RECETOX, Masaryk University, Brno, CR
holoubek@recetox.muni.cz; http://recetox.muni.cz
Ivan Holoubek
C6890 Technologie ochrany prostředí
2. Vývoj přístupů k technologii OŽP
Sylabus přednášky
Č Název přednášky Obsah přednášky
1 Historie ochrany životního
prostředí
Vývoj ochrany ŽP od dávnověku do
současnosti. Vývoj prevenčního
přístupu, USV
ZH
11.10.
2 Vývoj přístupů k technologii
OŽP
Technologie čistění spalin I.
Srovnání vývoje, BAT, BREF
Hlavní technologie znečisťující
ovzduší (tabulkový přehled),
legislativa
IH
27.9.
3 Technologie čistění spalin
II.
Technologie čistění spalin –
odsiřování, denitrifikace, odlučování
tuhých částic, úprava paliv. Moderní
trendy.
IH
25.10.
Sylabus přednášky
Č Název přednášky Obsah přednášky
4 Úprava a čistění vod
Odpadové hospodářství
Hlavní technologie znečisťující vody
(tabulkový přehled), legislativa
Hlavní technologie produkující
odpady (tabulkový přehled),
legislativa
IH
27.9.
5 Úprava a čistění vod z měst a
obcí
Úprava vody pro pitné účely, ČOV
pro velké aglomerace (mechanický,
chemický, biologický stupeň), malé
ČOV, kalové hospodářství
ZH
22.11.
6 Úprava a čistění vod pro
průmyslové a speciální účely
Dialýza, reverzní osmóza,
membránová filtrace, iontoměničové
postupy. Moderní trendy.
ZH
22.11.
Sylabus přednášky
Č Název přednášky Obsah přednášky
7 Exkurze do úpravny vody a
ČOV v Brně
ZH
13.12.
8 Tok odpadů Původci odpadů, flow stream, sběr a
svoz odpadů, předúprava odpadů
ZH
11.10.
9 Technologie odpadového
hospodářství
Skládkování, spalování, stabilizace,
technologie pro BRO, linky pro
kapalné odpady
ZH
8.11.
10 Nespalovací technologie pro
likvidaci nebezpečných
odpadů
Chemické a fyzikálně-chemické
nespalovací technologie pro likvidaci
persistentních, nebezpečných látek a
odpadů s těmito látkami, srovnání se
spalovacími technologiemi
IH
25.10.
Sylabus přednášky
Č Název přednášky Obsah přednášky
11 Speciální techniky
v odpadovém hospodářství
Sanace, havarijní připravenost,
recyklace a využití odpadů, řešení
speciálních druhů odpadů
ZH
8.11.
12 Moderní trendy
v odpadovém hospodářství
Očekávaný vývoj v oblasti
odpadového hospodářství,
materiálové a energetické využití
odpadů
ZH
6.12.
13 Exkurze do logistického
centra a kompostárny v Brně
ZH
13.12.
6Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Sylabus přednášky
Č Název přednášky Obsah přednášky
1 Vývoj přístupů k technologii
OŽP
Srovnání vývoje, BAT, BREF
Hlavní technologie znečisťující
ovzduší (tabulkový přehled),
legislativa
Hlavní technologie znečisťující vody
(tabulkový přehled), legislativa
Hlavní technologie produkující
odpady (tabulkový přehled),
legislativa
7Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
http://recetox.muni.cz
Globální důsledky znečištění prostředí
8Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
http://recetox.muni.cz
Globální produkce
9Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Globální důsledky
10Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Globální antropogenní cyklus
11Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Hodnocení dopadu antropogenních činností
12Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Hodnocení dopadu antropogenních činností
13Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Sound management of POPs by-products
Sound management of POPs by-products
= sound management of their release sources
PROCESS SPECIFIC MANAGEMENT
Basic possible approaches:
 Alternatives (alternatives with similar usefulness but avoiding
POPs releases)
 Primary measures (targeted onto the process-BAT, BEP,
cleaner technologies)
 Secondary measures (end-of-pipe- BAC
 Management of releases targeted to a particular pollutant will
influence releases of other pollutants
14Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
http://recetox.muni.cz
BAT/BEP- available guidance
 In the Stockholm Convention
 Annex C: General guidance on prevention and release
reduction measures
 Guidelines on BAT/BEP: Draft guidelines available at
http://www.pops.int/documents/meetings/bat_bep
 UNEP Toolkit (overview of technologies from obsolete
to BAT)
 In the UNECE CLRTAP POPs Protocol
 Annex V: BAT to control emissions of POPs from
major stationary sources
http://www.unece.org/env/lrtap
 EU/ BAT Reference Documents (BREF)
http://eippcb.jrc.es
15Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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BAT/BEP - Definitions
Best available techniques (BAT)
means the most effective and advanced stage in the development
of activities and their methods of operation which indicate
the practical suitability of particular techniques for providing
in principle the basis for release limitations designed to
prevent and, where that is not practicable, generally to
reduce releases of chemicals listed in Part I of Annex C and
their impact on the environment as a whole. In this regard:
16Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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 Techniques includes both the technology used and the way
in which the installation is designed, built, maintained,
operated and decommissioned;
 Available techniques means those techniques that are
accessible to the operator and that are developed on a scale
that allows implementation in the relevant industrial sector,
under economically and technically viable conditions, taking
into consideration the costs and advantages; and
 Best means most effective in achieving a high general level of
protection of the environment as a whole;
BAT/BEP - Definitions
17Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Best environmental practices (BEP)
means the application of the most appropriate combination
of environmental control measures and strategies
The concept of best available techniques is not aimed at the
prescription of any specific technique or technology, but at
taking into account the technical characteristics of the
installation concerned, its geographical location and the local
environmental conditions
Stockholm Convention, Article 5 paragraph (f)
Stockholm Convention, Annex C, Part V, section B.
BAT/BEP - Definitions
18Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Economic and social implications
 Economic and social conditions in a country will determine
what are “best” available techniques and “best”
environmental practices
 Large scale processes (cement kilns, sinter plants, power
plants…) BAT/BEP will be similar world-wide
 Small scale processes (crematoria, home heating/cooking,
motor vehicles, waste burning…) technologies vary from
country to country
 Determining what is “BAT/BEP” needs to include analysis
of economic feasibility
“Best” = best option that is economically feasible under the
socio-economic conditions present
19Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Timetable for POPs by-products
 Establish an action plan within 2 years after entry into force
of the Convention for the Party;
 A review of the strategies in the action plan to achieve the
goals every 5 years;
 Phase in the requirements of BAT identified for new sources
as soon as possible but not later than 4 years after entry into
force
 These dates are part of the Convention and not negotiable
 Linkage to Article 7 on National Implementation Plans
20Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Environmental management - general principles
 Sustainable development
 Sustainable consumption
 Development and implementation of environmental
management systems
 Precautionary approach
 Internalizing environmental costs and polluter pays
 Pollution prevention
 Integrated pollution prevention and control
 Co-benefits of controlling other pollutants
 Cleaner production
 Life cycle analysis and management
21Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Proposed requirements for sound disposal of POPs
Destruction and/or irreversible transformation of POPs wastes
must achieve a destruction efficiency (DE)/ destruction and
removal efficiency (DRE) of 99.9999%
22Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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POPs formation mechanisms
Understanding the POPs formation mechanisms is a key to
sound unintended POPs by-product management:
 Gas phase formation from precursors at T= 300 – 800 °C
(rearrangement, de-chlorination, free-radical condensation...)
