Chapter 4
c0004 Cyclostratigraphy and Astrochronology
L.A. Hinnov and F.J. Hilgen
Chapter Outline
4.1. Introduction 63
4.2. Earth’s Astronomical Parameters 64
4.3. The 405-kyr Metronome 67
4.4. Astronomically Forced Insolation 67
4.5. Cyclostratigraphy through Geologic Time 67
4.6. Constructing Astrochronologies and the ATS 71
4.7. Precision and Accuracy of the ATS 72
4.7.1. Seasonal Phase Relations 72
4.7.2. Tidal Dissipation, Dynamical Ellipticity and Climate
Friction 74
4.7.3. Solar System Diffusion 76
4.7.4. Summary of Uncertainties 76
4.8. Astrochronology-Geochronology Intercalibration 76
4.9. A New Astronomical Solution 78
References 78
s0010 4.1. INTRODUCTION
p0015 Paleoclimatological research has led to wide acceptance that
quasi-periodic oscillations in the Sun-Earth position, known
as Milankovitch cycles, have induced significant variations in
Earth’s past climate. These astronomically forced climate
variations have in turn influenced climate-sensitive sedimentation,
and thereby came to be fossilized in the Earth’s
cyclic stratigraphic, or cyclostratigraphic record. The subdiscipline
that has developed to study this record is known
today as cyclostratigraphy. The detection of astronomical
signals in cyclostratigraphy has been facilitated by impressive
advancements in celestial mechanics, which have provided
accurate models of Earth’s orbital-rotational behavior through
geological time, and also by equally notable improvements in
data collection and analysis.
p0020 A principal outcome of these developments has been the
recognition that the cyclostratigraphic record, when shown
to carry a signal specific to Earth’s astronomical parameters,
serves as a powerful chronometer. The astronomical
calibration of these cycles leads to astrochronology and
construction of the Astronomical Time Scale (ATS). High
quality data from the Cenozoic Era have demonstratively
preserved all of the astronomical cycles predicted by
modern celestial mechanics; the Neogene and Paleogene
periods are now almost completely astronomically calibrated,
as reported in Chapters 28 and 29, although serious
problems remain in the Paleogene. Cyclostratigraphy from
more remote geological ages cannot be calibrated fully or
directly to the astronomical variations, because of model
limitations and uncertainties in determining stratigraphic
age. Nonetheless, in numerous instances signals analogous
to those of the modeled astronomical variations have been
detected in cyclostratigraphy, prompting the development
of “floating” astrochronologies over extended time intervals
(multiple millions of years). Astronomically calibrated
floating time scales have now been proposed for intervals
that extend through entire stages in the Triassic, Jurassic
and Cretaceous periods, and are presented in Chapters 25,
26 and 27.
p0025This chapter provides an introduction to the Earth’s
astronomical parameters, the nature of the astronomically
forced incoming solar radiation (insolation), and the
discovery of astronomically forced insolation signals in
cyclostratigraphy. For remote geologic times, partial astronomical
calibration with the modeled 405-kyr orbital eccentricity
variation is allowable; the construction and application
of the “405-kyr metronome” is explained. This is followed by
a summary of the cyclostratigraphy that was used in the
“absolute” and “floating” astrochronologies of A Geologic
Time Scale 2012 (GTS2012). A discussion of the precision
and accuracy that can be expected from astronomically calibrated
cyclostratigraphy is also given. The chapter concludes
with remarks on recent inter-calibration efforts between
The Geologic Time Scale 2012. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-444-59425-9.00004-4
Copyright Ó 2012 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
63
To protect the rights of the author(s) and publisher we inform you that this PDF is an uncorrected proof for internal business use only by the author(s), editor(s), reviewer(s), Elsevier and typesetter
TNQ Books and Journals Pvt Ltd. It is not allowed to publish this proof online or in print. This proof copy is the copyright property of the publisher and is confidential until formal publication.
10004-GRADSTEIN-9780444594259
astrochronology and geochronology e the key to future
improvement in geologic time scale determination.
s0015 4.2. EARTH’S ASTRONOMICAL
PARAMETERS
p0030 The Earth undergoes quasi-periodic changes in its orientation
relative to the Sun, as a consequence of interactions
between the Earth’s axial precession and variable orbit
induced by motions of the other planets. These changes may
be described in terms of the Earth’s astronomical parameters
(Figure 4.1). Quantification of these parameters has been
carried out numerous times in the past using analytical
approximations of the planetary motions; a brief history of
these computations is given in Laskar et al. (2004). Today,
models of the astronomical parameters are based on
computerized numerical integration, and include important
new variables, e.g., relativistic effects, flattening of the
Earth, Sun and Moon, Earth’s tidal deceleration, climate
friction, and other factors. The nominal La2004 model
includes all of the above-mentioned variables, and provides
an accurate orbital eccentricity model back to 40 Ma (Laskar
et al., 2004). A new La2010 solution extends accuracy back
to 50 Ma (Section 4.9). Further back in time, however,
modeling validity rapidly diminishes due to uncertainties in
model initial conditions and numerical integration error.
While the initial conditions can be improved, integration
error ultimately limits the validity of the model to approximately
60 Ma (Laskar, 2006).
p0035Over the past 10 million years the Earth’s orbital eccentricity
has varied between 0e0.07 (Figure 4.2a) with principal
periods at 95 kyr, 99 kyr, 124 kyr, 131 kyr, 405 kyr, and
2260 kyr (Figure 4.3a), caused by gravitational perturbations
from the motions of the other planets acting on Earth’s orbital
elements P and e (Figure 4.1). The obliquity variation
changes the Earth’s axial tilt by between 22e24
(Figure 4.2b), with a principal period at 41 kyr, and lesser
ones at 39 kyr, 54 kyr and 29 kyr (Figure 4.3b), due to
planetary motions acting mainly on orbital elements I and U
(Figure 4.1). The precession index represents the combined
effects of orbital eccentricity and the Earth’s axial precession
on the Sun-Earth distance (Figure 4.2c), and has principal
periods at 24 kyr, 22 kyr, 19 kyr and 17 kyr (Figure 4.3c).
p0040Long-term secular changes in geophysical and astrodynamical
factors are expected to have influenced the
frequencies and phasings of the astronomical parameters.
These factors include chaotic diffusion of the Solar System,
tidal dissipation of the Earth-Moon system, Earth’s dynamical
ellipticity and climate friction (Section 4.7). At present
ε
ψ
Earth
NP
ϕ
n
I
b
a
Sun
P
γ
f2
ω
Ω
R E F E R E N C E
F I X E D
E C L I P T I C
line of
intersection
γο
f1
N
ECLIPTIC OF DATE
ϖ
Earth's
path
f0010 FIGURE 4.1 The Earth’s astronomical parameters viewed from above the Earth’s geographic North Pole (NP) in a configuration of northern summer solstice
(NP pointed towards the Sun). The Earth’s orbit is elliptical with (invariant) semi-major axis a and semi-minor axis b defining eccentricity e. The Sun occupies
one of the two foci (f1, f2). Variables e, P, I and U are “orbital elements,” where P ¼ U þ u. The plane of the Earth’s orbit (the “ecliptic of date”) is inclined at
an angle I relative to the fixed reference ecliptic, and intersects this reference ecliptic at a longitude U at point N, the ascending node, relative to fixed vernal
point go. (In this depiction, I is greatly exaggerated from its actual magnitude of 1 to 2.) The orbital perihelion point P is measured relative to go as the longitude
of perihelion P, and moves slowly anticlockwise. The Earth’s figure is tilted with respect to the ecliptic of date normal n at obliquity angle ε. Earth’s rotation 4
is anticlockwise; gravitational forces along the ecliptic of date from the Moon and Sun act on the Earth’s equatorial bulge and cause a clockwise precession j of
the rotation axis. This precession causes the vernal equinox point g to migrate clockwise along the Earth’s orbit, shifting the seasons relative to the orbit’s
eccentric shape; this motion constitutes the “precession of the equinoxes.” The angle 6between g and P is the moving longitude of perihelion and is used in the
precession index esin6 to track Earth-Sun distance. Variations of e, ε and esin6 are shown in Figure 4.2.
64 The Geologic Time Scale 2012
To protect the rights of the author(s) and publisher we inform you that this PDF is an uncorrected proof for internal business use only by the author(s), editor(s), reviewer(s), Elsevier and typesetter
TNQ Books and Journals Pvt Ltd. It is not allowed to publish this proof online or in print. This proof copy is the copyright property of the publisher and is confidential until formal publication.
10004-GRADSTEIN-9780444594259
21
22
23
24
25
26
degrees
0 2 4 6 8 10
millions of years ago
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
0 2 4 6 8 10
millions of years ago
-.1
-.05
0
.05
.1
0 2 4 6 8 10
millions of years ago
dimensionlessdimensionless
(a)
(b)
(c)
f0015 FIGURE 4.2 Variations of the Earth’s astronomical parameters over the past 10 million years according to the nominal La2004 model sampled at 1-kyr
intervals (Laskar et al., 2004). (a) Orbital eccentricity (dimensionless). (b) Obliquity variation, in degrees of axial tilt. (c) Precession index (dimensionless). All
values may be downloaded from the website: http://www.imcce.fr/Equipes/ASD/insola/earth/earth.html.
65Chapter | 4 Cyclostratigraphy and Astrochronology
To protect the rights of the author(s) and publisher we inform you that this PDF is an uncorrected proof for internal business use only by the author(s), editor(s), reviewer(s), Elsevier and typesetter
TNQ Books and Journals Pvt Ltd. It is not allowed to publish this proof online or in print. This proof copy is the copyright property of the publisher and is confidential until formal publication.
