Anthropogenic pedogenesis of Chernozems in Germany? e A critical review
Carsten Lorz a,*, Thomas Saile b
a
Department of Soil Science and Site Ecology, Dresden University of Technology, Pienner Str. 19, 01737 Tharandt, Germany
b
Seminar of Prehistoric Archaeology, Georg-August-University, Nikolausberger Weg 15, 37073 Göttingen, Germany
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Available online 15 December 2010
a b s t r a c t
Recently, the idea of an anthropogenic formation of Chernozems in Germany during the Early Neolithic
(second half of the sixth millennium BC) has been proposed. This study reviews this idea in an interdisciplinary
discourse, involving aspects of geosciences, palaeobotany, and archaeology. The paper
discusses three major topics: (i) evidence of fire use in land clearing, from Black Carbon in soil organic
matter (SOM); (ii) evidence of Chernozem formation during the Early Neolithic, indicated by radiocarbon
dating, and (iii) evidence of anthropogenic pedogenesis based on the spatial coincidence of farmland of
the Early Neolithic Bandkeramik (LBK) with Chernozems. However, the idea of anthropogenic formation
of Chernozems during the Early Neolithic in Northern Germany is rejected. The suggested relationship
between Chernozem formation and LBK does not exist. Although humans may have influenced the
evolution of Chernozems by degradation or preservation, fire clearance by LBK settlers is very likely not
the main factor in their formation. However, there is a strong need to include Black Carbon formation in
the concept of SOM formation in Chernozems.
Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
In memoriam: Arno Semmel (1929e2010).
1. Introduction
A number of papers has been published recently questioning the
prevailing theory of Chernozem formation (Schmidt et al., 1999,
2002; Gehrt et al., 2002; Gerlach et al., 2006; Eckmeier et al.,
2007). The broad spectrum of arguments brought forward
requires an interdisciplinary approach focusing on interactions
between human activities and environmental change.
Since the studies of V. V. Dokucaev in the 1880s (Dokucaev,1883),
Chernozems have been an important subject in soil science (for
recent reviews on Chernozems, see Altermann et al., 2005; Eckmeier
et al., 2007). Soil science textbooks (e.g. Ehwald, 1989; Duchaufour,
1998; Gerrard, 2000; Scheffer and Schachtschabel, 2002) provide
a unanimous description of Chernozem formation. In brief, Chernozems
form under steppe climate and vegetation. Typical parent
materials are loess or other unconsolidated material with high silt
content. The core regions for Chernozems in Europe are Southern
Russia and Ukraine. In Central Europe, Chernozems are relic soils,
thought to be formed during the Preboreal and Boreal period
(ca. 10,000e7500 BP). Preservation of Chernozems might be caused
by (i) high CaCO3 content of parent material, (ii) hydromorphic
conditions in small valleys and at foot slopes, (iii) CaCO3 input
through lateral soil water flow (regradation), or (iv) the so-called
‘base-pump-effect’ in mixed oak forests (Sabel,1983; Ehwald,1989;
Fischer-Zujkov, 2000; Semmel, 2001). However, preservation of
Chernozems in Central Europe might be mostly explained by human
cultivation maintaining a ‘steppe-like’ soil climate. Thus, human
activities could counteract natural decalcification, as well as
decomposition and depletion of SOM, since the Middle Holocene.
Degradation of Chernozems in Central Europe resulted in the
formation of Stagnic Luvisols or Luvic Phaeozems (Fig. 1;
Rohdenburg and Meyer, 1968; Schalich, 1983, 1988; Fischer-Zujkov,
2000). In landscapes with a long history of agricultural use, i.e. most
loess regions in Central Europe, pedogenesis of Chernozems is also
affected by soil erosion and sedimentation. Thus, truncated or
buried Chernozem profiles are a frequent phenomenon (Fig. 2). The
complex interaction between Chernozem formation and human
activity is explained in a model by Fischer-Zujkov (2000).