 Solid-phase de-novo synthesis at T=200 – 500 °C
(residual carbon, HCl, O2, H2O, metals)
 Undestroyed “pass through” POPs originally in the raw
material (due to inefficient combustion)
Management of releases targeted to reduction of CO and
particulate matter releases will reduce also POPs releases
23Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Key considerations to manage POPs by-products
 Good burning conditions ( 3t-temperature, time, turbulence;
oxygen …) result in minimum PIC, hence low CO and POPs
releases  improve burning conditions
 Preventing of de-novo synthesis  avoid reformation window
200 - 500 °C
 POPs do adsorb in the flue gas on the surface of solid
particles with preference of the smallest fraction  dust
removal
 POPs are micro-contaminants; reducing macrocontaminants
usually takes care also for POPs reduction
 synergic effect of measures to control other pollutants
24Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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BAT/BEP Guidance
GUIDELINES ON BEST AVAILABLE TECHNIQUES AND PROVISIONAL
GUIDANCE ON BEST ENVIRONMENTAL PRACTICES RELEVANT
TO ARTICLE 5 AND ANNEX C OF THE STOCKHOLM
CONVENTION ON PERSISTENT ORGANIC POLLUTANTS,
DECEMBER 2006
HTTP://CHM.POPS.INT/PROGRAMMES/BAT/BEP/GUIDELINES
/TABID/187/LANGUAGE/EN-US/DEFAULT.ASPX
25Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
SECTION I: INTRODUCTION
I.A PURPOSE
I.B STRUCTURE OF DOCUMENT AND USING GUIDELINES AND GUIDANCE
I.C CHEMICALS LISTED IN ANNEX C: DEFINITIONS, RISKS, TOXICITY
I.D ARTICLE 5 AND ANNEX C OF THE CONVENTION
I.E RELATIONSHIP TO THE CONVENTION
I.F RELATIONSHIP TO OTHER ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
SECTION II: CONSIDERATION OF ALTERNATIVES IN THE APPLICATION OF BEST AVAILABLE TECHNIQUES
II.A CONSIDERATION OF ALTERNATIVES IN THE CONVENTION
II.B THE CONVENTION AND NEW SOURCES
II.C AN APPROACH TO CONSIDERATION OF ALTERNATIVES
II.
D
OTHER CONSIDERATIONS OF THE CONVENTION
SECTION III: BEST AVAILABLE TECHNIQUES AND BEST ENVIRONMENTAL PRACTICES: GUIDANCE, PRINCIPLES AND CROSS-CUTTING
CONSIDERATIONS
III.
A
GUIDANCE
III.
B
GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND APPROACHES
III.
C
CROSS-CUTTING CONSIDERATIONS:
(I) CHEMICALS LISTED IN ANNEX C: FORMATION MECHANISMS
(II) WASTE MANAGEMENT CONSIDERATIONS
(III) CO-BENEFITS OF BEST AVAILABLE TECHNIQUES FOR CHEMICALS LISTED IN ANNEX C
(IV) MANAGEMENT OF FLUE GAS AND OTHER RESIDUES
(V) TRAINING OF DECISION MAKERS AND TECHNICAL PERSONNEL
(VI) TESTING, MONITORING AND REPORTING
SECTION IV: COMPILATION OF SUMMARIES FROM THE SOURCE CATEGORIES INCLUDED IN SECTIONS V AND VI
SUMMARIES OF SECTION V: SOURCE CATEGORIES INCLUDED IN PART II OF ANNEX C
SUMMARIES OF SECTION VI: SOURCE CATEGORIES INCLUDED IN PART III OF ANNEX C
BAT/BEP Guidance
26Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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SECTION V: GUIDANCE/GUIDELINES BY SOURCE CATEGORIES: SOURCE CATEGORIES IN PART II OF ANNEX C
V.A WASTE INCINERATORS
(I) MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE, HAZARDOUS WASTE AND SEWAGE SLUDGE
(II) MEDICAL WASTE
V.B CEMENT KILNS FIRING HAZARDOUS WASTE
V.C PRODUCTION OF PULP USING ELEMENTAL CHLORINE OR CHEMICALS GENERATING ELEMENTAL CHLORINE
V.D THERMAL PROCESSES IN THE METALLURGICAL INDUSTRY
(I) SECONDARY COPPER PRODUCTION