10004-GRADSTEIN-9780444594259
0
.005
.010
.015
.020
.025
0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.08
dimensionless
cycles/kyr
23.607
22.326
23.079
19.073
19.124
16.439
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04
cycles/kyr
55.04
40.8
40.11
39.45
29.75
28.83
degrees
.004
.006
.008
.010
.012
.014
0.0
.002
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02
cycles/kyr
667
488
405
345
220
202
179
131
124
99
95
88
83
77
63
56
2260
1000
dimensionless
(a)
(b)
(c)
f0020 FIGURE 4.3 Harmonic analysis using 4p multi-tapers (Thomson, 1982) of the Earth’s astronomical parameters depicted in Figure 4.2. Labels identify
periodic components in thousands of years. (a) Orbital eccentricity. (b) Obliquity variation. (c) Precession index. Due to the quasi-periodic nature of the
parameters and other factors (Section 4.7), the significance, periodicity and amplitude of the labeled components may change for analyses performed over other
time segments.
66 The Geologic Time Scale 2012
To protect the rights of the author(s) and publisher we inform you that this PDF is an uncorrected proof for internal business use only by the author(s), editor(s), reviewer(s), Elsevier and typesetter
TNQ Books and Journals Pvt Ltd. It is not allowed to publish this proof online or in print. This proof copy is the copyright property of the publisher and is confidential until formal publication.
10004-GRADSTEIN-9780444594259
the effects of these factors are in the main known only
theoretically; the cyclostratigraphic record has yet to be
analyzed for the magnitude and timing of these factors.
s0020 4.3. THE 405-KYR METRONOME
p0045 While chaotic behavior has in all liklelihood affected Earth’s
~100 kyr scale orbital eccentricity terms through geologic time,
the 405 kyr eccentricity cycle has remained relatively stable
overatleast the past 250 millionyears (Laskar etal.,2004). This
high-amplitude cycle is the consequence of gravitational
interactions between Jupiter and Venus, i.e. , motions of their
orbital perihelia, g2eg5. The large mass of Jupiter is responsible
for the stability of the 405-kyr cycle, which has an estimated
uncertainty of ~500 kyr at 250 Ma. Thus, this cycle can be used
asa basic calibration periodfor cyclostratigraphy; thisapproach
has been advocated by Laskar et al. (2004), and many others.
Today 405-kyr cyclicity has been recognized in many cyclostratigraphic
sequences, as demonstrated in the astrochronologiespresentedinChapters25e29ofthisvolume.Itnow
appears
that many of the so-called “third order sequences” in Mesozoic
stratigraphy are responses to the 405-kyr eccentricity cycle
through climate forcing by precession index carriers (e.g., Gale
et al., 2002; Boulila et al., 2010a).
p0050 To obtain the 405-kyr metronome, Laskar et al.
(2004) suggested using the simple formula:
e405 ¼ 0.027558 À 0.010739 cos(2434” þ 3.200”t). However,
this formula is valid only for 0e100 Ma. To provide an
accurate metronome for the entire modeled 0e249 Ma, the
nominal La2004 orbital eccentricity series was downsampled
to an 8 kyr spacing (down from 1 kyr given by
Laskar et al., 2004); bandpass filtering was applied to extract
the 405-kyr cycle. The filtered signal (normalized to unity) is
the 405-kyr metronome; four representative time slices are
shown in Figure 4.4. The depicted single-frequency metronome
has been included in TSCreator (Ogg, et al., 2011). The
long-term goal of astrochronology is to assign (“tune”)
cyclostratigraphy to the appropriate 405-kyr bins.
p0055 A slightly wider passband surrounding the 405-kyr term
includes the important g4eg3 modulation into the metronome
(Laskar et al., 2011). Figure 4.4 also displays this wide-band
metronome, which can vary significantly from the singlefrequency
metronome. The wide-band metronome can be used
to accurately tune cyclostratigraphy over 0e40 Ma using
La2004, and over 0e50 Ma using La2010 (Section 4.9). Prior
to 50 Ma, however, the g4eg3 modulation is inaccurately
known (Section 4.7); for Mesozoic and older cyclostratigraphy
the single-frequency metronome should be assumed.
s0025 4.4. ASTRONOMICALLY FORCED
INSOLATION
p0060 The orbital parameters affect changes in the intensity and
timing of the incoming solar radiation, or insolation, at all
points on the Earth. When considered at interannual time
scales, these insolation changes comprise the well-known
Milankovitch cycles (Milankovitch, 1941; reissued in English
in 1998). Figure 4.5 compares Milankovitch’s original
calculation of northern summer insolation at 65N with
a modern calculation based on La2004. Geographical location,
time of year, and even the time of day all determine the
relative contributions of the orbital parameters to the interannual
insolation (e.g., Berger et al., 1993; Berger et al.,
2010). For example, Figure 4.6 depicts the globally available
spectral power of orbitally forced daily insolation at the top of
the atmosphere on June 21 (solstice) and March 21 (equinox).
These examples are idealized in the sense that it is unlikely
that climate responds to insolation on only one day of the
year, but rather integrates insolation over certain times of the
year and collectively over specific geographic areas, possibly
over different areas at different times. This “climatic
filtering” alters the relative contributions of the orbital
parameters to the total output climate response, this even prior
to internal climate system responses to the insolation. Thus, it
is left to the discretion of the paleoclimatologist to determine
which time(s) of the year and at which location(s) a prevailing
climate has responded to insolation; this can require considerable
insight into the infinite number of ways that one can
sample insolation in space-time (Rubincam, 1994).
s00304.5. CYCLOSTRATIGRAPHY THROUGH
GEOLOGIC TIME
p0065The prospect that Earth’s astronomical variations have exerted
large-scale climatic changes that could be detected in the
geologic record was already being debated in the 19th
century
(e.g., Herschel, 1830; Adhe´mar, 1842; Lyell, 1867; Croll,
1875). Early attempts to link astronomical effects to paleoclimate
are reviewed in Hilgen (2010). Gilbert (1895) was the
first to attribute the origin of limestone/shale cyclic strata of
the Cretaceous Niobrara chalks (Colorado, USA) to astronomical
forcing. Bradley (1929) counted varves in the
lacustrine oil shale/marl cycles of the Eocene Green River
formation (Utah, USA) estimating an average 21,630-year
time scale for the cycles, and pointing to the precession of the
equinoxes as a potential cause. The first correlation between
astronomically calculated insolation minima and Late
Quaternary ice age deposits of the Alps was made by Ko¨ppen
and Wegener (1924), who used insolation as calculated by
Milankovitch for critical latitudes and seasons (i.e. , similar to
65N Summer); this correlation and tuning was also discussed
at length in Milankovitch (1941). Milankovitch (1941)
was the first to attempt a quantitative correlation between
astronomically calculated insolation minima and Late
Quaternary ice age deposits of the Alps. However, later
radiocarbon studies of glaciation timings in North America
did not clearly corroborate Milankovitch’s insolation
67Chapter | 4 Cyclostratigraphy and Astrochronology
To protect the rights of the author(s) and publisher we inform you that this PDF is an uncorrected proof for internal business use only by the author(s), editor(s), reviewer(s), Elsevier and typesetter
TNQ Books and Journals Pvt Ltd. It is not allowed to publish this proof online or in print. This proof copy is the copyright property of the publisher and is confidential until formal publication.
10004-GRADSTEIN-9780444594259
calculations, and the astronomical theory fell into disfavor
(review in Imbrie and Imbrie, 1979; update in Broecker and
Denton, 1989).
p0070 At the same time, significant progress had been made in
understanding the origins of the prevalent rhythmic stratification
of Mesozoic Alpine limestones (e.g., Schwarzacher,
1947, 1954). This research culminated in the seminal work of
Fischer (1964), who found that the meter-scale beds (the socalled
Lofer cyclothems) of the Triassic Dachstein Limestone
contained vertically repeating facies indicative of shallow
marine environments exposed to oscillating sea levels, with
a ca. 40 kyr timing. However, glaciations were unknown for
the Triassic, raising doubts about the mechanisms by which
such sea level oscillations could have occurred; the origin of
the Lofer cyclothems continues to be debated today
(e.g., Schwarzacher, 1993; Enos and Samankassou, 1998;
Cozzi et al., 2005).
p0075It was not until investigation of the Late Quaternary deepsea
sedimentary record that Milankovitch’s theory of climate
change was firmly validated. Emiliani (1955, 1966) explained
oxygen isotope fractionation in marine calcareous microfauna
as a function of ocean temperature and salinity;
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0 1 2 3 4 5
EccentricityEccentricity
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
Eccentricity
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
Eccentricity
time (Ma)
metronomemetronomemetronomemetronome
0
1
100 101 102 103 104 105
time (Ma)
200 201 202 203 204 205
time (Ma)
245 246 247 248 249 250
time (Ma)
(d)
(a)
(b)
(c)
0
1
0
1
0
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259
493 494 495 496 497 498 499 500 501 502 503 504
605 606 607 608 609 610 611 612 613 614
f0025
FIGURE 4.4 The 405-kyr eccentricity metronome. The nominal La2004 eccentricity series was subjected to Taner bandpass filtering (Taner, 2000) centered
at 1/(405.091 kyr), with cutoff frequencies set at Æ0.000001 cycles/kyr on either side of this center frequency. The filtered output was normalized to unity; this
constitutes the “single-frequency” 405-kyr metronome. Excerpts are displayed in (a)-(d) (red curve) and illustrate maintenance of phasing through the full
La2004 eccentricity solution (black curve) back to 249 Ma (the La2004 model terminous). The number labels indicate 405-kyr cycle number relative to the
present. This metronome may be accessed from TSCreator (Ogg et al., 2011), which can be downloaded from the website: http://www.tscreator.com/. Filtering
with cutoff frequencies set at Æ0.001 cycles/kyr on either side of the center frequency provides a “wide-band” 405-kyr metronome (green curve) for tuning the
cyclostratigraphic record from 0e40 Ma with La2004 (0e50 Ma with La2010).
68 The Geologic Time Scale 2012
To protect the rights of the author(s) and publisher we inform you that this PDF is an uncorrected proof for internal business use only by the author(s), editor(s), reviewer(s), Elsevier and typesetter
TNQ Books and Journals Pvt Ltd. It is not allowed to publish this proof online or in print. This proof copy is the copyright property of the publisher and is confidential until formal publication.
