IN TRANSITION NEW DIRECTIONS IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY FOURTH EDITION Edited by Trudi Bunting Pierre Filion Ryan Walker his completely revised fourth edition of Canadian Cities in Transition examines in depth _L the major transformations taking place in urban Canada—and the transformations that must be set in motion if the society is to survive. Presenting the city in all its facets—historical evolution, economic dynamics, environmental impacts, urban lifestyles, cultural makeup, social structure, infrastructures, governance, planning, appearance—it is designed to help the next generation address the urban problems they are inheriting: traffic congestion, environmental damage, crime, social segregation,'food deserts', governance.Topics new to this edition include Aboriginal peoples in urban Canada, urban food systems, the need tor more \valkable' cities to stem the growing obesity epidemic, and the startling but accurate concept ot cities as human 'feedlots'. All of the 25 chapters have been written specifically for this edition by experts in the fields of urban geography, planning, governance, transportation, and environmental studies. 4* A new glossary facilitates comprehension of key concepts and terms. New part openers organize the text into four parts and introduce the major themes. 4» New end-of-chapter review questions and in-text cross-chapter references encourage students to explore material in greater depth. 'X* A new two-colour design makes the text more accessible, and an expanded art program of maps, figures, and photographs helps readers contextualize key locales and important concepts. *^ Updated appendices with the latest census data on metropolitan areas and information on recent trends in urban research ensure a clear understanding of the most current material. «?• New online ancillaries include a student study guide to enhance students' comprehension and a test bank to aid instructors' class preparation. •t* Foundational chapters from the third edition are provided online as resource material. Trupi Bunting is a professor in the Department of Geography and School of Planning, University of Waterloo. Pierre Filion is a professor in the School of Planning, University of Waterloo. Ryan Walker is an assistant professor in the Department of Geography and Planning, University of Saskatchewan. www.oupcanada.com/bunting4e OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 9780195431254 CANADIAN CITIES IN TRANSITION NEW DIRECTIONS IN THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY FOURTH EDITION Trudi Bunting Pierre Filion Ryan Walker OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 8 Sampson Mews, Suite 204, Don Mills, Ontario M3C 0H5 www.oupcamda.com Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide in Oxford N e w York Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kuala Lumpur Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto With offices in Argentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam Oxford is a trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries Published in Canada by Oxford University Press Copyright © Oxford University Press Canada 2010 The moral rights of the author have been asserted Database right Oxford University Press (maker) First Published 2010 All rights reserved. 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Previous editions copyright © 1991,2000, 2006 Oxford University Press Canada Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing in Publication Canadian cities in transition : new directions in the twenty-first century / edited by Trudi Bunting, Pierre Filion and Ryan Walker. — 4th ed. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-19-543125-4 1. Cities and towns—Canada—Textbooks. 2. Urbanization—Canada—Textbooks. I. Bunting,Trudi E., 1944- 11. Filion, Pierre, 1952- III. Walker, Ryan Christopher, 1975- HT127.C32 2010 307.760971 C2010-901555-X Cover image: 401 Richmond Street West roof garden in Toronto / Urbanspace Property Group This book is printed on permanent (acid-free) paper @>. Printed and bound in Canada. .1 2 3 4 — 13 12 11 10 Contents Publisher's Preface Preface: A Guide to the Text Contributors VI Part I Changing Parameters of Urban Form, Structure, and Policy Chapter 1 Fundamentals of Cities 4 Pierre Filion andTrudi Bunting Chapter 2 Epochs of Canadian Urban Development 19 Trudi Bunting and Pierre Filion Chapter 3 Transition in the City 39 Pierre Filion andTrudi Bunting Part II The Structuring Parameters of Twenty-First-Century Urbanization Chapter 4 The Global Imperative 56 Peter V. Hall Chapter 5 Getting Serious about Urban Sustainability: Eco-Footprints and the Vulnerability of Twenty-First-Century Cities 70 William E.Rees Chapter 6 The Dynamics of Economic Change in Canadian Cities: Innovation, Culture, and the Emergence of a Knowledge-Based Economy 87 Tara Vinodrai Chapter 7 Economic Change in Canadian Cities: Locational Dynamics of Employment 110 Tom Hutton iv Contents Life Course and Lifestyle Changes: Urban Change through the Lens of Demography Ivan Townshend and Ryan Walker Chapter 9 New Diversity: Social Change as Immigration Heidi Hoernig and ZhiXi (Cecilia) Zhuang Chapter 10 New Divisions: Social Polarization and Neighbourhood Inequality in the Canadian City R.Alan Walks Chapter 