(II) SINTER PLANTS IN THE IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY
(III) SECONDARY ALUMINIUM PRODUCTION
(IV) SECONDARY ZINC PRODUCTION
SECTION VI: GUIDANCE/GUIDELINES BY SOURCE CATEGORIES: SOURCE CATEGORIES IN PART III OF ANNEX C
VI.A OPEN BURNING OF WASTE, INCLUDING BURNING OF LANDFILL SITES
VI.B THERMAL PROCESSES IN THE METALLURGICAL INDUSTRY NOT MENTIONED IN ANNEX C PART II
(I) SECONDARY LEAD PRODUCTION
(II) PRIMARY ALUMINIUM PRODUCTION
(III) MAGNESIUM PRODUCTION
(IV) SECONDARY STEEL PRODUCTION
(V) PRIMARY BASE METALS SMELTING
VI.C RESIDENTIAL COMBUSTION SOURCES
VI.D FOSSIL FUEL-FIRED UTILITY AND INDUSTRIAL BOILERS
VI.E FIRING INSTALLATIONS FOR WOOD AND OTHER BIOMASS FUELS
VI.F SPECIFIC CHEMICAL PRODUCTION PROCESSES RELEASING CHEMICALS LISTED IN ANNEX C
VI.G CREMATORIA
VI.H MOTOR VEHICLES, PARTICULARLY THOSE BURNING LEADED GASOLINE
VI.I DESTRUCTION OF ANIMAL CARCASSES
VI.J TEXTILE AND LEATHER DYEING (WITH CHLORANIL) AND FINISHING (WITH ALKALINE EXTRACTION)
VI.K SHREDDER PLANTS FOR THE TREATMENT OF END-OF-LIFE VEHICLES
VI.L SMOULDERING OF COPPER CABLES
VI.M WASTE OIL REFINERIES
BAT/BEP Guidance
27Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Waste incineration
Municipal, hazardous solid waste and sewage sludge:
 Alternatives: waste minimization including recovery, reuse,
recycling, waste separation and cleaner technologies
 Purpose of waste incineration: volume reduction, energy
recovery, destruction and minimization of hazardous
constituents, disinfection, reuse of some residues
 BAT/BEP/BACT: prevent or minimize POPs releases,
proper waste handling, ensure good combustion, avoid
formation conditions, capturing POPs that are formed and
handling residues appropriately
 Achievable performance levels: 0.1-0.1 ng TEQ.Nm-3
28Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Hazardous waste incineration plant
29Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Liquid Waste
Tank Farm
Solid and
Sludge Waste
Bunker
Rotary Kiln
and
Afterburning
Chamber
Heat Recovery
Steam Boiler
Spray Dryer for
Wastewater
Evaporation
Electrostatic
Precipitator for
Fly Ash Removal
Wet Scrubbers for
Acid Gas Removal
Baghouse
Adsorber for
POPs Removal
Recuperative Heat
Exchanger for
Flue Gas Reheat
SCR System
for NOx and
POPs
Removal
Solid Hazardous
Waste Delivery (Bulk
and Drums)
Rotary kiln: T ≥ 1 000 °C
Afterburner: T ≥ 1 200 °C
O2 ≥ 6 % obj. (typical ~ 10 %vol.)
Multistage APCS including efficient POPs removal
Hazardous waste incineration plant
30Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Example of flue gas cleaning technology
31Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Examples of APCD’s relevant to the prevention or
reduction of unintentional POPs releases
 Cyclones and multi-cyclones
 Electrostatic precipitators – wet, dry or condensation
 Fabric filters – including catalytic bag filters
 Static bed filters
 Scrubbing systems - wet, spray dry, or ionization
 Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)
 Rapid quenching systems
 Carbon adsorption
32Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Dust removal
 Mechanic separation
wet/dry (300 - 150 mg.m-3)
 Electrostatic precipitation
dry/wet (5 - 25 mg.m-3)
 Textile filters
mechanic/catalytic
(less than 5 mg.m-3)
33Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Unintentional POPs formation
can occur within the ESP at
temperatures in the range of
200 ºC to about 450 ºC.