10004-GRADSTEIN-9780444594259
subsequently, Shackleton (1967) demonstrated that the
majority of change in the marine oxygen isotope fractionation
was linked to ocean volume (see also Dansgaard and Tauber,
1969). This result was followed by the landmark study of
Hays et al. (1976) in which the oxygen isotope record was
quantitatively linked to the Milankovitch cycles. Bolstered by
the advent of global paleomagnetic stratigraphy in combination
with new radioisotopic dates, it was subsequently
discovered that the same isotope signal, now encompassing
the entire Brunhes chron (0 to 0.78 Ma), was present in all of
the major oceans (Imbrie et al., 1984). Finally, calibration of
this proxy for global ocean volume to geological evidence for
large sea level changes (e.g., Chappell and Shackleton, 1986;
Waelbroeck et al., 2002) established, albeit indirectly, the
connection between the Quaternary ice ages and Milankovitch
cycles. Later research into polar ice stratigraphy
uncovered other isotope signals with strong orbital frequencies,
providing additional, overwhelming support for the
astronomical forcing theory (e.g., Petit et al., 1999; EPICA
Community Members, 2004).
p0080 Meanwhile, it was shown convincingly that the astronomical
tuning approach, using both oxygen isotopes and
sedimentary cycles, could be extended well beyond 800 ka,
i.e. the time of the last major glaciations (Shackleton et al.,
1990; Hilgen, 1991a, b). These milestone studies touched off
multiple initiatives to search for astronomical cycles in stratigraphy
back through geologic time, using isotopes as well as
other climate proxies, including facies stratigraphy, percent
carbonate, biogenic silica, magnetic susceptibility, wireline
logs, and grayscale scans (Table 4.1). Continental PliocenePleistocene
sediments recovered from Lake Baikal revealed
a strong biogenic silica signal closely mimicking that of the
marine isotope record (e.g., Williams et al., 1997; Prokopenko
et al., 2006), as do the long Chinese loess sequences
(e.g., Sun et al., 2006). Deep sea drilling yielded a continuous
oxygen isotope signal spanning 0e6 Ma (Shackleton et al.,
1995), and today, there is near-continuous Milankovitch cycle
coverage back to the start of the Cenozoic Era from combinations
of marine climate proxies from deep sea drilling and
outcrop studies (Chapters 28 and 29 of this volume). The
Cretaceous/Paleogene boundary was recently the subject of
a rigorous intercalibration effort between astrochronology
and geochronology (Section 4.8).
p0085Strong evidence for astronomical forcing continues back
into the Mesozoic Era. Multi-million year long cyclostratigraphic
successions from all three periods have been tapped
for astrochronology and are used in GTS2012 (Chapters 25,
26 and 27). The thick Upper Triassic continental lacustrine
deposits of eastern North America contain a nearly perfect
eccentricity signal that modulates facies successions linked to
wetting-drying climate cycles at precessional time scales.
Several of the Mesozoic successions which are now available
provide records of continuous astronomical signals that are 20
million years long or more; these include the Aptian-Albian
Piobbico core Tethyan sequence (Herbert et al., 1995) and the
Carnian-Hettangian Pangean sequence from the Newark
Basin Coring Project (Olsen and Kent, 1999), and most
recently, the Smithian-Carnian Panthalassic chert sequences
of Japan (Ikeda et al., 2010). For geologic times prior to the
late Triassic, the evidence for astronomically forced stratigraphy
is generally less clear. One reason is that pre-Jurassic
oceanic sediments are not composed of the abundant,
-500
0
500
350
375
400
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Thousands of Years Before Present
Milankovitch 1941
Laskar 2004
caloricunits
Watts/m2
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Millennia before the Year 1800
f0030 FIGURE 4.5 Milankovitch cycles for summer half-year mean insolation at 65 North, 0e600 ka, as originally calculated by Milankovitch (1941; table XXV,
p. 513e519) compared with the same calculated with the La2004 nominal model (Analyseries 2.4.2).
69Chapter | 4 Cyclostratigraphy and Astrochronology
To protect the rights of the author(s) and publisher we inform you that this PDF is an uncorrected proof for internal business use only by the author(s), editor(s), reviewer(s), Elsevier and typesetter
TNQ Books and Journals Pvt Ltd. It is not allowed to publish this proof online or in print. This proof copy is the copyright property of the publisher and is confidential until formal publication.
10004-GRADSTEIN-9780444594259
continuous rain of pelagic oozes as are the post-Jurassic ones.
Therefore, research is focused more on the prolific shallow
marine record, for which the primary evidence of Milankovitch
forcing is more a systematic “interruption” rather than
a continuous recording (Fischer, 1995).
p0090 Paleozoic formations show clear evidence for astronomical
forcing, but none have been integrated into GTS2012.
The Permian Castile Formation, a varved marine evaporite
sequence, shows a strong, but short-lived Milankovitch signal
(Anderson, 1982, 2010). The spectacular shelf carbonate
cycles of the Pennsylvanian Paradox Basin (Utah, USA)
indicate high-frequency sea level oscillations with some
astronomical signal characteristics (Goldhammer et al.,
1994). The classic transgressive-regressive cyclothems of
the Pennsylvanian world (e.g., Heckel, 2008) and the
rhythmic Mississippian hemipelagic limestones of Ireland
0.0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
90S
60S
30S
0
30N
60N
90N
LATITUDE
CYCLES/KYR
24
22
19
17
98
128
404
0
5
10
15
20
25
Watts/m2
0.0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05 0.06
0.07
0.08
90S
60S
30S
0
30N
60N
90N
LATITUDE
CYCLES/KYR
24
22
19
17
41
39
5498
128
4042400
0
5
10
15
20
25
Watts/m2
(a)
(b)
f0035 FIGURE 4.6 Frequency distribution of interannual insolation over 0e5 million years ago, sampled at 1ekyr intervals (Analyseries; Paillard et al., 1996) and
displayed as multi-tapered amplitude spectra with respect to geographic latitude. (a) Daily mean insolation on June 21 (solstice). Latitudes south of ca. 66S
receive no insolation on this day. Maximum daily insolation occurs in the northern polar regions, which experiences 24-hour exposure. (b) Daily mean
insolation on March 21 (equinox). Insolation strength is a function of local solar altitude, highest at the Equator on this day of equal-time exposure everywhere.
Contributions from the obliquity variation are absent. [Additional notes: Insolation for the December 21 solstice similar to (a), but with reversed latitudes; and
the September 21 equinox is practially identical to (b). Also, the precession component of variation in (a) is at all locations 90 out of phase with the precession
component in (b). Additional examples are given in Berger et al., 1993.]
70 The Geologic Time Scale 2012
To protect the rights of the author(s) and publisher we inform you that this PDF is an uncorrected proof for internal business use only by the author(s), editor(s), reviewer(s), Elsevier and typesetter
TNQ Books and Journals Pvt Ltd. It is not allowed to publish this proof online or in print. This proof copy is the copyright property of the publisher and is confidential until formal publication.
10004-GRADSTEIN-9780444594259
(Schwarzacher, 1993) appear to express the dominant 405-kyr
eccentricity cycle,
½AU2Š
conclusions that have recently been supported
by high-precision geochronology and cyclostratigraphy
of the Donets Basin, Ukraine (Davydov et al.,
2010). There are reports of astronomical-scale cycles in
Devonian formations (review in Tucker and Garland, 2010),
and for the Silurian (e.g., Crick et al., 2001; Nestor et al.,
2001, 2003). Stratigraphers have attempted to develop integrated
stratigraphy and some astrochronology for the Ordovician
(Kim and Lee, 1998; Gong and Droser, 2001;
Rodionov et al., 2003) but these efforts remain uncoordinated
and largely incomplete. The thick Cambrian-Ordovician
cyclic carbonate banks found worldwide show abundant
evidence of Milankovitch-scale forcing, although the origins
of these high-frequency cyclic sequences remains unsettled
(e.g., Osleger, 1995). Research on Cambrian cyclostratigraphy,
although off to a productive start several decades
ago (e.g., Read, 1995), is presently inactive.
p0095 Precambrian cyclostratigraphy also has evidence for
astronomical-like signals. Several shallow marine carbonate
successions have been examined, including the meter-scale
shallowing upward cycles of the Rocknest Formation, the
relict of an early Proterozoic (1.89 Ga) passive margin
carbonate platform in the Northwest Territories, Canada
(Grotzinger, 1986), and the platform sequence of the late
Archean (2.65 Ga) Cheshire Formation, Zimbabwe (Hofmann
et al., 2004). However, these records have not been
assessed with a specific astronomical model. It has also long
been speculated that the banded iron formations (BIFs), with
their strong, compound and sustained depositional cyclicity,
might have recorded early Milankovitch cycles (e.g., Ito et al.,
1993; Ha¨lbich et al., 1993; Simonson and Hassler, 1996).
Thus far only one study has attempted to quantify BIF
Milankovitch-band cyclicity (Franco and Hinnov, 2008).
s00354.6. CONSTRUCTING
ASTROCHRONOLOGIES AND THE ATS
p0100The time predictability of the Earth’s astronomical parameters
invites the practice of using cyclostratigraphy as a highresolution
geochronometer. While this application was
already considered by Croll (1867), it was Ko¨ppen and
Wegener (1924), using insolation curves calculated by
Milankovitch, who first calibrated theoretical astronomicalband
insolation (“canon of insolation”) directly to the
geologic record, adjusting approximately known ages of the
Late Quaternary Alpine ice ages to the insolation minima of
the calculated curves. Significant advances in astrochronology
began during the latter half of the 20th
century with the
development of high-resolution global marine oxygen isotope
stratigraphy and magnetostratigraphy for the Pleistocene
epoch (review in Kent, 1999).
p0105Absolute astrochronologies recovered from cyclostratigraphy
are explicitly connected to the time scale of the
astronomical model. For GTS2012, a composite, continuous
cyclostratigraphy has provided an absolute astrochronology
from the present day back to the Oligocene/Eocene transition
(0e34 Ma). Calibration of a cyclostratigraphic sequence
begins with the assumption of a target astronomical curve.