11 The Canadian City at a Crossroads between 'Passage' and 'Place' Anthony Perl and Jeffrey Kenworthy Chapter 12 Neo-Liberal Governance: Entrepreneurial Municipal Regimes in Canada Ahmed Allahwala, Julie-Anne Boudreau, and Roger Keil Chapter 13 The Economics of Urban Land Andrejs Skaburskis and Markus Moos 131 150 170 191 210 22 Part III 'Placing' and Planning the Twenty-First-Century City Black Holes or White Knights? Cities and the Environment 247 Sean Connelly and Mark Roseland Chapter 15 Re-Imaging, Re-Elevating, and Re-Placing the Urban: The Cultural Transformation of the Inner City in the Twenty-First Century 262 Alison Bain Chapter 16 Slow Growth and Decline in Canadian Cities 276 Betsy Donald and Heather M. Hall Chapter 17 Fear, Insecurity, and the Canadian City 293 Deborah Cowen, Amy Siciliano, and Neil Smith Chapter 18 Emerging Urban Forms in the Canadian City 307 Jill L. Grant and Pierre Filion Chapter 19 The Changing Meanings of Urban Places 325 Nicholas Lynch and David Ley Chapter 20 At Home in the City: Housing and Neighbourhood Transformation 342 Ryan Walker and Tom Carter Contents Chapter 21 Younger Cities, Older Cities, and Cities in the Balance: Spaces and Places of the Younger and Older Population MarkW Rosenberg and Dana H.Wilson Chapter 22 Aboriginal People in Canadian Cities Evelyn J. Peters Chapter 23 The Built Environment and Obesity: Trimming Waistlines through Neighbourhood Design Jason Gilliland Chapter 24 Food Systems and the City Alison Blay-Palmer 357 375 391 411 Part IV Towards a Sustainable, Healthy, and 'Smart' Future for Canadian Urban Communities Chapter 25 Conclusion: Challenges and Opportunities in the Twenty-First-Century City Larry S. Bourne and R. Alan Walks Appendix A Digital Data in Urban Research Paul Langlois Appendix B Selected Data on Canada's Census Metropolitan Areas Compiled by Paul Langlois 428 446 448 Glossary 450 Index 456 Publisher's Preface Oxford University Press is proud to introduce the fourth edition of Canadian Cities in Transition: New Directions in the Twenty-First Century, edited by Trudi Bunting, Pierre Filion, and Ryan Walker. Designed as a core text for courses in urban geography and urban planning with a Canadian focus, this relevant and comprehensive survey of the disciplines examines urbanization from both modern and traditional perspectives. Students will glean a rich understanding of urban geography and planning in Canada, from the founding principles to the current trends shaping the discipline today. By introducing new material, this edition of Canadian Cities in Transition views recent and ongoing changes to our urban environment as transformational, while still maintaining the strength of the previous editions in providing authoritative selections. Highlights of the New Edition • New voices. A mix of new and established authors in the field of urban geography and planning ensures the balance of authoritative voices to interpret trends, both past and present, that are shaping Canadian cities in the twenty-first century. • New topic coverage. Chapters covering Aboriginal peoples living in urban areas, environmental challenges, obesity and the auto-dependent city, and urban food systems offer students an even broader introduction to a wide range of issues. Updated visuals. Added visuals and the new 2-colour format make this edition more accessible and visually appealing. The art program has been revised to include images that help contextualize key locales and important material. New pedagogical aids. • The text has been organized into 4 parts, with introductions to help contextualize the material. • New chapter-end review questions and cross-chapter references help students to synthesize and engage with the material. • New appendices provide students with updated census data on metropolitan areas and information on recent trends in urban research, • A glossary has been, added to this edition to facilitate comprehension of key concepts and terms presented in the text. A new study guide and test bank provided to students online will enhance the student's learning experience and comprehension of the subject matter. • Foundational chapters from the third edition are provided as resource material and made available at the website for Canadian Cities in Transition: www.oupcanada.com/bunting4e. Preface: A Guide to the Text This fourth edition of Canadian Cities in Transition: New Directions in the Twenty-First Century is designed to serve a number of purposes. It is an introduction for university students to the Canadian urban phenomenon, presenting different facets of the city: its historical evolution, economic dynamics, environmental impacts, dependence on natural systems, urban lifestyles, cultural makeup, social structure, infrastructures, governance, planning, and appearance. The volume also is designed to assist the next generation of citizens, consumers, experts, business people, and politicians in their efforts to solve the urban problems—traffic congestion, different forms of environmental damage, crime, social segregation, governance—they are inheriting. Canadian cities are not simply a collection of problems to be solved, however, and this book helps to articulate the promise of urban Canada, where people and public space are recentred for economic, environmental, and