The idea of (semi) natural Chernozem formation has been
challenged, based on the observation that (major) parts of SOM
have properties of Black Carbon (Schmidt et al., 2002). It has been
concluded that besides climate, vegetation and bioturbation, fire
plays a crucial role in the formation of chernozemic soils. At first,
post-Mesolithic use of fire by humans for forest clearing was
assumed to be likely (Schmidt et al., 1999). Subsequently, the
traditional model of Chernozem formation has been questioned in* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: carsten.lorz@tu-dresden.de (C. Lorz), tsaile@gwdg.de (T. Saile).
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Quaternary International
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/quaint
1040-6182/$ e see front matter Ó 2010 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2010.11.022
Quaternary International 243 (2011) 273e279
B(w)h
E-AhAh E
Bht
Bw
Bt 2
Bw
Bt 1
Ckc
Ckc
Ckc
Ckc
Ckc
C
9600 BC 5300 BC 2200 BC
0
m
1
2
max.
decalcification
Neolithic Bronze Age & Iron Age
Weichsel Lateglacial
Luvisol
Luvic
Chernozem
Cambic
ChernozemChernozem
Calcaric
Regosol
Ah
Ah Ah
loess
initial soil
present12000 BC 4500 BC
Soil Formation since the Weichsel glacial
Preboreal & Boreal Atlanticum Subboreal & Subatlanticum
Mesolithic
Fig. 1. Chernozem formation in NW Germany (after Schalich, 1988), designation of horizons and soil classification after FAO (2006).
Fig. 2. Pathways of Chernozem evolution under erosional and accumulative conditions in NW Germany (after Schalich, 1988), designation of horizons and soil classification after
FAO (2006).
C. Lorz, T. Saile / Quaternary International 243 (2011) 273e279274
general, and anthropogenic causes have been suggested as crucial
for the evolution of Chernozems. Fire clearing by settlers of the
Early Neolithic Bandkeramik (LBK), or from other archaeological
periods (Gerlach et al., 2006), would have set vast fires, consuming
vegetation. At the same time, charred black material could somehow
have been rapidly mixed into parent materials.
Discussing these assumptions involves consideration of research
from various disciplines, including soil science, palaeobotany, and
archaeology. Three topics are the most crucial for the discussion:
 Occurrence of black carbon in the SOM of Chernozems and
relationship to fire clearance;
 Radiocarbon dating of Black Carbon in Chernozems; and
 Spatial coincidence of LBK-farmland and Chernozems.
2. Discussion
2.1. Occurrence of black carbon in the SOM of Chernozems and fire
clearance
The occurrence of Black Carbon or pyrogenic carbon in SOM of
Chernozems, as reported by several authors (Kleber et al., 2003;
Brodowski et al., 2005; Dai et al., 2005; Rodionov et al., 2006), is
assumed to be a product of extended vegetation fires caused by LBK
settlers in deciduousforestsof Northern Germany. Black Carbon may
contribute significantly to the formation of SOM of Chernozems and
has to be included in the existing model of formation. However,
there are several problems in the analysis of Black Carbon in soils:
(i) The chemical analysis focuses only on a certain condition
within the black carbon combustion continuum of slightly
charred, degradable biomass to highly condensed, refractory
soot (Masiello, 2004);
(ii) There are considerable problems in accurately determining
Black Carbon concentration in soils (Masiello, 2004; Simpson
and Hatcher, 2004; Novotny et al., 2006);
(iii) Decay of Black Carbon is a problem (Schmidt et al., 2002,
Rodionov et al., 2006); and
(iv) Large proportions of Black Carbon might come from lignite
and coal combustion (Brodowski et al., 2005).