This may take the form of an insolation signal that most likely
affected the climate that influenced sedimentation (e.g., 65N
summer insolation assumed for Pleistocene astrochronology,
see Chapter 29), or it can be as simple as the sum of the
standardized orbital parameters (e.g., the ETP curve of Imbrie
et al., 1984). This assumption introduces a basic uncertainty,
because the true nature of the astronomical forcing of the
sediment is not known exactly. Hilgen et al. (2000), for
example, calibrated Miocene marl-clay deep sea cycles to two
possible target curves, 65N summer insolation and the
t0010
TABLE 4.1
Sedimentary Parameter Associated Climate Conditions
EXTRINSIC (independent of sedimentation rate) Oxygen isotopes
Carbon isotopes
Clay assemblages
Microfossil assemblages
Temperature/salinity/precipitation/eustasy
Productivity/C-sequestration/redox conditions
Surface hydrology
Salinity/temperature
INTRINSIC (directly related to and/or influenced
by sedimentation rate)
Percent CaCO3, Si, Corg
Magnetic susceptibility
Microfossil abundance
Clay/dust abundance
Lithofacies
Sediment color
Grain size
Productivity
Sedimentation rate
Productivity
Surface hydrology/atmospheric circulation
Depositional environment
Productivity/redox conditions
Erosion intensity/hydrodynamics
Commonly measured sedimentary parameters that have been linked to orbitally forced climate change, and the inferred climate conditions. Extrinsic parameters vary
independently from sediment supply; intrinsic parameters are directly related to sediment supply, and their signals tend to be more dramatically influenced (distorted)
by changes in sedimentation rate (Herbert, 1994).
Hinnov & Hilgen
71Chapter | 4 Cyclostratigraphy and Astrochronology
To protect the rights of the author(s) and publisher we inform you that this PDF is an uncorrected proof for internal business use only by the author(s), editor(s), reviewer(s), Elsevier and typesetter
TNQ Books and Journals Pvt Ltd. It is not allowed to publish this proof online or in print. This proof copy is the copyright property of the publisher and is confidential until formal publication.
10004-GRADSTEIN-9780444594259
precession index, correlating the mid-points of the marls to
the centers of the insolation maxima and precession minima.
These two calibrations produced chronologies that differ by
several thousand years for any given cycle; this was taken as
a fair representation of astrochronologic uncertainty. Other
questions persist about which model produces the most
accurate astrochronologies back through time related to
Earth’s tidal dissipation and dynamical ellipticity, which to
date have been assessed only in Neogene data (Section 4.7).
p0110 Floating astrochronologies are disconnected from absolute
time but are anchored to an independent geochronometer
(e.g., a radioisotope-dated horizon, magnetic reversal, or
biozone boundary). The astronomical calibration is based
upon the assumption that the signal frequencies observed in
cyclostratigraphy can be related to one or several frequencies
predicted by astronomical modeling, for example, the 405kyr
eccentricity cycle. It is assumed that planetary motions
are stable enough to be recognizable back to the geological
age represented by the data. This assumption holds reasonably
well at least as far back as the Cretaceous/Paleogene
boundary (Westerhold et al., 2008, 2009), and there are
numerous key similarities between the cyclostratigraphic
record and astronomical modeling at times as remote as
Triassic (examples in Hinnov and Ogg, 2007).
p0115 The stratigraphic coverage of the ATS that has been
assembled for GTS2012 is summarized in Figure 4.7.
Considerable progress has been made in the Cenozoic ATS
since GTS2004. Astrochronology for the interval between
10e12 Ma that had been based on the continental Orera
section in Spain is now replaced by the deep marine Monte
dei Corvi section (Hu¨sing et al., 2007). The downward
extension of Monte dei Corvi near La Vedova is used for the
interval between 13.5e14.3 Ma (Hu¨sing et al., 2010; Mourik
et al., 2010). Unfortunately, magnetization in the interval
between 12e13.5 Ma is too weak, and reversal ages still have
to be calculated from marine anomaly profiles. The same is
true for the interval 16e23 Ma, but high-resolution studies of
ODP sites from Leg 208 (Walvis Ridge; Liebrand et al., 2011)
and IODP Leg 320 (equatorial Pacific) offer bright prospects
for solving the remaining problems in the Early Miocene
ATS, including that of the Oligocene-Miocene boundary,
because the cores have reliable magnetostratigraphic records.
p0120 The tuning of the Eocene-Oligocene boundary interval
has also improved, in large part from analysis of the EoceneOligocene
boundary section at Massignano in Italy
(e.g., Brown et al., 2009). Part of the Middle Eocene has also
been tuned using the classical Contessa section (Jovane et al.,
2010). Finally, much progress has been made in constructing
an ATS for the entire Paleocene and Early Eocene (Lourens
et al., 2005; Westerhold et al., 2007, 2008; Westerhold and
Ro¨hl, 2009; Hilgen et al., 2010). This has used the intercalibration
of 40
Ar/39
Ar radioisotope dating and astronomical
tuning to constrain a first-order tuning (Kuiper et al., 2008). In
principle, astronomical tuning prior to 40e50 Ma can only be
carried out at the 405-kyr eccentricity scale in view of limitations
in the accuracy of the astronomical solution (Section
4.7). Uncertainties still exist in the number of 405-kyr
eccentricity-related cycles in the Paleocene, and several
tuning options have been presented that reflect the uncertainty
(Westerhold et al., 2008; Hilgen et al., 2010). These problems
will likely be resolved in the coming years when highprecision
state-of-the-art single crystal 40
Ar/39
Ar sanidine
and U-Pb zircon ages become available from key stratigraphic
levels such as the Cretaceous-Paleogene, PaleogeneEocene
and Eocene-Oligocene boundaries.
p0125The ATS has been extended, in “floating” form, into the
Mesozoic Era, spanning more than 75 percent of the Mesozoic
time scale (Figure 4.7). The entire Maastrichtian has now
been tuned (Husson et al., 2011); two options are presented,
reflecting the ongoing uncertainty in the initial tuning to the
orbital eccentricity. Aside from longstanding gaps in the
lower Campanian and Turonian, there is continuous stratigraphic
coverage to the base of the Oxfordian. BajocianBathonian
cyclostratigraphic analysis is ongoing (Zio´1kowski
and Hinnov, 2010); the Callovian and Sinemurian stages are
the only gaps remaining in the Jurassic ATS. The Triassic
ATS continues to be dominated by the continental Newark
series record (Olsen and Kent, 1996). The Lower Triassic of
the Germanic Basin has now been analyzed by several groups
(e.g., Bachmann and Kozur, 2004; Menning et al., 2005); the
Middle Triassic remains unresolved, in part due to the
“Latemar controversy” (Tanner, 2010).
s00404.7. PRECISION AND ACCURACY OF THE
ATS
p0130A number of significant factors have been identified that limit
the precision and accuracy of the ATS. There are uncertainties
in the climatic forcing leading to any given cyclostratigraphic
record, and of the geophysical effects on the past precession
of the Earth, and in modeling Solar System diffusion prior to
40e50 Ma, as follows.
s00454.7.1. Seasonal Phase Relations
p0135Tuning to the wrong insolation target curve can result in
tuning errors of up to 10e12 kyr (half a precession cycle). For
example, consider a marine sedimentary system that experiences
depositional cyclicity as the result of dilution of pelagic
carbonate from terrestrial run-off that peaks annually in early
spring (month of March) (Figure 4.8a); when insolation is
low, terrestrial run-off is correspondingly low, and pelagic
carbonate deposition is relatively high (Figure 4.8b). Thus,
tuning should match insolation minima with carbonate
maxima. Suppose that in error it is assumed that peak
summer-time ocean productivity was the cause of the pelagic
carbonate cyclicity (Figure 4.8c), and that a mid-summer
(month of July) insolation target is used to match carbonate
72 The Geologic Time Scale 2012
To protect the rights of the author(s) and publisher we inform you that this PDF is an uncorrected proof for internal business use only by the author(s), editor(s), reviewer(s), Elsevier and typesetter
TNQ Books and Journals Pvt Ltd. It is not allowed to publish this proof online or in print. This proof copy is the copyright property of the publisher and is confidential until formal publication.
10004-GRADSTEIN-9780444594259
f0040FIGURE4.7StratigraphiccoverageoftheATSinGTS2012.1dLourensetal.(2004);2dHilgenetal.(2007);3dHu¨singetal.(2009);4dHilgenetal.(2003);5dHolburnetal.(2007);6dHu¨sing
etal.(2010);7dBillupsetal.(2004);8dPa¨likeetal.(2006);9dPa¨likeetal.(2001);10dJovaneetal.(2010);11dWesterholdandRo¨hl(2009);12dLourensetal.(2005);13dWesterholdetal.(2007);
14dWesterholdetal.(2008);15dKuiperetal.(2008);16dHussonetal.(2011);17dLocklairandSageman(2008);18dSiewertetal.(2011);19dMeyersetal.(inpress);20dMeyersetal.(2001);
21dMitchelletal.(2008);22dLancietal.(2010);23dGaleetal.(1999);24dGaleetal.(2011);25dGrippoetal.(2004);26dHuangetal.(2010a);27dFietandGorin(2000);28dSprovierietal.
(2006);29dHuangetal.(1993);30dGiraudetal.(1995);31dSprengerandTenKate(1993);32dHuangetal.(2010b);33dWeedonetal.(2004);34dHuangetal.(2010c);35dStrasser(2007);
36dBoulilaetal.(2008a);37dBoulilaetal.(2008b);38dBoulilaetal.(2010a);39dBoulilaetal.(2010b);40dHinnovandPark(1999);41dSuanetal.(2008);42dHuret(2006);43dWeedonand
Jenkyns(1999);44dWeedonetal.(1999);45dKentandOlsen(2008);46dRuhletal.(2010);47dWhitesideetal.(2010);48dOlsenandKent(1996);49dBachmannandKozur(2004);50dKozur
andBachmann(2005);51dMenningetal.(2005);52dSzurlies(2004);53dSzurlies(2007).