social reasons, and where 'quality' instead of simply 'growth' becomes a unifying hallmark of urban policy. The book offers a state of the art of the knowledge on the Canadian city. The contributors review the recent literature and research on different aspects of the city, and provide their expert opinion on how to focus our examination of contemporary urban issues. Finally, the volume provides an update on urban Canada by identifying the main characteristics of the contemporary Canadian urban phenomenon, its problems, achievements, and opportunities. In this regard the text will help citizens make sense of the vast flow of information on cities circulated by the media. Because quality information is a condition for judicious decisions, knowledge of the city is vital to effective planning, private and public development, and consumer choice. The text is situated at the confluence of different disciplines with an urban dimension: mainly geography and planning, but also economics, political science, sociology, ecology, and history. It focuses on different urban themes and draws on all the disciplines relevant to their exploration. It also considers cities belonging to all size categories as well as to different Canadian regions. Contributors who represent all parts of the country are able to highlight cross-country differences as well as similarities by drawing on examples from their own regions. It must be stressed that this volume is very different from earlier versions of Canadian Cities in Transition because it heralds the new urban entity of the twenty-first century and explores aspects of cities not considered in previous editions. This fourth edition acknowledges that we are confronting a new kind of urban Canada after having been on the brink of a major transformation for many years. The picture we have put together here is one of a different city from that depicted in earlier editions. While all three previous editions of this text have been concerned with change and transition, this edition might be said to be about transformative change. The text also differs from earlier editions because it adds to the dimensions of cities considered in prior versions. Space does not allow us to repeat lessons learned about fundamental structural parameters of the city that were discussed in earlier versions of this book and that remain relevant today. To this end many of the chapters of the third edition have been placed on the Internet at www.oupcanada.com/bunting4e. These chapters deal with essential aspects of Canadian cities that are not covered in the fourth edition because of its attempt to broaden the scope of Preface: A Guide to the Text urban topics and to highlight new areas of urban inquiry brought to light by the postmodern city. The 25 chapters of this edition are organized into four parts, The three chapters in Part 1, written by Trudi Bunting and Pierre Filion, serve an introductory role by setting the context for the inquiries that occupy the following chapters. In Chapter 1, they lay out seven universal properties common to all cities. These properties explain the existence of the urban phenomenon as well as its different manifestations over time. The next chapter provides historical background for the material contained in the book. It describes different epochs of urban development in Canada, from the origins of resource-oriented colonial settlements to the urban surge associated with industrialization, and ultimately to the present post-industrial period. Chapter 3 explores the transition and transformation theme at the centre of the book. The chapter concentrates on two periods, the 1950s and the present. It reflects on the conditions that tostered a deep and lasting urban transformation in the 1950s, and considers how the present epoch offers a context similarly suited to a radical change of direction. The 10 chapters in Fart 2, 'The Structuring Parameters of Twenty-First-Century Urbanization', look at the fundamental aspects of cities that determine their form, dynamics, and evolution. This second part also examines how cities adapt to changing societal and global contexts. In Chapter 4, Peter V. Hall demonstrates how global trends—economic, demographic, political, and cultural—reverberate on Canadian cities. He argues that Canadian cities are increasingly integrated into global networks, a source of prosperity for some and decline for others. Chapter 5, by William Rees, is about the environmental impact of cities. It pictures them as an important contributor to global environmental damage. The chapter also explores the vulnerability of cities to environmental deterioration and the need for them to deploy long-term sustainability strategies. With Chapter 6, by Tara Vinodrai, the book begins an examination of urban economics, which will be the subject of a number of subsequent chapters. Vinodrai focuses on how cities are affected by present and recent economic trends and how they have reacted to these trends. She acknowledges the shift away from the industrial to the post-industrial city and the rising importance of innovative and knowledge sectors of the economy, but sees this trend as having both positive and negative impacts on cities. Chapter 7 also focuses on the economy of cities. Here, Tom Hutton concentrates on