Operating the ESP within this
temperature range can lead
to the formation of
unintentional POPs in the
combustion gases released
from the stack.
Electrostatic precipitator principle
34Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Best Environmental Practices for Waste
Incineration
Well-maintained facilities, well-trained operators, a well-informed
public, and constant attention to the process are all important
factors in minimizing the formation and release of the
unintentional POPs from the incineration of waste.
In addition, effective waste management strategies (e.g., waste
minimization, source separation, and recycling), by altering
the volume and character of the incoming waste, can also
significantly impact releases.
35Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Waste Inspection and Characterization
36Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Proper Handling, Storage, and Pre-Treatment
Storage areas must be properly sealed with controlled drainage
and weatherproofing.
Fire detection and control systems for these areas should be
considered.
Storage and handling areas should be designed to prevent
contamination of environmental media and to facilitate clean
up in the event of spills or leakage.
Odors can be minimized by using bunker air for the combustion
process.
37Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Proper Handling, Storage, and Pre-Treatment
38Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Minimizing Storage Times
Minimizing the storage period will help prevent putrefaction and
unwanted reactions, as well as the deterioration of containers
and labeling.
Managing deliveries and communicating with suppliers will help
ensure that reasonable storage times are not exceeded.
39Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Establishing Quality Requirements for Waste Fed
Facilities must be able to accurately predict the heating value
and other attributes of the waste being combusted in order
to ensure that the design parameters of the incinerator are
being met.
40Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Monitoring
In addition to carbon monoxide, oxygen and NOx in the flue
gas, air flows and temperatures, pressure drops, and pH in
the flue gas can be routinely monitored at reasonable cost.
While these measurements in some instances can represent
reasonably good surrogates for the potential for
unintentional POPs formation and release, periodic
measurement of PCDDs/Fs in the flue gas will aid in
ensuring that releases are minimized and the incinerator is
operating properly.
41Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Rotary kiln incinerator
42Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Operator training
Regular training of personnel is essential for proper operation of
waste incinerators
43Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Circulating fluidised bed
44Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Maintaining Public Awareness and Communication
Successful incineration projects have been characterized by:
 holding regular meetings with concerned citizens;
 providing days for public visitation;
 posting release and operational data to the Internet; and
 displaying real time data on operations and releases at the
facility site.
45Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Bubbling fluidised bed
46Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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BAT - General Combustion Techniques
 Ensure design of furnace is appropriately matched to
characteristics of the waste to be processed.
 Maintain temperatures in the gas phase combustion zones in
the optimal range for completing oxidation of the waste.
 Provide for sufficient residence time (e.g. 2 seconds) and
turbulent mixing in the combustion chamber(s) to complete
incineration.
 Pre-heat primary and secondary air to assist combustion.
 Use continuous rather than batch processing wherever
possible to minimize start-up and shut-down releases.
47Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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 Establish systems to monitor critical combustion parameters
including grate speed and temperature, pressure drop, and
levels of CO, CO2, O2.
 Provide for control interventions to adjust waste feed, grate
speed, and temperature, volume, and distribution of primary
and secondary air.
 Install automatic auxiliary burners to maintain optimal
temperatures in the combustion chamber(s).
BAT - General Combustion Techniques
48Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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 Rotary kilns are well demonstrated for the incineration of
hazardous waste and can accept liquids and pastes as well as
solids.
 Water-cooled kilns can be operated at higher temperatures
and allow acceptance of wastes with higher energy values.
 Waste consistency (and combustion) can be improved by
shredding drums and other packaged hazardous wastes.
 A feed equalization system e.g., screw conveyors that can
crush and provide a constant amount of solid hazardous
waste to the furnace, will ensure smooth feeding.