It has been suggested that the existence of steppe is neither
a precondition for the evolution of Chernozems nor for Neolithic
settlements (Gehrt et al., 2002). Eckmeier et al. (2007) concluded
Fig. 3. Distribution of Chernozems in the Circumhercynian dry zones and reconstruction of palaeovegetation using molluscs (Ehwald et al., 1999) 1 ¼ Chernozem areas, 2 ¼ forest
fauna, 3 ¼ forest fauna with species of steppe, 4 ¼ non forest fauna with steppe species, 5 ¼ non forest fauna with species of flood plains, 6 ¼ pollen, supporting thesis of sparse
forest cover (for location of the study area see Fig. 4).
C. Lorz, T. Saile / Quaternary International 243 (2011) 273e279 275
from stratigraphic records and radiocarbon data that Chernozem
formation during the Late Glacial is unlikely.
The question of vegetation cover (forest vs. steppe) and Chernozem
formation has been discussed intensively in the past among
archaeologists, soil scientists, and palaeobotanists (e.g. Mania,
1995; Ehwald et al., 1999; Altermann et al., 2005). It is indisputable
that during the Atlantic Period (ca. 6800e3800 BC) Central
Europe was covered by a nearly closed forest. Density and tree
composition depended on site conditions (elevation, soils, topography
etc.) (Lüning and Kalis, 1988; Litt, 1992; Lüning, 2000; Kreuz,
2008). Pollen diagrams from the northern Upper Rhine Valley show
that large parts were probably densely forested with mixed oak
forests during the Boreal period (Dambeck and Bos, 2002). In
contrast, in the Lower Eichsfeld (south-western foreland of the
Harz Mountains, Germany) LBK settlers found a sparse deciduous
forest with lime, ash, elm, and oak (Beug, 1992).
For the Circumhercynian dry areas, steppe-like vegetation
without trees has been assumed based on micropalaeontological
findings of molluscan fauna (Fig. 3). However, for the same region,
palynological findings support the idea of closed forest cover (for
detailed discussion, see Ehwald et al., 1999). The results of pollen
analysis indicate regional vegetation patterns (Moore et al., 1991),
whereas molluscan fauna reflect rather local conditions.
The idea of steppe-like vegetation during the Atlantic has been
dismissed by most soil scientists (Ehwald, 1980; Sabel, 1983; Litt,
1992), but was accepted by Central German archaeology. It was
assumed that the open, tree free landscapes of the Mid-Elbe-Saaleregion
were avoided by LBK farmers because they depended on
wood supply. This is supported by the fact that most LBK settlements
are found at the margins of the Circumhercynian dry areas
(Kaufmann, 1975).
According to pedological and palynological findings, steppe-like
vegetation existed during the Late Glacial and Early Holocene period
in Central Europe (Mania, 1995). The formation of Chernozems in
Central Europe ended with the beginning of a more humid, oceanic
climate during the Atlantic Period and the subsequent closing of the
forest cover (Scheffer and Schachtschabel, 2002). Nevertheless,
Ehwald (1980) assumes that Chernozems developed in the Circumhercynian
dry areas under park savanna or under vegetation
that resembles today’s forest steppe in Eastern Europe and Western
Siberia (Ehwald et al., 1999). A major characteristic is a dense grass
and herbal layer, while trees and shrubs might be only scattered in
the landscape (Ehwald et al., 1999). Texture of parent materials
might be a major controlling factor. Fine-grained materials, e.g.
loess, provide site conditions favorable for steppe vegetation
(Makohonienko, 2009). Rohdenburg and Meyer (1968) suggested
Chernozem formation under initially open, then rapidly closing
forests at least in the first phase of the Holocene, if decalcification of
the initial substratum has not yet taken place. Even later genesis of
Chernozems under human-made open vegetation has been
described for the younger Holocene (Rohdenburg and Meyer,1968).
Therefore, the question of vegetation cover during Chernozem
genesis is still open (Altermann et al., 2005). However, if during the
Preboreal and Boreal (forest) steppe covered large parts of Central
Europe, as it is very likely, then vegetation fires resulting from
spontaneous ignition would be a regular phenomenon (Strasburger,
1993; Ellenberg, 1996). Thus, the assumption of human-made fires
might not be the only explanation for high BC concentrations in
Chernozems.