73Chapter | 4 Cyclostratigraphy and Astrochronology
To protect the rights of the author(s) and publisher we inform you that this PDF is an uncorrected proof for internal business use only by the author(s), editor(s), reviewer(s), Elsevier and typesetter
TNQ Books and Journals Pvt Ltd. It is not allowed to publish this proof online or in print. This proof copy is the copyright property of the publisher and is confidential until formal publication.
10004-GRADSTEIN-9780444594259
maxima to insolation maxima (Figure 4.8d). This results in
a systematic error in chronology that is on the order of ~3 kyr.
In sum, if very little to nothing is understood about the
conditions of sedimentary deposition relative to the local
seasonal climate, the seasonal uncertainty can be as large
as Æ 10e12 kyrs (half a precession cycle).
s0050 4.7.2. Tidal Dissipation, Dynamical
Ellipticity and Climate Friction
p0140 Through geologic time, the Earth’s rotation rate has
progressively decelerated as a result of tidal energy dissipation.
Tidal dissipation results in an exchange of angular
momentum between the Earth and Moon, a decreasing Earth
rotation, increasing EartheMoon distance, and lunar recession
(Figure 4.9a). Lunar laser ranging from August, 1969 e
December, 1993 indicates a lunar recession rate of 3.82 cm/
yr, which corresponds to a change in length-of-day of 2.3 ms/
century. Geological data confirm that Earth’s rotation was
faster in the geological past, with apparently a 19-hour
length-of-day 1 billion years ago (Figure 4.9b). Changes in
rotation rate have not been uniform through time, with greater
deceleration occurring after 500 Ma.
p0145 The rotational deceleration increases the Earth’s precession
rate p, and in turn, the obliquity and precession periods
(Berger et al., 1992; Laskar et al., 1993a; Ito et al., 1993;
Berger and Loutre, 1994). Table 4.2 shows the principal
obliquity and precession periods over the past 250 Ma
according to the La2004 nominal model, which assumes
a length-of-day evolution of 2.68 ms/century, close to the
2.3 ms/century measured by lunar laser ranging (Dickey et al.,
1994). In addition, Earth’s shape, or dynamical ellipticity,
also contributes to p.
p0150Several pioneering studies have assessed Earth’s deceleration
from the cyclostratigraphic record. Lourens et al.
(1996) compared astronomical models with different tidal
dissipation and dynamical ellipticity values to cyclostratigraphic
(oxygen isotope) data from the Mediterranean,
Atlantic and Pacific oceans, concluding that the best fit was to
a model based on present-day values of dynamical ellipticity
and tidal dissipation. Likewise, Pa¨like and Shackleton (2000)
showed that present-day dynamical ellipticity and tidal
dissipation applied to astronomical tuning target curves for
the past 23 million years produced the best fit with ODP Leg
154 (Ceara Rise) cyclostratigraphy based on magnetic
susceptibility. However, in a study of an extremely highresolution
cyclostratigraphic series from 2.4e2.9 Ma,
Lourens et al. (2001) found that half of present-day tidal
dissipation produced an astronomical model with the best fit.
As the global cyclostratigraphic database improves and
extends further back in geologic time, renewed investigation
290
300
310
320
330
340
0 50 100 150 200
Watts/m2
kiloyears before present
420
440
460
480
500
520
540
0 50 100 150 200
Watts/m2
kiloyears before present
~3 kyr
error
March 40ºN
July 40ºN
Summer productivity
Spring run-off
This is correct phase
for CaCO3 maxima...
...but this was used for
CaCO3 maxima
weak
run-off
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
f0045 FIGURE 4.8 Example of seasonal uncertainty in astrochronology. (a) A northern mid-latitude marine depositional system in which the source of sedimentary
(carbonate-noncarbonate) cyclicity is dilution of pelagic carbonate by terrestrial-derived siliciclastics during early spring (month of March) melt season. (b) The
spring run-off depicted in (a) varies with March insolation, such that low insolation corresponds to decreased run-off, hence to pelagic carbonate maxima in the
interannual stratigraphic record. (c) An incorrect model in which marine productivity during the summer (month of July) is the source of sedimentary cyclicity.
(d) The model in (c) would be assumed to vary with July insolation, such that high insolation corresponds to higher productivity, and to carbonate maxima in the
stratigraphic record. In sum, assuming (a)e(b) would result in an accurate tuning of stratigraphy to a March insolation target curve; assuming (c)e(d) would
introduce a systematic ~3 kyr error in the tuning, due to an incorrect description of the sedimentary system response to climate change.
74 The Geologic Time Scale 2012
To protect the rights of the author(s) and publisher we inform you that this PDF is an uncorrected proof for internal business use only by the author(s), editor(s), reviewer(s), Elsevier and typesetter
TNQ Books and Journals Pvt Ltd. It is not allowed to publish this proof online or in print. This proof copy is the copyright property of the publisher and is confidential until formal publication.
10004-GRADSTEIN-9780444594259
should clarify the long-term evolution of Earth’s tidal dissipation
and dynamical ellipticity, which are thought to change
as a function of continent/ocean configuration, core-mantle
processes and crustal loading (e.g., ice sheets).
p0155 Glacial loading of the Earth’s crust, i.e., climate friction, is
thought to engender “obliquity-oblateness feedback” and
secular change in Earth’s obliquity (tilt) angle (Bills, 1994;
Rubincam, 1995; Ito et al., 1995; Levrard and Laskar, 2003).
Thomson (1990) noticed systematic differences between the
spectral lines of the Pleistocene SPECMAP stack (Imbrie
et al., 1984) and those of the astronomical parameters, suggesting
that the recorded signal was perturbed as a result of
the repeated massive ice sheet loading/unloading in the
Northern Hemisphere. Thomson discovered a differential
phasing in the obliquity and precession bands of SPECMAP
that could be explained by varying the precession rate p
by Æ 10% at 100,000-year timescales (the scale of the glaciations).
Laskar et al. (1993a, b) point out that such a change
could allow for passage of p into resonance with the
s6 À g6þg5 precession term and induce a ~0.5 increase in
maximum obliquity. Modeling shows that predicted longer
length-of-day in the near future will force precession into this
resonance (see Figure 14 in Laskar et al., 2004). However,
thus far, no evidence has been presented that Earth’s
EARTH
from above
North Pole
spin
direction
MOON
accelerates
Earth's tidal bulge raised
by Moon is delayed,so
leads Earth-Moon axis
Torque
operates
against
spin
recedes
20
22
24
2000 1500 1000 500 0
x Modern value
Corals, mean
Corals, maximum
Bivalves, mean
Stromatolites, mean
Brachiopods, maximum
Stromatolites, maximum
Elatina-Reynella x
Age (Ma)
Hoursperday
(a)
(b)
La2004
x
f0050 FIGURE 4.9 Earth rotation deceleration from tidal energy dissipation. (a) The Moon raises a tidal bulge that is delayed due to friction between the oceans
and crust, and within the solid Earth, by an angle d, which is 0.2 for the solid M2 tide and ~65 for the net ocean M2 tide (Munk, 1997; Ray et al., 2001).
Gravitational force from the Moon acts on the offset bulge, producing a torque on the Earth in a direction opposite from the rotation, causing the Earth to
decelerate. (b) Deceleration of the Earth over the past 2 billion years based on geological data. The data shown are from Williams (2000). Corals, bivalves and
brachiopods secrete daily growth bands that modulate annually; fossils indicate more growth bands per year back in time. Stromatolite laminations have been
interpreted similarly. Tidalites are an alternate, relatively rare source of information. The red dashed line indicates the length-of-day model used in the nominal
La2004 solution of Laskar et al. (2004), which assumes present-day tidal dissipation and dynamical ellipticity. Table 4.2 lists obliquity and precession periodicities
for key geological times.
75Chapter | 4 Cyclostratigraphy and Astrochronology
To protect the rights of the author(s) and publisher we inform you that this PDF is an uncorrected proof for internal business use only by the author(s), editor(s), reviewer(s), Elsevier and typesetter
TNQ Books and Journals Pvt Ltd. It is not allowed to publish this proof online or in print. This proof copy is the copyright property of the publisher and is confidential until formal publication.
10004-GRADSTEIN-9780444594259
precession
½AU3Š
has undergone resonance as the result of climate
friction.
s0055 4.7.3. Solar System Diffusion
p0160 Modeling experiments demonstrate that the inner planets of
the Solar System experienced significant chaotic diffusion
throughout the remote past (Laskar 1990; Laskar et al., 1992;
Laskar, 1994). Over the past ~40 million years, the Earth and
Mars orbits have been in 2:1 secular resonance, described by
the argument q ¼ (s4es3) À 2(g4eg3), where s3 and s4 are
secular frequencies defining the rotation of the ascending
nodes of the orbits, and g3 and g4 are secular frequencies for
the rotation of orbital perihelia of Earth and Mars (Matthews
et al., 1997; Laskar, 1999; Laskar et al., 2004). Prior to 40
million years ago, modeling indicates that the two orbits
experienced intermittent chaotic transitions, and 1:1 resonance
states, i.e. , q ¼ (s4es3) À (g4eg3) (e.g., Figure 23 in
Laskar et al., 2004). These resonance states may be observed
indirectly in paleoclimate data in long-period modulations of
Earth’s obliquity and precession index, in the beat frequencies
produced by the terms pþs3 (1/41 kyr) and pþs4 (1/39 kyr) in
the obliquity, and pþg3 (1/19.1 kyr) and pþg4 (1/18.9 kyr) in
the precession index, where p ¼ 50.4467718”/yr is the Earth
precession rate (variable through time due to tidal dissipation
and dynamical ellipticity). The term g4eg3 is also present in
Earth’s orbital eccentricity as a long-period modulation in the
~100 kyr variation, e.g., the beat frequency raised by g4eg5
(1/94.9 kyr) and g3eg5 (1/98.8 kyr).
