domain of c-Abl tyrosine kinase ¨N-terminal substrate-binding site: p53, BRCA1, BLM binding (Lavin, 2008) ATMmutationAT Spectra of ATM mutations found in patients Meyn, SM. 1999. Clin.Genet. 55, 289-304. Approximately 85% are predicted to truncate the protein-unstable Missense cause loss of protein kinase activity or destabilization (potential for dominant effect of mutant ATM on wild-type in heterozygote) ¨ATM plays crucial role in cellular response to DNA damage ¨ATM recognizes and responds to double stranded DNA breaks ¨ ¨Once activated, ATM signals to ¡cell cycle checkpoints to slow passage of the cell through the cell cycle to facilitate repair ¡DNA repair machinery to protect against DNA insults ¨ ¨Exhibit various abnormalities: ¡Defects in cell cycle checkpoints ¡Increased radiation sensitivity ¡Chromosome instability ¡Defective telomere maintenance ¡Cells derived from AT patients show an elevated frequency of chromosomal aberrations such as end-to-end fusions ¡Primary fibroblasts both from human patients and Atm-/-mice undergo premature senescence in culture ¡ DDR activation by double or single stranded DNA and activation of ATM or ATR d’Adda di Fagagna, F. 2008 ¨First substrate to be identified; phosphorylated on ser15 ¨ATM need only be partially activated to phosphorylate p53 ¨ATM also phosphorylates MDM2 and Chk2, which also help to stabilize p53 ¨ (Lavin, 2008) ¨MRN and ATM localize to telomeres from late S phase until G2 phase ¨ ¨In a manner analogous to that of DSB processing, telomeres recruit repair proteins resulting in a search for homologous DNA sequences followed by strand invasion-->T-loop and D loops are formed ¨ ¨TRF2 keeps the telomere end and the duplex DNA of the same telomere in proximity so that invasion of another chromosome does not occur (Verdun and Karlseder 2007) ¨Telomeres do not activate the DNA damage response despite resembling a break because of T loop ¨TRF2 inhibits the checkpoint activity of ATM ¨When a cell undergoes replicative senescence, the telomere reaches a critical length, resulting in loss of shelterin proteins such as TRF2 ¨The loss of proteins negative regulators such as TRF2 leads to DDR; one critically short telomere is sufficient to send a cell into replicative senescence (d’Adda di Fagagna 2008) Laminopathies including Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome (HGPS) Worman et al 2009 HGPS Premature aging syndrome which affects 1 in 4-8 million children Symptoms: thin skin, loss of subcutaneous fat, alopecia, stiff joints, osteoporosis, and heart disease Age of onset within 2 years, with death at mean age of 13 due to heart attack or stroke Mutation in Lamin A G608G mutation which exposes a cryptic splice site in exon 11 that leads to a 50 amino acid deletion resulting in lack of prelamin A processing and the translation of an aberrant protein called progerin Lamins function in supporting the nuclear envelope and play a role in mitosis DNA synthesis and repair RNA transcription and processing apoptosis organization of chromatin structure regulation of gene expression Nuclear Lamina Function Coutinho et al 2009 Lack of mature lamin A in HGPS Coutinho et al 2009; see also Kieran et al 2009 Cellular defects in HGPS Reduced lifespan in culture Irregular nuclear phenotypes such as blebbing of nuclear envelope Altered chromatin organization Reduced telomere lengths Chronic DNA-damage response hTERT extends HGPS cellular lifespan hTERT rescues proliferative defects associated with progerin TERT rescues HGPS premature senescence through inhibition of tumor-suppressor pathway activation Benson, E.K. et al. 2010. J. Cell Science 123, 2605-2612. TERT blocks progerin-induced DNA damage signaling Benson, E.K. et al. 2010. J. Cell Science 123, 2605-2612. Duchenne Muscular Dystropy (DMD) Mutation in dystrophin leads to progressive lethal skeletal muscle degeneration Dystrophin deficiency does not recapitulate DMD in mice (mdx) Mdx mice has mild skeletal defects and potent regenerative capacity Is human DMD progression a loss of functional muscle stem cells? Sacco, A. et al. 2010. Cell 143, 1059-1071. Mdx/mTR mice have shortened telomeres in muscle cells and severe muscular dystrophy that progressively worsens with age Muscle wasting severity parallels a decline in muscle stem cell regenerative capacity Mimeau and Batra, 2009 Mimeau and Batra, 2009