In addition, there are archaeological arguments against widespread
human fire clearance. The idea of the LBK culture settling
Northern Germany by establishing extensive shifting cultivation
systems (slash-and-burn as a possible source of BC) dates back to
the ideas of Childe (1929), which has long been very influential (e.g.
Tinner et al. (2005) for the forelands of the Alps). However, Childe’s
hypothesis has been rejected in most parts and is considered as
completely outmoded today (Lüning, 2000). Lüning and Kalis
(1992) described relatively small, isolated clearance areas, which
comprised only about 5e6% of the wood-covered loess landscapes.
Bandkeramik farmers might have also used natural clearings
(Kreuz, 2008). LBK settlement activities have not resulted in
widespread deforestation by creating large open spaces, but
instead caused changes in tree composition (Bakels, 1992).
The idea of Early Neolithic landscapes with a very small share of
forested areas is also supported by pedological findings. In this
context, “colluvium” is considered as anthropogenic sediment,
formed by soil erosion due to soil cultivation (cf. Kleber, 2006). Such
anthropogenic colluviums from the LBK period are rare and, as
preserved, thin (Lang and Hönscheidt, 1999; Saile, 2001; Kadereit
et al., 2002; Mäckel et al., 2002; Schulte and Heckmann, 2002).
Only in the immediate environment of settlements can stronger
soil erosion and colluvial sedimentation be found (Saile, 1993).
2.2. Radiocarbon dating of black carbon in Chernozems
Radiocarbon dating of SOM obtained from Chernozems has been
used to support the idea of formation during the Early Neolithic.
However, published dating varies over a wide range and falls
predominantly in the period from the middle of the 3rd to the
middle of the 1st millennium BC (Gehrt et al., 2002). Based on
a mixed record of radiocarbon dating (n ¼ 33) of soil organic carbon
(n ¼ 16), charcoal (n ¼ 9) and Black Carbon (n ¼ 8), Gerlach et al.
(2006) assumed a time span for Chernozem formation from the
Mesolithic to the Middle Ages. Eckmeier et al. (2007, p. 293)
concluded from these radiocarbon dates that, “the different ages
could indicate that Chernozems formed over a longer time period than
thought before”. However, only two of the samples are charcoal
from undisturbed soils (Luvic Phaeozems).
Even if it is accepted that organic compounds with lower
molecular weight, i.e. younger materials, are destroyed by photooxidation
before radiocarbon dating and higher aromatic BC is kept
intact, the samples are from chronologically mixed horizons, e.g.
mollic horizons of Chernozems. In soils without protection from
rejuvenation, i.e. surface soils, only the apparent mean residence
time of SOC can be detected (Scharpenseel et al., 2002). Topsoil
horizons are always more exposed to contamination by younger
carbon than are subsoil horizons. A reciprocal relation between 14
C
ages and depth is common, and is reported for 281 Mollisol profiles
by Scharpenseel et al. (1986). Similar depth gradients of radiometric
age for Podzols, Andosols, and Chernozems are reported by
Breemen and van Buurman (2002). In this context, the frequent
burning of harvest remains on agricultural land as well as the
possible input of lignite-derived particles e e.g. from combustion of
fossil fuels (Brodowski et al., 2005) e has to be mentioned. Samples
of Black Carbon or SOC, “contaminated” in this way, would yield
unreliable 14
C dates, i.e. mixed radiocarbon signals.
Therefore, the results of radiocarbon dating based on SOC or
Black Carbon from soils not protected against rejuvenation, i.e.
surface soils, are not suitable to determine the time of Chernozem
formationwith sufficient accuracy. They onlygive a general terminus
ante quem (Semmel, 1993; Ehwald et al., 1999; Scharpenseel et al.,
2002; Eckmeier et al., 2007). In contrast, Hilgers et al. (2003)
reported a 14
C date (for humic acids) of 5500 BC for a buried, thus
protected against rejuvenation, Chernozem profile near Wiesbaden,
Germany. The authors assume formation of the Chernozem during
the Boreal period.