p0165Figure 4.10 shows s4es3 and g4eg3 in the modulation
envelopes of the La2004 obliquity and eccentricity, for which
the former has a ~1.2 myr periodicity, and the latter, a ~2.4
myr periodicity, over 0e10 Ma; also shown are the modulations
over 85e95 Ma to illustrate transient shortening of the
modulations from chaotic diffusion. These modulations have
been confirmed in Cenozoic stratigraphy, notably across the
Miocene-Oligocene transition in deep-sea sedimentary
sequences recovered by the Ocean Drilling Program
(Shackleton et al., 1999; Pa¨like et al., 2004). In the future, the
documentation of Earth-Mars secular resonance states
throughout the Mesozoic Era will provide key constraints on
the gravitational parameters used in Solar System modeling
(Laskar 2003; Laskar et al., 2004).
s00604.7.4. Summary of Uncertainties
p0170In Figure 4.11 the “tidal uncertainty” refers to lack of
knowledge about Earth’s past tidal dissipation and its effect
on the precession rate, which presents as an accumulating
deficit of years in the recorded obliquity and precession
cycles back through time (Figure 20.7 in Lourens et al.,
2004). As this amount accumulates, at some point it becomes
necessary to tune instead to the orbital eccentricity; this is
depicted at 50 Ma. At times prior to 50 Ma, astronomical
models diverge as the combined result of initial condition
uncertainties and integration error, with close agreement only
for the 405-kyr eccentricity cycle back to 250 Ma. Sometime
between 50 and 100 Ma, modeling indicates that a “transition”
occurred in the resonance state between the Earth and
Mars orbits, which would have affected the 100-kyr eccentricity
variation. This is shown by the shaded area labeled
“transition”, at which point it becomes necessary to restrict
tuning to the 405-kyr cycle only. The precise timing of the
transition will be determined through future, detailed examination
of the cyclostratigraphic record (Laskar et al., 2011).
s00654.8. ASTROCHRONOLOGYGEOCHRONOLOGY
INTERCALIBRATION
p0175The extension of the astronomical dating method into the
MiddleeEarly Pleistocene and Pliocene (Shackleton et al.,
1990; Hilgen, 1991a, b) stimulated much research directed at
the comparison of astronomical and radio-isotopic ages,
especially because astronomical ages proved to be significantly
older e by ~3 to 12% e than published K/Ar ages for
the same magnetic reversal boundaries. This discrepancy was
t0015
TABLE 4.2
(a)
Time (Ma) 54 kyr 41 kyr 39 kyr 29 kyr 28 kyr
0e5 53562 40917 39510 29727 28852
50e55 50710 39185 37975 28877 28003
100e105 47847 38865 36324 27910 27137
150e155 45188 35852 34807 27027 26233
200e205 42680 34211 33300 26130 25374
244e249 40502 32830 31949 25272 24582
(b)
Time (Ma) 24 kyr 22 kyr 19.0 kyr 18.9 kyr 16.5 kyr
0e5 23657 22336 19080 18947 16453
50e55 23052 21820 18716 18539 16168
100e105 22472 21304 18335 18090 15873
150e155 21863 20768 18077 17794 15574
200e205 21258 20206 17519 17391 15253
244e249 20691 19708 17129 17007 14968
Dissipation-induced changes in the main periods of the Earth’s obliquity
variation (a) and precession index (b) from 0 to 250 million years ago. Periods
are estimated over 5 million year intervals of the La2004 nominal solution
(Laskar et al., 2004) with 4p multi-taper amplitude spectra using Analyseries
(Paillard et al., 1996); values are in thousands of years.
Hinnov & Hilgen
76 The Geologic Time Scale 2012
To protect the rights of the author(s) and publisher we inform you that this PDF is an uncorrected proof for internal business use only by the author(s), editor(s), reviewer(s), Elsevier and typesetter
TNQ Books and Journals Pvt Ltd. It is not allowed to publish this proof online or in print. This proof copy is the copyright property of the publisher and is confidential until formal publication.
10004-GRADSTEIN-9780444594259
largely attributed to incomplete Ar degassing of basaltic bulk
rock samples used for dating the reversals (Hilgen et al.,
1991b). The switch to 40
Ar/39
Ar dating led to very accurate
and precise ages, but only the analytical error, leading in K/Ar
dating, was initially taken into account and not the full error of
~2.5% that included such factors as uncertainties in the decay
constants and mineral dating standards (Min et al., 2000). This
encouraged further research, as the error in astronomical
dating is comparatively small once the tuning itself is correct
(~0.1% between 5 and 10 Ma; e.g. Kuiper et al., 2008).
p0180 Following earlier attempts (e.g., Renne et al., 1994;
Hilgen et al., 1997), a direct½AU1Š intercalibration was achieved
through a direct comparison of astronomical and Ar/Ar
ages of ash beds intercalated in astronomically tuned
marine sections in the Melilla Basin in Morocco (Kuiper
et al., 2008). This study revealed a systematic offset with
astronomical ages being ~0.7% older. This offset was
removed by fitting the 40
Ar/39
Ar ages to the astronomical
ages by adjusting the age of the Fish Canyon tuff sanidine
(FCs) dating standard from 28.02 Æ 0.28 Ma (Renne et al.,
1998) to 28.201 Æ 0.046 Ma. Consequently, the error in the
astronomically calibrated FCs age is greatly reduced due to
the fact that uncertainties related to decay constants and
the age of the primary dating standard which together
0
0.005
0.01
9492908886
Eccentricity
0
0.005
0.01
0
1
1086420
Eccentricity
Millions of years b.p.
Millions of years b.p.
0
1
obliquity(º)
obliquity(º)
(a)
(b)
f0055 FIGURE 4.10 Amplitude modulations (AM) of the eccentricity (blue lines) and obliquity (green lines). The eccentricity modulations have a dominant
~2.45 myr periodicity, and the obliquity modulations have a 1.2 myr periodicity. These AM curves were estimated by applying Hilbert transforms to Taner
bandpass filtered (Taner, 2000) La2004 eccentricity and obliquity series over 0e249 Ma with a passband of 0.01025 Æ 0.00075 cycles/kyr (short eccentricity)
and a passband of 0.0275 Æ 0.0045 cycles/kyr (main obliquity). The filtered series were Hilbert-transformed (Taner et al., 1979) to obtain the amplitude
modulations. The two excerpts illustrate (a) 2:1 secular resonance from 0e10 Ma, and (b) 1:1 resonance indicated by the frequency correspondence between
eccentricity and obliquity from 87e90 Ma.
77Chapter | 4 Cyclostratigraphy and Astrochronology
To protect the rights of the author(s) and publisher we inform you that this PDF is an uncorrected proof for internal business use only by the author(s), editor(s), reviewer(s), Elsevier and typesetter
TNQ Books and Journals Pvt Ltd. It is not allowed to publish this proof online or in print. This proof copy is the copyright property of the publisher and is confidential until formal publication.
10004-GRADSTEIN-9780444594259
dominate the full error in 40
Ar/39
Ar dating are effectively
eliminated.
p0185 The 28.201 Æ 0.046 Ma FCs age has been independently
confirmed by 40
Ar/39
Ar dating of the A1 ashbed in the
astronomically tuned Faneromeni section, and U-Pb dating of
single zircon crystals in the Fish Canyon tuff and in ash beds
from the astronomically dated Monte dei Corvi section
(Rivera et al., in press; Wotzlaw et al., 2010). These results
suggest that the FCs age of 28.30 Ma based on 40
Ar/39
Ar-UPb
pairs and neglecting astronomical dating (Renne et al.,
2010) is too old, and that an FCs age of 27.93 Ma based on
40
Ar/39
Ar-astrochronologic intercalibration of the Matayuma/
Brunhes transition (Channell et al., 2010) is too young. The
28.201 Æ 0.046 Ma FCs standard is further supported by
a three-way intercalibration of 40
Ar/39
Ar, U-Pb and astrochronology
across the Cenomanian/Turonian boundary
(Meyers et al., in press), and by a direct comparison of U/Pb
and 40
Ar/39
Ar ages of two ash beds from the Eocene Green
River Formation, allowing a direct comparison with the
astronomical solution for the first time (Smith et al., 2010).
The intercalibration guarantees that astronomical and
40
Ar/39
Ar dating will produce the same age when the same
event in Earth history is dated. The astronomically calibrated
FCs standard provides unprecedented tight constraints for the
tuning of pre-Neogene successions. In this way, problems
such as the existing Eocene gap in the ATS or the reduced
reliability of the astronomical solution further back in time
can be circumvented.
s0070
4.9. A NEW ASTRONOMICAL SOLUTION
p0190A new solution, La2010, has now been made available
(Laskar et al., 2011). This solution is limited to the orbital
eccentricity, and uses the new, highly accurate ephemeris
solution INPOP10 over short time scales (Fienga et al., 2009,
2010). La2010 is reliable back to 50 Ma, as compared to 40
Ma for La2004. This is a major improvement, as the solution
must be one order more accurate in order to extend its reliability
by an additional 10 myr (Laskar et al., 2004). La2010
will play a major role in solving problems presently
encountered in the tuning of the Paleocene and early Eocene
(Westerhold et al., 2008; Hilgen et al., 2010). It will shed light
on the possibility of long-period eccentricity forcing of
Eocene hyperthermals (Lourens et al., 2005) and Mesozoic
black shales (Mitchell et al., 2008).
cesectitle00REFERENCES
Adhe´mar, J., 1842. Les re´volutions de la mer, de´luges pe´riodiques. CarilianGouery
et V. Dalmort, Paris, p. 184.
Anderson, R.Y., 1982. A long geoclimatic record from the Permian. Journal
of Geophysical Research 87, 7285e7294.
41
405
100
20
0.001
0.01
0.1
1
10
0 100 200 300 400 500
%ageuncertainty
U-Pb, 40Ar/39Ar
30 kyr
150 kyr
350 kyr
500 kyr
maximum uncertainty
transition
60 kyr
~300 kyr
tidal
uncertainty
(a)
MILLIONS OF YEARS B.P.
