Stratigrafie Stratigrafie je geologický vědní obor, který studuje stáří sedimentárních vrstev hornin. Stratigrafie určuje staří těchto vrstev a to provádí absolutně (číselné datování) nebo relativně (vzhledem k ostatním vrstvám). Řídí se třemi stratigrafickými zákony: zákonem superpozice (překrývání vrstev) zákonem stejných zkamenělin zákonem ireverzibility • I. Geologic time a. isotope: same number of protons, different number of neutrons b. radioactive isotopes disinegrate & radiate particles at a fixed rate c. half life: time it takes to disintegrate half of original amount Selecting a dating method - duration of half life - chemical composition - closed system Radiometric Dating – geochronologic units B. Absolute Dating -Absolute dating give an age of the sample in years - Technique used is Radiometric dating - Involves measuring the amount of unstable radioactive isotope (parent) and the amount of isotope that the parent decays into (daughter) - Rate at which parent isotopes decay into daughter isotopes is constant - The amount of time it takes for half of the parent to decay into daughter isotopes is a half life - Graph to determine age and number of half lives, Fig. 2.5 p. 15 lab manual and Fig. 8.12 Use different isotopes with different kinds of rocks and also depends on approximate age of the sample , Table 8.1 Geochronologic units (time units) - time intervals in the history of Earth (e.g., Late Devonian Epoch). Also, time intevals during which corresponding time-rock units (i.e., chronostratigraphic units) formed •Half-life of a radioactive isotope is the time it takes for one half of the atoms of the original unstable parent isotope to decay to atoms of a new more stable daughter isotope •The half-life of a specific radioactive isotope is constant and can be precisely measured Age Dating with Half-Lives Radiometric Dating •One Half Life = 50% of the isotope has decayed • •Half Life differs for each isotope. • •Two Half Lives = 25% remains (75% decayed). • •Three Half Lives = 12.5% remains (87.5% decayed). Geometric Radioactive Decay WICHG30207b During each half-life, the proportion of parent atoms decreases by 1/2 •By measuring the parent/daughter ratio and knowing the half-life of the parent, geologists can calculate the age of a sample containing the radioactive element •The parent/daughter ratio is usually determined by a mass spectrometer –an instrument that measures the proportions of atoms with different masses • Determining Age •For example: –If a rock has a parent/daughter ratio of 1:3 , the remaining parent proportion is 25% –25% = 2 half lives Determining Age WICHG30207b –If half life is 57 million years then the rock is 57 million years x 2 = 114 million years old •Most radiometric dates are obtained from igneous rocks •As magma cools and crystallizes, radioactive parent atoms separate from daughter atoms –Parent and daughter fit differently into the crystal structure of certain minerals •Geologists can use the crystals containing the parent atoms to date the time of crystallization • What Materials Can Be Dated? IZOTOP DCEŘINNÝ IZOTOP POLOČAS ROZPADU (109 LET) ROZSAH DATOVÁNÍ (MA) MATERIÁL POUŽÍVANÝ K DATOVÁNÍ 40K 40Ar 1,250 1 až > 4500 muskovit, biotit, K-živce ap. 87Rb 87Sr 48,8 10 až > 4500 muskovit, biotit ap. 147Sm 143Nd 1,06 > 200 muskovit, biotit ap. 176Lu 176Hf 3,5 > 200 muskovit, biotit ap. 232Th 208Pb 14,01 10 až > 4500 monazit, apatit 235U 207Pb 0,704 10 až > 4500 zirkon, monazit, apatit 238U 206Pb 4,468 10 až > 4500 zirkon, monazit, apatit 14C 14N 5730 let < 80 000 let tkáň rostlin a živočichů, jejich schránky, zuby, kosti, voda, led Relative dating A. Relative Dating - One unit is older than the other 1. Law of Superposition 2. Law of crosscutting relationships - The crosscutting unit is younger 3. Law of faunal succession - Each fauna or flora is succeeded by a different species through time a) - Fossil - The preserved remains, impressions or casts of plants and animals b) - Index fossil - Fossil that has a distinct morphology, wide ranging, the species was present for a short period of time. Stratigraphic record can be subdivided according to a variety of criteria including lithology (lithostratigraphy), fossils (biostratigraphy, ecostratigraphy), seismic profiles (sequence stratigraphy), magnetic polarity (magnetostratigraphy), event deposits (event stratigraphy). Types of Rock units 1. Chronostratigraphic units (time-rock units) - all strata in the world deposited during a given time interval (example: Upper Devonian Series) 2. Biostratigraphic units - stratigraphic units of rocks defined by their fossil content 3. Lithostratigraphic units - stratigraphic units (usually spatio-temporally restricted, three dimensional rock bodies) defined by lithology and/or physical and chemical characteristics of rocks (Group, Formation, Member, Tongue, Bed) (Event Stratigraphic Units - Units based on short-term events that had widespread depositional effects, that is,events that produced an isochronous event