A clear indication of the pre-LBK age of Chernozems is given by
pits and post holes dated in the Early LBK, which frequently contain
calcareous redeposited material of the A horizon of Chernozems
(Niquet, 1963; Thiemeyer, 1997). Relicts of Chernozems have been
C. Lorz, T. Saile / Quaternary International 243 (2011) 273e279276
found in the base of pits, since they have not been affected by later
processes of soil degradation (decalcification, brunification, lessivation)
(Semmel, 2001). Even if the interpretation of pit fillings as
Chernozem material is doubted (Gerlach et al., 2006), there are
several studies that found LBK settlement structures on Chernozems,
that later have been covered by anthropogenic colluvium
(Biel, 1995; Reim, 1995; Engelhardt et al., 1998; Meixner, 1998). One
of the few examples of a sound pedological description of a Chernozem
profile preserved beneath a Late Neolithic e unfortunately
not LBK e burial mound south of Leipzig, Germany is given by
Baumann et al. (1983). The authors conclude that by 4000 years
ago, Chernozems, partly with degradation phenomenon, existed in
the Saxonian Chernozem region. For Hungary, Barczi et al. (2009,
2006) described Chernozems found under and on top of burial
mounds. They concluded for both modern and palaeo environments
(around 6000 BP) Chernozems have been formed under
climate and vegetation typical of steppe environments. These
examples indicate that it is very likely that the first farmers who
settled in Northern Germany around 7500 years ago, found Chernozems
at that time.
2.3. Spatial coincidence of LBK-farmland and Chernozems
The assumption that the location of LBK settlements coincides
with Loess and Chernozem areas is thought to be supported by a soil
map for the southern part of Lower Saxony (Gehrt et al., 2002). The
map is based on the Bodenschätzung, a nationwide soil survey for the
taxation of farmland in Germany. The spatial pattern of Early
Neolithic settlements and the dissemination of five soil units were
claimed to show that, wherever LBK settlements are known, Chernozems
also were initially in existence (Gehrt et al., 2002).
However, the general coincidence of LBK settlements and
Chernozems is questionable. It has been known for a long time that
neither Chernozems nor soils with a verifiable Chernozem history
prevail in agricultural areas of all LBK settlements (Buttler, 1931). In
addition to the general preference for soils on loess by Early
Neolithic farmers, LBK settlements have been found on non-loess
material. As well, there are several loess landscapes, such as the
Calenberger and the Peiner Börde (Southern Lower Saxony), and
the central dry areas of the Circumherzynian Chernozem region
(Central Germany), without any findings of LBK settlements.
It is difficult to make firm conclusions from the Bodenschätzung
data concerning the history of Chernozems in loess areas. Although
it should be possible to recognize Chernozems, Luvic Phaeozems
and Luvisols, the distinction of Luvisols with and without Chernozemic
origin on the basis of the condition grades (Zustandstufe)
of the Bodenschätzung is not possible, since the necessary criteria e
e.g. humic clay skins e have not been recorded.
An example is provided by the relationship between LBK
settlements, their economic areas, and soils in a region of
60 Â 60 km (Fig. 4) located between the River Weser and the Harz
Mountains. The region might be considered as comparatively well
explored after intense archaeological research during the last
century (Saile and Lorz, 2003). For the region Leine-Ilme-Graben
and Seeburger Becken, 129 Early Neolithic settlements are known.
A map was constructed from the 1:50000 digital soil map of Lower
Saxony (BÜK 50) by classifying type and depth of parent material
into six classes (Fig. 4). Pedogenetic processes were excluded,
Fig. 4. Soil map and LBK settlements in the South of Lower Saxony. Map based on digital Soil Overview Map (BÜK 50 digital).