Anchored to La2004
Future Paleozoic ATS coverage
'Floating' ATS coverage
(b)
0 100 200 300 400 500
f0060 FIGURE 4.11 Summary of current ATS uncertainty and stratigraphic coverage through the Phanerozoic Eon. (a) Lower limit of age uncertainty (in %)
from high-precision geochronology (dash-dot line) and cyclostratigraphy (solid curves). Red lines indicate the geologic time intervals for which the different
modeled astronomical parameters may be used with confidence. “Tidal uncertainty” refers to the uncertainty in knowledge of past tidal friction and its effect on
the Earth’s rotation and precession rate p (Lourens et al., 2004). “Maximum uncertainty” on the 405-kyr term refers to uncertainty estimated from differences
among six different astronomical models (Laskar et al., 2004). The shaded area labeled “transition” refers to the latest predicted Earth-Mars orbital resonance
transition. The 405-kyr orbital eccentricity term prior to 250 Ma has not been modeled, and so maximum uncertainty has not been extended into the Paleozoic
Era. (b) Stratigraphic coverage of the ATS in GTS2012 in solid red lines; future ATS coverage for the Paleozoic Era (potential candidates in Section 4.5) in
dashed red lines. The Cenozoic ATS is anchored to the La2004 solution, although uncertainties persist in Paleogene tuning. The Mesozoic ATS is a “floating”
timescale, anchored locally by radioisotope dating, but not to a specific astronomical solution.
78 The Geologic Time Scale 2012
To protect the rights of the author(s) and publisher we inform you that this PDF is an uncorrected proof for internal business use only by the author(s), editor(s), reviewer(s), Elsevier and typesetter
TNQ Books and Journals Pvt Ltd. It is not allowed to publish this proof online or in print. This proof copy is the copyright property of the publisher and is confidential until formal publication.
10004-GRADSTEIN-9780444594259
Anderson, R.Y., 2010. Earth as diode: monsoon source of the orbital ~100 ka
climate cycle. Climate of the Past Discussions 6, 1421e1452.
Bachmann, G.H., Kozur, H.W., 2004. The Germanic Triassic: correlations
with the international chronostratigraphic scale, numerical ages and
Milankovitch cycliycity. Hallesches Jahrbuch fu¨r Geowissenschaften
B26, 17e62.
Berger, A., Loutre, M.-F., 1994. Astronomical forcing through geologic
time. In: DeBoer, P., Smith, D.G. (Eds.), Orbital Forcing and Cyclic
Sequences. International Association of Sedimentologists, Special
Publication, 19, pp. 15e24.
Berger, A., Loutre, M.-F., Laskar, J., 1992. Stability of the astronomical
frequencies over Earth’s history for paleoclimate studies. Science 255,
560e566.
Berger, A., Loutre, M.-F., Tricot, C., 1993. Insolation and Earth’s orbital
periods. Journal of Geophysical Research 98, 10341e10362.
Berger, A., Loutre, M.-F., Yin, Q., 2010. Irradiation during any time interval
of the year using elliptic integrals. Quaternary Science Reviews 29,
1968e1982.
Bills, B.G., 1994. Obliquity-oblateness feedback: are climatically sensitive
values of obliquity dynamically unstable? Geophysical Research Letters
21, 177e180.
Billups, K., Pa¨like, H., Channell, J., Zachos, J., Shackleton, N.J., 2004.
Astronomic calibration of the Late Oligocene through Early Miocene
Geomagnetic Polarity Time Scale. Earth and Planetary Science Letters
224, 33e44.
Boulila, S., Hinnov, L.A., Collin, P.Y., Huret, E., Galbrun, B., Fortwengler, D.,
2008a. Astronomical calibration of the Lower Oxfordian (Terres Noires,
Vocontian Basin, France): consequences of revising Late Jurassic time
scale. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 276, 40e51.
Boulila, S., Galbrun, B., Hinnov, L., Collin, P.Y., 2008b. Orbital calibration
of the Early Kimmeridgian (Southeastern France): implications for
geochronology and sequence stratigraphy. Terra Nova 20, 455e462.
Boulila, S., Galbrun, B., Hinnov, L.A., Collin, P.-Y., Ogg, J.G., Fortwengler, D.,
Marchand, D., 2010a. Milankovitch and sub-Milankovitch forcing of the
Oxfordian (Late Jurassic) Terres Noires Formation (SE France) and global
implications. Basin Research 22, 717e732.
Boulila, S., de Rafe´lis, M., Hinnov, L.A., Gardin, S., Galbrun, B.,
Collin, P.-Y., 2010b. Orbitally forced climate and sea-level changes in
the Paleoceanic Tethyan domain (marl-limestone alternations, Lower
Kimmeridgian, SE France). Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology,
Palaeoecology 292, 57e70.
Bradley, W.H., 1929. The varves and climate of the Green River epoch. US
Geological Survey Professional Paper 158eE, 87e110.
Broecker, W.S., Denton, G.H., 1989. The role of ocean-atmosphere reorganizations
in glacial cycles. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 53,
2465e2501.
Brown, R.E., Koeberl, C., Montanari, A., Bice, D.M., 2009. Evidence for
a change in Milankovitch forcing caused by extraterrestrial events at
Massignano, Italy, Eocene-Oligocene boundary GSSP. Geological
Special Papers 452, 119e137.
Channell, J.E.T., Hodell, D.A., Singer, B.S., Xuan, C., 2010. Reconciling
astrochronological and 40
Ar/39
Ar ages for the Matuyama-Brunhes
boundary and late Matuyama Chron. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems
11, Q0AA12. doi: 10.1029/2010GC003203.
Chappell, J., Shackleton, N.J., 1986. Oxygen isotopes and sea level change.
Nature 324, 137e140.
Cozzi, A., Hinnov, L.A., Hardie, L.A., 2005. Orbitally forced Lofercycles in the
Dachstein Limestone of the Julian Alps (NE Italy). Geology 33, 789e792.
Crick, R.E., Ellwood, B.B., Hladil, J., El Hassani, A., Hroudra, F.,
Chlupa´c, I., 2001. Magnetostratigraphy susceptibility of the PridolianLochkovian
(Silurian-Devonian) GSSP (Klonk, Czech Republic) and
a coeval sequence in Anti-Atlas Morocco. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology,
Palaeoecology 167, 73e100.
Croll, J., 1867. On the excentricity of the earth’s orbit and its physical
relations to the glacial epoch. Philosophical Magazine 33, 119e131.
Croll, J., 1875. Climate and Time in Their Geological Relations. Appleton,
New York, 577 pp.
Dansgaard, W., Tauber, H., 1969. Glacier oxygen-18 content and Pleistocene
ocean temperatures. Science 166, 499e502.
Davydov, V.I., Crowley, J.L., Schmitz, M.D., Poletaev, V., 2010. Highprecision
U-Pb zircon age calibration of the global Carboniferous time
scale and Milankovitch band cyclicity in the Donets Basin, eastern
Ukraine. Geochemisty, Geophysics, Geosystem 11, Q0AA04.
doi:10.1029/2009GC002736.
Dickey, J.O., Bender, P.L., Faller, J.E., Newhall, X.X., Ricklefs, R.L.,
Ries, J.G., Shelus, P.J., Veillet, C., Whipple, A.L., Wiant, J.R.,
Williams, J.G., Yoder, C.F., 1994. Lunar Laser Ranging: a continuing
legacy of the Apollo program. Science 265, 482e490.
Emiliani, C., 1955. Pleistocene temperatures. Journal of Geology 63,
538e578.
Emiliani, C., 1966. Isotopic paleotemperatures. Science 154, 851e857.
Enos, P., Samankassou, E., 1998. Lofer cyclothems revisited (Late Triassic,
Northern Alps, Austria). Facies 38, 207e228.
EPICA Community Members, 2004. Eight glacial cycles from an Antarctic
ice core. Nature 429, 623e628.
Fienga, A., Laskar, J., Morley, T., Manche, H., Kuchynka, P., Le PoncinLafitte,
C., Budnik, F., Gastineau, M., Somenzi, L., 2009. INPOP08,
a 4-D planetary ephemerois: from asteroid and time-scale computations
to ESA Mars Express and Venus Express contributions. Astronomy and
Astrophysics 507, 1675e1686.
Fienga, A., Manche, H., Kuchynka, P., Laskar, J., Gastineau, M., 2010.
INPOP10a. Scientific and Technical Notes of the IMCCE, p. 18. Available
from: www.imcce.fr/inpop/inpop10a.pdf.
Fiet, N., Gorin, G., 2000. Lithological expression of Milankovitch cyclicity
in carbonate-dominated, pelagic, Barremian deposits in central Italy.
Cretaceous Research 21, 457e467.
Fischer, A.G., 1964. Lofer cyclothems of the alpine Trias. Kansas Geological
Survey Bulletin 14, 351e376.
Fischer, A.G., 1995. Cyclostratigraphy, Quo Vadis? In: House, M.R.,
Gale, A.S. (Eds.), Orbital forcing timescales and cyclostratigraphy.
Geological Society Special Publication, 85, pp. 199e204.
Franco, D.R., Hinnov, L.A., 2008. Strong rhythmicity in the ~2.46e2.50 Ga
banded iron formation of the Hamersley Group (W. Australia): evidence
for sub-orbital to Milankovitch scale cycles. Geological Society of
America Annual Meeting Houston, TX, 5e9 October, abstract.
Gale, A.S., Young, J.R., Shackleton, N.J., Crowhurst, S.J., Wray, D.S., 1999.
Orbital tuning of Cenomanian marly chalk successions: towards
a Milankovitch time-scale for the Late Cretaceous. Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society, London, Series A 357, 1815e1829.
Gale, A.S., Hardenbol, J., Hathway, B., Kennedy, W.J., Young, J.R.,
Phansalkar, V., 2002. Global correlation of Cenomanian (Upper Cretaceous)
sequences: evidence for Milankovitch control. Geology 30,
291e294.