the locational dynamics of employment. He shows how job location within cities is a consequence of both broad economic trends and the specificities of metropolitan regions, which explains why different urban areas present different employment distribution patterns. Chapter 8, by Ivan Townshend and Ryan Walker, is about social changes affecting cities: demography, life course, and lifestyles. Among other things, the chapter highlights the effects of aging, the extension of youth, and the coexistence of numerous lifestyles, as well as the impact of these trends on the built environment and community dynamics within our cities. In Chapter 9, Heidi Hoernig and ZhiXi (Cecilia) Zhuang focus on immigration and the resulting social diversity. They chart the geography of immigration in Canada—the urban areas that especially attract immigrants and where immigrants concentrate m these cities. They also describe new urban phenomena associated with immigration, such as the emergence of'ethnoburbs', and end with two case studies: one involving ethnic retailing, the other, places of worship. The object of Chapter 10 is social polarization. R. Alan Walks identifies a range of factors accounting for growing income polarization among households over the last decades. He also paints the urban consequences of polarization, that is, an urban social geography that is increasingly characterized by unevenness. In Chapter 11, Anthony Perl and Jeffrey Kenworthy provide a wide range of observations on the state of urban Preface: A Guide to the Text ix transportation in Canadian cities. This particular chapter serves to illustrate the distinctive evolution of transportation in Canadian cities as compared to other developed countries across the globe. The chapter underscores the conditions that encourage and impede public transit use, walking, and cycling in urban Canada. Chapter 12, by Ahmed Allahwala, Julie-Anne Boudreau, and Roger Keil, looks at the changes in urban policies resulting from a shift to neo-liberaksm. The chapter uses the amalgamations of Toronto and Montreal to illustrate this form of contemporary urban governance. The last contribution of this part of the book, Chapter 13 by Andrejs Skaburskis and Markus Moos, examines the economics of urban land use. The chapter introduces the structuring parameters of urban land use and describes the origin and operation of urban land markets as well as their outcomes. Skaburskis and Moos end by introducing the dimensions of timing and strategy to help explain development decisions that challenge our conventional views of when, where, and how intensively land is capitalized. Part 3 is about responses to contemporary trends and issues affecting Canadian cities, as well as specific aspects of their operation. In Chapter 14, Sean Connelly and Mark Roseland review different approaches taken to abate the environmental damage caused by urban development, discerning between ecological modernization and sustainable community development. They also investigate the efficacy of these approaches through case studies of initiatives in Surrey, BC, and Toronto. Chapter 15, by Alison Bain, deals with emerging places in Canada's inner or central cities: gentrified neighbourhoods, high-rise condominiums, and the like. It relates the conditions that have led to their development and the impact these places have on the social structure and functioning of cities. If Chapter 10 described polarization within urban areas, Chapter 16, by Betsy Donald and Heather Hall, zeroes in on polarization among urban areas. It describes the multiple challenges that declining urban areas face and policy responses that could mitigate the consequences of decline. This issue is increasingly relevant given the present concentration of demographic and economic growth in a few large metropolitan areas and their surrounding regions. Donald and Hall convey the opportunities missed by urban decision-makers too narrowly focused on growth, rather than on qualitative development. Chapter 17, by Deborah Cowen, Amy Siciliano, and Neil Smith, deals with fear and insecurity in the city. It demonstrates how fear is constructed and leads to calls for security measures that often result in infringements of freedom. The chapter shows how behaviour and politics in the city respond to fear and insecurity. In Chapter 18, Jill Grant and Pierre Filion pursue the planning transition theme introduced in Chapter 3. Chapter 18 is about the loud call within the planning profession for a change in urban development trends. It describes and evaluates attempts at intensifying the urban environment while acknowledging the counter-effect of many new automobile-dependent urban forms such as power malls. Chapter 19 concentrates on the meaning of urban space. In this chapter, Nicholas Lynch and David Ley provide an historical perspective on urban places in Canada. They also focus on the meanings of contemporary places, which echo the increasingly globalized and polarized nature of Canadian cities. Chapter 20, by Ryan Walker and Tom Carter, is devoted to housing, the single largest user of space in Canadian cities, and its centrality to neighbourhood and urban transformation. After reviewing characteristics of the Canadian housing system, they articulate a series of social, environmental, and