deposit; useful in regional (basin-wide) stratigraphic correlations) 4. Magnetostratigraphic units (polarity time units) - stratigraphic units based on magnetic reversals of the Earth's poles 5. Sequences (Sequence Stratigraphy) - basin wide stratigraphic sequences that are separated by regional unconformities or their correlative conformities Relative dating table1 1. Lithostratigraphy a. description of unit properties (e.g. color, texture, particle shape, stratification, lithology) b. named after dominant grain size fraction c. hierarchy of lithostratigraphic units (1) group: consists of 2 or more formations (2) formation: a main unit that has considerable lateral extent (3) member: a named unit within a formation; names are geographical d. lithostratigraphic units of Wisconsin (WGNHS handout) Formální (tj. nomenklatoricky pevné a hierarchicky uspořádané podle Zásad české stratigrafické klasifikace 1997) litostratigrafické jednotky ve zvrstvených sledech jsou souvrství - základní pojmenovaná jednotka zahrnující soubor hornin s typickými litologicko-faciálními znaky a zaujímající určitou stratigrafickou pozici (např. macošské souvrství), člen (vrstvy) - nižší pojmenovaná jednotka než souvrství, jejíž litologicko-faciální znaky ji odlišují od ostatních částí souvrství (např. josefovské vápence), vrstva - nejnižší jednotka sedimentárních hornin deskovitého tvaru vymezená vrstevními plochami. U hornin výlevných tvoří její analogon lávový proud nebo výlev. Souvrství jsou někdy spojována do jednotek vysokého ranku označovaných jako skupiny. Ty představují vnitřně složité soubory více souvrství nebo též soubory obtížně vnitřně členitelné omezené většinou výraznými hranicemi (např. vrbenská skupina). Jednotky nižší než souvrství hrají roli především při sestavování místních litostratigrafických škál (např. dílčí části pánví). nearoffshoregradation Biostratigraphic Zones Biozones - the most fundamental biostratigraphic units. A zone is a body of rock whose lower and upper boundaries are based on the ranges of one or more taxa (usually species or phena) (see this Figure for graphic examples of the major types of biostratigraphic zones) Index Fossils Guide Fossils (other terms used: Zone Fossil, Index Fossil) A good index fossil must be: 1. Independent of environment 2. Fast to evolve 3. Geographically widespread 4. Abundant 5. Readily preserved 6. Easily recognised Examples: Graptolites, Ammonites, Foraminiferans, Pollen, Nannoplankton 掃瞄0003 img016 Magnetostratigraphy is a geophysical correlation technique used to date sedimentary and volcanic sequences. The method works by collecting oriented samples at measured intervals throughout the section. The samples are analyzed to determine their characteristic remanent magnetization (ChRM), that is, the polarity of Earth's magnetic field at the time a stratum was deposited. spreading_zone_paleomagnetism_8x6 Image76 Uvedená metoda se uplatňuje především v mladších obdobích historie Země (od svrchní jury do recentu). Pracuje s jednotkami magnetostratigrafické polarizace. Základní jednotkou škály je zóna Sequence Stratigraphy Any package of sedimentary strata bounded above and below by an unconformity (of any kind) is a sequence. Sequence stratigraphy makes sequences the fundamental units of the rock record, and hence emphasizes periods of deposition and nondeposition (closely related to episodes of rising and falling sea level) as the essential information. Sequence stratigraphy grew out of seismic stratigraphy; unconformities are easily distinguished in seismic records, but lithology is often unknown. LogSeqStuffFinal The second and often co-incident step in the interpretation of well logs and cores is the use of parasequence stacking patterns (the vertical occurrence of repeated cycles of coarsening or fining upwards sediment) of to identify the lowstand system tracts (LST), transgressive system tracts (TST) and highstand system tracts (HST) that are enveloped by the mfs, TS and SB. These parasequence cyclic stacking patterns are commonly identified on the basis of variations in grain size and when these fine upwards are indicated by triangles whose apex is up while those that coarsen upwards are indicated by inverted triangles whose apex is down. The repeated stacking patterns for LST cycles are: - •Cyclic fill of incised depressions that tend to fine upward. •Cyclic sand to shale bodies of basin floor fans that tend to fine and thin upward. •Cyclic sand to shale bodies of shelf margin clinoforms that tend to coarsen and thicken upward. The repeated stacking patterns for TST cycles are: - •Regressive cyclic shale to sand bodies of that tend to coarsen and thin upward. seismic01 seismic02 Interpreting how the Earth’s sedimentary layers have formed, is difficult. Cores taken on land and from the ocean are not only expensive to retrieve, but represent a small percentage of the Earth’s surface. Methods using seismic waves developed in the 1960's help to observe the crust’s layers in detail. Seismic stratigraphy is when energy waves are used to bounce off the different layers of the Earth. These layers provide us with data that a seismic stratigrapher can then interpret. For example, in the seismic profile below we show the results of waves bouncing off the different layers and then recorded on the surface of the Earth. These "wavy" images can then be used to reconstruct the area in rock units, as shown in the interpretation of the seismic profile. These advances have allowed geologists to map more area than ever before. Prior to these advances, only outcrops and geologists walking and recording on their maps could be used. Seismic stratigraphy . Oxygen Isotopes 1. 