C. Lorz, T. Saile / Quaternary International 243 (2011) 273e279 277
because soil conditions during the LBK period can be hardly estimated
without detailed studies. However, since it plays an important
role in the discussion, the present distribution of Chernozems
is also shown in Fig. 4.
The map leads to the conclusion that LBK settlers preferred
highly productive and light soils with easy access to water courses
(Sabel, 1983). These conditions are provided in the dry loess landscape
of the investigated region with a distinctly incised, dense
drainage network. Of 129 LBK settlements, 118 are located on loess,
i.e. 34% (979 km2
) of the region carries 92% of the LBK settlements.
Around 1% (25 km2
) of the region and 3% of the area with loess are
covered today by Chernozems. Only 5% (n ¼ 7) of the Neolithic
settlements are found in those areas.
LBK settlers favored fringes of ecotones, e.g. loess areas bordering
alluvial flood plains or loess-free areas respectively. The frequent
occurrence of LBK settlements close to loess boundaries is
a phenomenon that has been often observed (Bakels, 1978). Altitudes
higher than 200 m asl, areas with high precipitation, and areas
with shallow, fragmentary loess covers as well as isolated loess areas
were avoided, as they did not meet the demands of Neolithic settlers
regarding the economic sense for the landscape (Crome, 1924).
However, plotting of known LBK settlements on a small-scale
map of today’s soils provides only limited information on the palaeosoilscape,because
for Luvisols,presently dominatingin loess regions,
a Chernozem history cannot be generally verified. Semmel (2001)
reports for the Taunus foreland (SW-Central Germany), that even
theoften used criterionof humusclayskins cannot be accepted as the
sole argument for the necessary presence of Chernozems in the
antecedent stages of the recent Luvisols. For a reconstruction of
palaeo-(soil) environments of archaeological sites, detailed soil
surveys would be necessary.
3. Conclusion
The hypothesis of a predominantly anthropogenic pedogenesis
of Chernozems in Northern Germany during the Early Neolithic,
and also during other younger periods, has to be rejected. The
current theory of natural formation is still valid. The presented
observations, especially the occurrence of Black Carbon, can be
explained by existing models.
Extended human fire clearance during the LBK period as the
main reason for the widespread destruction of forests is rather
unlikely. Whether Black Carbon was formed through natural or
anthropogenic burning can only be speculated upon (Schmidt et al.,
2002). Recently, even non-pyrogenic formation of Black Carbon is
thought to be likely (Glaser and Knorr, 2008).
It remains unsolved whether all of the soils considered as
Chernozems (“Off-site-Schwarzerden”, Gerlach et al., 2006) can be
described as Chernozems in the pedogenetic meaning. The authors
do not see the need of introducing the term “off-site”, referring to
sites which despite the lack of any findings assumed to be of
archaeological origin. For analyses in soil geography, isolated soil
profiles are generally less useful. The genetic relation along
a catena, i.e. toposequence of soils, has to be analyzed. The complex
relationships between formation and preservation of Chernozems
can only be reconstructed using landscape based approaches
(Gerlach et al., 2006). However, the patchy distribution of Chernozems
and Luvisols remains an unsolved problem. The assumed
link to the LBK-land use patterns is rather vague, since the
respective areas have a land use history of up to 7000 years.
Some soils in Northern Germany have been influenced by
human activities, for example the Plaggenesch (Cumulic Anthrosol)
in NW Germany (Blume and Leinweber, 2004). In addition, soils at
settlement sites might be strongly modified by human activity
(Schmid et al., 2002). However, the general reference to
anthropogenic soils in other climatic zones and areas with entirely
different physicalegeographical conditions (e.g. “Terra Preta de
Índio“ [Indian black earth], Lima et al., (2002)) contributes little to
the understanding of Chernozem formation in Northern Germany.
In conclusion, human activities have a crucial effect on soil
formation in Germany, and also on the genesis of Chernozems.
However, the idea of anthropogenic formation of Chernozems in
Germany due to fire clearance during the LBK period has to be
rejected.
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