economic arguments pertaining to the role for public policy and communities in the twenty-first-century housing system. Subsequent chapters in Part 3 are attuned to pressing or newly emergent problems. In response to the impending demographic shift that will accompany the aging of the 'baby boom' generation, Mark Rosenberg and Dana Wilson explore in Preface: A Guide to the Text Chapter 21 how the aging population affects Canadian cities. Equally important, the authors address the place of youth in the twenty-first-century city. Addressing both youth and aging together, Rosenberg and Wilson offer a typology for Canadian cities as younger, older, or hanging 'in the balance', using age as the primary structuring parameter. They provide examples of difficulties that both younger and older residents encounter in urban environments and conclude by offering ideas and examples for creating an 'all' age-friendly city. Chapter 22, by Evelyn Peters, explores the presence of Aboriginal peoples m Canadian cities. It documents their concentration in certain cities and the emergence of an urban culture among Canadian Aboriginal peoples—a phenomenon likely to accelerate in the future given the differential rate of natural increase among First Nations and Metis populations in comparison with other native-born Canadians and newcomers. The chapter also considers how cities and urban services can adapt to the presence of Aboriginal peoples. Chapters 23 and 24 deal with topics that have been researched only in recent years. In Chapter 23, Jason Gilli-land provides evidence on the association between automobile-dependent urban settings and levels of obesity, and explores ways of promoting active living through urban form and transportation policy. Gilliland is particularly concerned with the negative impact that current urban design has on youth, and considers the long-term habits being acquired by these future adult urban citizens. Chapter 24, by Alison Blay-Palmer, looks at the new-found interest in the geography of food, as evidenced in movements such as 'the 100-mile diet'.This chapter is about how food is procured and distributed within Canadian cities. Issues include accessibility to different forms of food outlets and the problem of'food deserts', efforts to increase reliance on food grown nearby, and food production within cities themselves. Part 4—Chapter 25, by Larry S. Bourne and R. Alan Walks—draws on lessons from the book to sketch possible future urban scenarios. These revolve around the themes of complexity, contradictory tendencies, and uncertainty. Contributors Ahmed Allahwala Department of Geography York University Alison Bain Department of Geography York University Alison Blay-Palmer Geography and Environmental Studies Wilfrid Laurier University Julie-Anne Boudreau INRS urbanisation culture societe Larry S. Bourne Department of Geography and Program in Planning University ofToronto Trudi Bunting School of Planning and Department of Geography and Environmental Management University ofWaterloo Tom Carter Department of Geography University ofWinnipeg Sean Connelly Centre for Sustainable Community Development Simon Fraser University Deborah Cowen Department of Geography and Program in Planning University ofToronto Betsy Donald Department of Geography Queens University Pierre Filion School of Planning University ofWaterloo Jason Gilliland Department of Geography University ofWestern Ontario Jill L. Grant School of Planning Dalhousie University Heather M. Hall Department of Geography Queen's University Peter V. Hall Urban Studies Program Simon Fraser University Heidi Hoernig Office of Research Opportunities McGill University Thomas Hutton School of Community and Regional Planning University of British Columbia Roger Keil Faculty of Environmental Studies York University Contributors Jeffrey Kenworthy Curtin Sustainability Institute Curtin University of Technology, Australia Paul Langlois Department of Geography and Program in Planning University ofToronto David Ley Department of Geography University of British Columbia Nicholas Lynch Department of Geography University of British Columbia Markus Moos Department of Geography University of British Columbia Anthony Perl Urban Studies Program Simon Fraser University Evelyn J. Peters Johnson-Shoyama Graduate School of Public Policy University of Saskatchewan William E. Rees School of Community and Regional Planning University of British Columbia Mark Roseland School of Resource and Environmental Management Simon Fraser University Mark W. Rosenberg Department of Geography Queen's University Amy Siciliano Department of Geography and Program in Planning University ofToronto Andrejs Skaburskis School of Urban and Regional Planning Queen's University Neil Smith Department of Anthropology, Earth and Environmental Sciences The City University of New York Ivan Townshend Department of Geography University of Lethbridge Tara Vinodrai Department of Geography and Environmental Management University of Waterloo Ryan Walker Department of Geography and Planning University of Saskatchewan R. Alan Walks Department of Geography and Program in Planning University ofToronto Dana H.Wilson Department of Geography and Program in Planning University ofToronto Cecilia Zhuang School of Urban and Regional Planning Ryerson University