3 Oxygen Isotopes; 16O and 18O most common 2. Fractionation a. 16O lighter so evaporates preferentially; 18O heavier so condenses preferentially b. ratio at which these isotopes enter chemical compounds is temperature dependent c. most widely used proxy for: •changes in global ice sheet volume •changes in global temperatures 3. Measurement a. measure how much 18O/16O ratio deviates from isotope proportions found in modern oceans b. d18O %o is zero for standard marine ocean water 4. During Glacials: •16O preferentially evaporated from oceans •16O deposited on ice sheets & concentrated there •ice sheets relatively depleted in 18O so d18O is negative •18O concentrated in seawater; ice age oceans have d18O values of about +5 •marine shells also enriched in 18O during glacials Chemostratigraphy Chronostratigraphy Lithostratigraphy – only local lithostratigraphic units. To compare the strata of the same age deposited in different regions biostratigraphy is used. Its use enables to determine chronostratigraphic units (time-rock units) - all strata in the world deposited during a given time interval (example: Upper Devonian Series) Ze shrnutí nejrůznějších dat z profilů (místní stupnice) a jejich korelací se vynořuje syntéza významných etap vývoje zemské kůry ve formě chronostratigrafických jednotek a Globální stratigrafické standardní stupnice. Tyto jednotky jsou založené na horninách vznikajících během určitého intervalu geologické historie a jejich hranice jsou odvislé od vybraných konkrétních bodů na spodních hranicích stratotypových profilů. Slouží k sjednocování a řazení událostí a jevů v historii planety a představují členění této historie podle mezinárodně dohodnuté hierarchie. Základní jednotkou je stupeň, který v dnešní etapě stratigrafického poznání má často jen regionální platnost a proto korelace stupňů v celosvětovém měřítku skýtají těžkosti. Jeho rozsah je dán stratotypy spodní a svrchní hranice (mají mít co nejvýraznější a na velké vzdálenosti sledovatelnou charakteristiku), jeho jméno většinou geografickým názvem typické oblasti (např. givet, baden). Vyšší jednotkou je oddělení, jehož hranice jsou definovány spodní hranicí jeho nejstaršího stupně a horní hranicí nejmladšího stupně. Jeho znaky přesahují většinou již hranice oblastí a mají interregionální ráz. Názvy jsou dány pozicí uvnitř útvaru (např. spodní, střední, svrchní devon) nebo vzácněji geografickým jménem. Oddělení skládají vyšší jednotku - útvar. Útvary mají většinou již značný časový rozsah, celosvětovou platnost a jsou odrazem celosvětově sledovatelných evolučních kroků. Jejich hranice jsou analogicky dány hranicemi nejstarší a nejmladší nižší jednotky. Jejich názvy jsou v literatuře tradovány mnohdy již od úsvitu geologie a vyjadřují vztahy etnografické (např. silur), geografické (např. perm), litologické (křída), či pozici ve stratigrafickém sledu (např. kvartér). Jednotkou vyšší je eratem, který vymezuje velmi významné etapy života na naší planetě (např. paleozoikum) a nejvyšší pak eonotem odrážející nejvýznamnější kroky historie Země (např. fanerozoikum). Spodní hranice mezinárodních stratotypů (vybraných typických, co nejúplnějších a chráněných profilů) je definována jedinečným (standardním) bodem v profilu (tzv. „golden spike“), který zaujímá jistou konkrétní polohu v geologické historii vyjádřenou např. stupněm vývoje organického světa, radiometrickým stářím, polaritou etc. eon era perioda epocha věk chron Chronostratigrafie zkoumá a řadí horninové jednotky na základě jejich radiometrického i relativního stáří. Je tedy také vztažena k horninovým jednotkám narozdíl od geochronologie, která vymezuje etapy ve vývoji Země v "absolutním" čase 5H. Other Dating Methods 1. Dendrochronology 2. Lacustrine Sediments - varvites 3. Lichenometry tree ring tlo_p1 plaster INSIDE THE TREE lect16_dendro Tree ring width Variability of tree ring width and climatic conditions Seasonal patterns: Early wood Large, thick-walled cells Late wood Small, densely-packed, thin-walled cells Together = an annual growth ring Mean width of rings dependant on: tree species tree age availability of stored food climate (precipitation, temperature, humidity, sunshine, windspeed, humidity) Trees as filters and sources of palaeoclimatic data Facies Facies - The set of characteristics of a body of rock that represents a