BAT – Hazardous Waste Combustion Techniques
49Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Condensation electrostatic precipitator
50Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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BAT – Flue Gas Treatment
The type and order of treatment processes applied to the flue
gases once they leave the incineration chamber is important,
both for optimal operation of the devices as well as for the
overall cost effectiveness of the installation.
Waste incineration parameters that affect the selection of
techniques include:
 waste type - composition and variability;
 type of combustion process;
 flue gas flow and temperature;
 and the need for, and availability of, wastewater treatment.
51Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Fabric filters are also referred to as
baghouses or dust filters.
These particulate matter control devices can
effectively remove unintentional POPs
that may be associated with particles
and any vapors that adsorb to the
particles in the exhaust gas stream.
Filters are usually 16 to 20 cm diameter bags,
10 m long, made from woven fiberglass
material, and arranged in series.
Fabric filters are sensitive to acids; therefore,
they are usually operated in combination
with spray dryer adsorption systems for
upstream removal of acid gases.
Fabric filters
52Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Combined dust removal
53Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Desulphurization process
54Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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De-NOx
55Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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De-SOx & De-NOx
56Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Spray dry slurry
 Semi-wet scrubbing with
injection of atomized
hydrated lime slurry
 Removal of acid gases,
dust and prevention of
de-novo synthesis of
dioxins and furans by
rapid quenching
 No waste water
57Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Wet scrubbers
 Acid gas and dust
removal
 Rapid quenching
 Two stage (water + lime)
 Catalytic oxidation in
packed tower scrubbers
(polypropylene
embedded with carbon)
 Fine dust absorbers for
specific dioxin
separation
58Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Dust from the coke production or activated carbon dust
Sorption processes
Fixed bed filters
Flow injection
processes
Entrained flow
reactor
High specific
surface
59Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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POPs adsorption – injection of dry adsorbent
Fabric filter
Clean gas to stack
or next gas
cleaning step
Fly ash, reaction
products, used
adsorbent
Crude gas
Adsorbent
(e.g. HOC)
Air
Adsorbent
reservoir
60Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Catalytic oxidation
 Pre-cleaned gas
 May be combined with
DeNox
 Catalytic bag filters
 Easy operation and no
residues
C12H4Cl4O2 → 12 CO2 + 4 HCl
61Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Flue gas residue treatment
 Recycling
 Disposal to landfill
 Direct land filling
 Solidification (cement stabilization)
 Vitrification, melting and sintering
 Extraction and separation
 Chemical stabilization
 Incorporation into road making materials
 Valorization in salt or coal mines
62Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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BAT - Residue Management Techniques
 Unlike bottom ash, APCD residuals including fly ash and scrubber sludges may
contain relatively high concentrations of heavy metals, organic pollutants
(including PCDDs/Fs), chlorides and sulfides.
 Mixing fly ash and FGT residues with bottom ash should be avoided since this
will limit the subsequent use and disposal options for the bottom ash.
 Treatment techniques for these residues include:
 Cement solidification. Residues are mixed with mineral and hydraulic
binders and additives to reduce leaching potential. Product is landfilled.
 Vitrification. Residues are heated in electrical melting or blast furnaces to
immobilize pollutants of concern. Organics, including PCDD/F are
typically destroyed in the process.
 Catalytic treatment of fabric filter dusts under conditions of low
temperatures and lack of oxygen;
 The application of plasma or similar high temperature technologies.
 Fly ash and scrubber sludges are normally disposed of in landfills set aside for
this purpose. Some countries include ash content limits for PCDD/F in their
incinerator standards. If the content exceeds the limit, the ash must be re-
incinerated.
63Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Residue treatment
64Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Flue gas residue treatment
65Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Combination flue gas treatment
66Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Sound practices
MODERN WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS
 Resource use reduction
 Reuse
 Recovery/recycling
 Composting
 Environmentally sound landfiling
 Incineration using BAT
67Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Barriers to use alternatives
 Lack of education
 Lack of government will to reduce dependence upon open
burning to accomplish goals
 Open burning is an integral part of local agriculture
 Lack of alternative machinery or process or necessary
infrastructure
 Cost of alternatives
 Economic instruments
 Demonstration projects
68Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Residential combustion sources
 Purpose: Small scale energy conversion for household
heating and cooking
 BAT / BEP: High quality efficient combustion
(combustion chamber temperature, turbulence of the
burning gases, residence time, excess oxygen and fuel
type); use of more efficient improved stoves (improving also
indoor air quality); no use of household waste as fuel
 Performance: < 0.1 ng TEQ.Nm-3
69Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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 PCDD/PCDF formation: wood< coke< coal < biomass
<< co-combustion of wastes
 Incomplete combustion
 Central heating or individual stoves
 No possibility for emission control
 Developing countries:
 Very simple stoves
 No chimney/ventilation, resulting in indoor pollution
 Significant health effects on women and children
 Global Partnership for Clean Indoor Air (2003)
http://www.pciaonline.org/ and http://www.rwedp.org/
Residential combustion
70Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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BAT/BEP
BAT:
 Good mixing of gas and air (high turbulence)
 Sufficient residence time in the hot zone
 Minimal disturbance of the glow bed and homogenous
distribution of the primary air
 Minimal residence time in the temperature range between
180 – 500 °C and minimal dust deposition ability
 Stack kept clean and free of soot by ensuring complete
combustion and regular cleaning
71Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Great attention should be paid to regular maintenance of the
appliances in order to prevent/discover and repair potential
problems, such as:
 Cracked heat exchanger
 Not enough air to burn fuel properly
 Defective/blocked flue
 Maladjusted burner
 Defective grate
 Green or treated wood
 Inappropriate fuel (other than required by the constructor;
residential waste
BAT/BEP
72Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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 Ventilation to reduce indoor pollution and ensure propper
combustion
 Hood fan over the stove
 Ensure sufficient air flow into the house
 The vent is connected and unblocked without cracks or holes
 Ad more air (opening the stoker door)
 Smoke and soot indoors are signs of that the stove is releasing
pollutants into the indoor air
 Inspection and maintenance at regular intervals
BAT/BEP
73Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Correct use of appliances and fuel
 Understand and follow the operating instructions and to use
the recommended kind of fuel
 Burn hardwood rather than softwood (hotter/less creosote)
 Avoid green wood and wet wood
 Never burn any kind of waste, treated wood
Education awareness and training programmes
 Programmes for sellers and buyers of the stoves
 Proper information on potential hazards to human health
 Education and awareness on the appropriate use of fuels and
general BEP issues
BAT/BEP
74Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Biomass/wood stoves
 Replacing poorly designed stoves with improved stoves that
burn fuel more efficiently can be an effective strategy for
reducing hazardous POPs releases and improving indoor air
quality. In addition 50-80% of fuel may be saved
 Options for effective use of improved stoves:
 Stow design should match the specific available fuel
 Raising of public awareness about improved stoves
 Training on appropriate use of stoves
 Implement training programs for stove maintenance
and repair
 Cost-effectiveness of the new stoves
 Raising of awareness about indoor air pollution and
adverse health effects
75Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Crematoria
 Purpose: religiously and culturally accepted practice of
dealing with the dead of human being; alternative to burial
 BAT / BEP/ BECT: Avoidance of chlorinated materials,
maintenance of efficient combustion conditions (T over 850
°C), residence time 2 seconds, sufficient air (> 6% O2), APC
for sulphur dioxide, hydrogen chloride, CO, VOCs, dust and
POPs (lime and activated carbon injection followed by a bag
filter)
 Performance: dioxin/furan concentration < 0.1 ng TEQ.Nm-3
76Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Typical cremation process
77Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Motor vehicles burning leaded gasoline
 Purpose: Transportation by using gasoline and diesel as fuel;
particularly leaded gasoline, where chlorinated and
brominated scavengers are used
 Alternatives: use of other fuels, such as unleaded gasoline,
diesel, LPG, CNG, propane-butane, bio-fuels and alcohol/oil
mixtures
 BAT/BACT: banning of halogenated scavengers, fitting the
vehicle with and oxidation catalyst or particulate filter
78Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Smoldering of copper cables
 Purpose: Recovering of scrap copper
 BAT/BACT: mechanical cable chopping, stripping or high
temperature incineration (> 850 °C ), residence time, excess
oxygen, with APC
 “Open burning is not an environmentally acceptable solution
for any kind of waste” (UNEP 2001)
 Oxygen starved conditions
 Low temperatures 250-700 °C
 Cu is catalyzing PCDD/PCDF formation
79Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Alternatives
 Cable chopping
 Requires pre-sorting
 Granulation (filtering is necessary)
 Density/electrostatic separation (metal looses may occur)
 Cable stripping
 Cheaper than chopping/lower throughput/lower cost
 Presorting of the cables
 Complete recovery
 Rates: 60 m/min; 1.1 kg.min-1; cable diameter 1.6 mm-150 mm
 High temperature incineration
 To treat cables unsuitable for stripping or chopping
80Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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PCDDs/Fs – requirement for continuing minimization
and, where feasible, ultimate elimination, by
 Establishing an action plan (within 2 years);
 Establishing and maintaining release inventories;
 Promote/require use of substitute or modified materials,
products and processes to prevent the formation and release
of unintentional POPs;
 Application of best available techniques (BAT) and best
environmental practices (BEP);
 For new priority sources: as soon as possible but not later
than 4 years after entry-into-force.
81Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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The worst case of POPs wastes management –
disposal on dumping sites
82Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Hazardous waste site - emission pathways
83Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Groundwater protection - hazardous waste site
84Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Hazardous waste site
85Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Best environmental practise – best storage practise
86Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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 Solution of POPs waste problems to the moment when we
will have generally acceptable technics for destruction
 Economically more acceptable in present time than any
development and construction of new facility
(combustion/non-combustion)
Best environmental practise – best storage practise
87Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Underground landfills
 Underground landfills in for example in Germany are former salt mines
or separated parts of still existing mines.
 They are situated several 100 m under the earth’s surface and isolated
from ground water and the biosphere by natural sealants, e.g. clay layers.
 They are organized like warehouses with separated areas for, e.g.,
mercury containing wastes, arsenic containing wastes and PCBcontaining
wastes.
 Within a limited period of time the wastes deposited in an underground
landfill may be moved back if necessary.
 After a longer time (several hundred years) the salt flows around the
wastes, wrapping them – for eternity.
88Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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 Underground landfilling/underground waste stowing as a non-destructive
method of treating wastes containing POPs is now a highly recognized
form of treatment, especially for wastes which are not thermally treated
due to economical and ecological reasons, for example filter dust from
waste incineration plants.
 This method of disposal as lain out in the Stockholm Convention should
therefore be allowed use in the future.
 The amounts disposed of in Germany are from domestic as well as foreign
origin.
 Dioxin contaminated filter dust, especially from waste incineration but also
from metallurgic processing, make up the greater part of the wastes.
 Whilst the PCDD/F concentrations in filter dust from waste incineration
amount to less than 10 000 ng.kg-1, filter dust from metallurgic processing
in some cases significantly exceed this amount (rising up to 100 000 ng.kg-
1).
Underground landfills
89Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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Biological treatment
 The biological treatment, however, is a slow process and not
well suited for the detoxification of wastes containing
PCBs.
 Biological methods are under development and applied in
the remediation of contaminated areas, especially in cases
when an off-site treatment is not possible.
90Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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UNEP Resources
91Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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UNEP Resources
92Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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UNEP Resources
93Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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The United Nations Environment
Programme UNEP Standardized
Toolkit for Identification and
Quantification of Dioxin and Furan
Releases is designed to cover all
source categories and processes that
are listed in Annex C, Parts II and
III of the Stockholm Convention.
The Toolkit can be used where there are
no measured data available and
provides default emission factors for
all source categories.
Dioxin Toolkit
94Research Centre for Toxic Compounds in the Environment
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