particular processes. Sedimentary Facies Stratigraphic units distinguished by lithologic, structural and organic characteristics reflecting the processes of the depositional environment. example facies description beach Sandstone, white, fine grained, rounded, well sorted, slightly muddy at base (<5% mud), laminated at top, burrowed, at base, 15'6" thick Lithofacies - the set of lithological characteristics of a body of rock that represents a particular depositional environment or can be interpreted in terms of depositional processes Biofacies - the set of biological characteristics of a body of rock that represents a particular depositional environment and ecosystem or can be interpreted in terms of depositional and biological processes (Biofacies and Biozones are not synonimous terms!) Ichnofacies - facies delineated on the basis of trace fossils Taphofacies - facies delinated on the basis of preservational charecteristics of fossils A = Sandstone facies (beach environment) B = Shale facies (offshore marine environment) C = Limestone facies (far from sources of terrigenous input) Each depositional environment grades laterally into other environments. We call this facies change when dealing with the rock record facies Sedimentary Environments Continental Environments Alluvial Desert Lake Glacial Shoreline Environments Deltaic Tidal flat Marine Environments Continental shelf Continental slope Organic reefs Deep-sea sejmout Marine environments ocean13a TEXTURE (SIZE). Particle size in clastic sedimentary rocks reflects the ENERGY of the depositional environment. E.g. (above) Nearshore - waves crashing on beaches -> fairly high energy -> coarse textured deposits (pebbles/sand); offshore -> progressively lower energy environments -> progressively finer textured deposits - medium sand - fine sand - silt/mud - clay - carbonates (beyond land-derived sedimentation in shallow tropical oceans). nearoffshoregradation SHALES: Form in similar environments to sandstones, only deposited under lower energy conditions (i.e. "quieter" locations) -> finer particles (clay, silt). Shallow marine, marshes, lakes, lower energy coastal plains and floodplains. Finely layered, often fissile. Common fossils. shale eaglefordslaking a) Quartz sandstone - predominantly quartz grains ("clean sandstone"). Long transportation (quartz survives long transportation because it is relatively hard). Distant from mountainous regions, tectonically stable. Often form at coastlines, in deserts, on higher energy coastal plains and river floodplains (e.g. Padre Island). Quartz grains make up 90%+ of rock and the grains are well rounded. Cross beds and ripples are common. quartzsandstoneform arkoseformation b) Arkose - terrestrial; derived from granitic highlands, contain > 25% feldspar grains (implies fairly short transportation, because feldspar is relatively soft and erodes over long distances). Commonly pink-red color. arkose CARBONATES: Most common = limestone (calcium carbonate). Formed by abundant marine organisms and the precipitation of calcium carbonate from sea water. Warm, clear, shallow tropical oceans - particularly common in platform areas. bahamabank FG11_09B TEXTURE (SIZE). Particle size in clastic sedimentary rocks reflects the ENERGY of the depositional environment. E.g. (above) Nearshore - waves crashing on beaches -> fairly high energy -> coarse textured deposits (pebbles/sand); offshore -> progressively lower energy environments -> progressively finer textured deposits - medium sand - fine sand - silt/mud - clay - carbonates (beyond land-derived sedimentation in shallow tropical oceans). nearoffshoregradation Reefs are held up by a macroscopic skeletal framework 6_27 Continental shelf Continental slope Submarine volcanoes Terms for Marine (i.e. Ocean) Environments and some characteristic sediment facies Sands Muds Abyssal Plain c) Graywacke – mixture of sand, clay and rock fragments ("dirty sandstone"). Indicates tectonic activity, rapid erosion/sediment accumulation, short transportation. Often deposited as turbidites (submarine landslide deposits). Matrix is usually 30%. Beds are often graded (sorted by size - coarse at the base, finer at the top). greywackeformation Slide22 Continental shelf, slope and rise showing submarine canyon and turbidity current sed9-1 sed9-3 Photograph of partial Bouma sequence Bouma sequence - the bed is graded the whole sequence is fining upwards 6_1_1d 29sedfc Slide 1 •Marine •- Continental Shelf - Continental Slope - Continental Rise •Turbidite Deposits Slide 1 6_29 River Direction of migration of shoreline, and landward shift of sedimentary facies Shoreline at time B Shoreline at time A Time B Time A Sea level rising Deposited at time A Deposited at time B Shallow marine Beach River Deep marine Deep marine Shallow marine Beach Shallow marine Comparison of sediments deposited Facies changes due to rising sea level - Water Getting Deeper •Delta •Progradation Coarsening Upwards Sequence Slide 1 Slide 1 Slide 1 •Mississippi Delta