Gale, A.S., Bown, P., Caron, M., Crampton, J., Crowhurst, S.J.,
Kennedy, W.J., Petrizzo, M.R., Wray, D.S., 2011. The uppermost
Middle and Upper Albian succession at the Col de Palluel, Hautes-
79Chapter | 4 Cyclostratigraphy and Astrochronology
To protect the rights of the author(s) and publisher we inform you that this PDF is an uncorrected proof for internal business use only by the author(s), editor(s), reviewer(s), Elsevier and typesetter
TNQ Books and Journals Pvt Ltd. It is not allowed to publish this proof online or in print. This proof copy is the copyright property of the publisher and is confidential until formal publication.
10004-GRADSTEIN-9780444594259
Alpes, France: an integrated study (ammonites, inoceramid bivalves,
planktonic foraminifera, nannofossils, geochemistry, stable oxygen and
carbon isotopes, cyclostratigraphy). Cretaceous Research 32, 59e130.
Gilbert, G.K., 1895. Sedimentary measurement of geological time. Journal
of Geology 3, 121e127.
Giraud, F., Beaufort, L., Cotillon, P., 1995. Periodicities of carbonate cycles
in the Valanginian of the Vocontian Trough: a strong obliquity control.
In: House, M.R., Gale, A.S. (Eds.), Orbital forcing time-scales and
cyclostratigraphy. Geological Society of London Special Publication,
85, pp. 143e164.
Goldhammer, R.K., Oswald, E.J., Dunn, P.A., 1994. High-frequency,
glacio-eustatic cyclicity in the middle Pennsylvanian of the Paradox
Basin: an evaluation of Milankovitch forcing. In: deBoer, P.L.,
Smith, D.G. (Eds.), Orbital Forcing and Cyclic Sequences. Special
Publication of the International Association of Sedimentologists, 19,
pp. 243e283.
Gong, Y., Droser, M.L., 2001. Periodic anoxic shelf in the Early-Middle
Ordovician transition: ichnosedimentologic evidence from west-central
Utah, USA. Science in China, Series D 44, 979e989.
Grippo, A., Fischer, A.G., Hinnov, L.A., Herbert, T.D., Premoli Silva, I.,
2004. Cyclostratigraphy and chronology of the Albian stage (Piobbico
core, Italy). In: D’Argenio, B., Fischer, A.G., Premoli Silva, I.,
Weissert, H., Ferreri, V. (Eds.), Cyclostratigraphy: approaches and case
histories. SEPM Special Publication, 81, pp. 57e81.
Grotzinger, J.P., 1986. Upward shallowing platform cycles: a response to 2.2
billion years of low-amplitude, high-frequency (Milankovitch band) sea
level oscillations. Paleoceanography 1, 403e416.
Ha¨lbich, I.W., Scheepers, R., Lamprecht, D., Van Deventer, J.L., De
Kock, N.J., 1993. The Transvaal-Griqualand West banded iron formation:
geology, genesis, iron exploitation. Journal of African Earth
Sciences 16, 63e120.
Hays, J.D., Imbrie, J., Shackleton, N.J., 1976. Variations in the Earth’s orbit:
pacemaker of the ice ages. Science 194, 1121e1132.
Heckel, P.H., 2008. Pennsylvanian cyclothems in mid-continent North
America as far-field effects of waxing and waning of Gondwana ice
sheets. Special Paper of the Geological Society of America 441,
275e289.
Herbert, T.D., 1994. Reading orbital signals distorted by sedimentation:
models and examples. In: deBoer, P.L., Smith, D.G. (Eds.), Orbital
Forcing and Cyclic Sequences. Special Publication of the International
Association of Sedimentologists, 19, pp. 483e507.
Herbert, T.D., Premoli Silva, I., Erba, E., Fischer, A.G., 1995. Orbital
chronology of Cretaceous-Paleocene marine sediments. In:
Berggren, W.A., Kent, D.V., Aubry, M.-P., Hardenbol, J. (Eds.),
Geochronology, time scales and global stratigraphic correlation. SEPM
Special Publication, 54, pp. 81e93.
Herschel, J.F.W., 1830. On the geological causes which may influence
geological phenomena. Geological Transactions 3, 293e299.
Hilgen, F.J., 1991a. Astronomical calibration of Gauss to Matuyama sapropels
in the Mediterranean and implication for the Geomagnetic
Polarity Time Scale. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 104, 226e244.
Hilgen, F.J., 1991b. Extension of the astronomically calibrated (polarity)
time scale to the Miocene-Pliocene boundary. Earth and Planetary
Science Letters 107, 349e368.
Hilgen, F.J., 2010. Astronomical tuning in the 19th
century. Earth-Science
Reviews 98, 65e80.
Hilgen, F.J., Krijgsman, W., Langereis, C.G., Lourens, L.J., 1997. Breakthrough
made in dating of the geological record. Eos 78, 285e288.
Hilgen, F.J., Bissoli, L., Iaccarino, S., Krijgsman, W., Meijer, R., Negri, A.,
Villa, G., 2000. Integrated stratigraphy and astrochronology of the
Messinian GSSP at Oued Akrech (Atlantic Morocco). Earth and Planetary
Science Letters 182, 237e251.
Hilgen, F.J., Abdul Aziz, H., Krijgsman, W., Raffi, I., Turco, E., 2003.
Integrated stratigraphy and astronomical forcing of the Serravallian and
lower Tortonian at Monte dei Corvi (Middle-Upper Miocene, northern
Italy). Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 199,
229e264.
Hilgen, F.J., Kuiper, K., Krijgsman, W., Snel, E., van der Laan, E., 2007.
Astronomical tuning as the basis for high resolution chronostratigraphy:
the intricate history of the Messinian Salinity Crisis. Stratigraphy 4,
231e238.
Hilgen, F.J., Kuiper, K.F., Lourens, L.J., 2010. Evaluation of the astronomical
time scale for the Paleocene and earliest Eocene. Earth and
Planetary Science Letters 300, 139e151.
Hinnov, L.A., Park, J., 1999. Strategies for assessing Early-Middle (Pliensbachian-Aalenian)
Jurassic cyclochronologies. In: Shackleton, N.J., Mc
Cave, I.N., Weedon, G.P. (Eds.), A Discussion: Astronomical
(Milankovitch) Calibration of the Geological Timescale. Philosophical
Transactionsof the Royal Society, London,Series A, 357,pp. 1831e1859.
Hinnov, L.A., Ogg, J.G., 2007. Cyclostratigraphy and the Astronomical
Time Scale. Stratigraphy 4, 239e251.
Hofmann, A., Dirks, P.H.G.M., Jelsma, H.A., 2004. Shallowing upward
carbonate cycles in the Belingwe Greenstone Belt, Zimbabwe: a record
of Archean sea-level oscillations. Journal of Sedimentary Research 74,
64e81.
Holbourn, A., Kuhnt, W., Schulz, M., Flores, J.-A., Andersen, N., 2007.
Orbitally-paced climate evolution during the middle Miocene “Monterey”
carbon-isotope excursion. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 261,
534e550.
Huang, Z., Ogg, J.G., Gradstein, F.M., 1993. A quantitative study of Lower
Cretaceous cyclic sequences from the Atlantic Ocean and Vocontian
Basin (SE France). Paleoceanography 8, 275e291.
Huang, C., Hinnov, L.A., Fischer, A.G., Grippo, A., Herbert, T., 2010a.
Astronomical tuning of the Aptian stage from Italian reference sections.
Geology 238, 899e903.
Huang, C., Hinnov, L.A., Swientek, O., Smelnor, M., 2010b. Astronomical
tuning of Late Jurassic-early Cretaceous sediments (Volgian-Ryazanian
stages), Greenland-Norwegian Seaway. American Association of
Petroleum Geologists Annual Convention New Orleans, LA, 11e14
April, 2010, abstract.
Huang, C., Hesselbo, S.P., Hinnov, L.A., 2010c. Astrochronology of the Late
Jurassic Kimmeridge Clay (Dorset, England) and implications for Earth
system processes. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 289, 242e255.
Hu¨sing, S.K., Hilgen, F.J., Abdul Aziz, H., Krijgsman, W., 2007. Completing
the Neogene geological time scale between 8.5 and 12.5 Ma. Earth and
Planetary Science Letters 253, 340e358.
Hu¨sing, S.K., Kuiper, K.F., Link, W., Hilgen, F.J., Krijgsman, W., 2009. The
upper Tortonian-lower Messinian at Monte dei Corvi (Northern Italy):
completing a Mediterranean reference section for the Tortonian Stage.
Earth and Planetary Science Letters 282, 140e157.
Hu¨sing, S.K., Cascella, A., Hilgen, F.J., Krijgsman, W., Kuiper, K.F.,
Turco, E., Wilson, D., 2010. Astrochronology of the Mediterranean
Langhian between 15.29 and 14.17 Ma. Earth and Planetary Science
Letters 290, 254e269.
Huret, E., 2006. Analyse cyclostratigraphique des variations de la susceptibilite´
magne´tique des argilites callovo-oxfordiennes de l’Est du Bassin
80 The Geologic Time Scale 2012
To protect the rights of the author(s) and publisher we inform you that this PDF is an uncorrected proof for internal business use only by the author(s), editor(s), reviewer(s), Elsevier and typesetter
TNQ Books and Journals Pvt Ltd. It is not allowed to publish this proof online or in print. This proof copy is the copyright property of the publisher and is confidential until formal publication.
10004-GRADSTEIN-9780444594259
de Paris: application a` la recherche de hiatus se´dimentaires. Ph.D.
Thesis, Universite´ Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, p. 321.
Husson, D., Galbrun, B., Laskar, J., Hinnov, L.A., Locklair, R., 2011.
Astronomical calibration of the Maastrichtian. Earth and Planetary
Science Letters 305, 328e340.
Ikeda, M., Tada, R., Sakuma, H., 2010. Astronomical cycle origin of bedded
chert: a middle Triassic bedded chert sequence, Inuyama, Japan. Earth
and Planetary Science Letters 297, 369e378.
Imbrie, J., Imbrie, K.P., 1979. Ice Ages: Solving the Mystery. Macmillan,
London, p. 224.
Imbrie, J., Hays, J.D., Martinson, D.G., McIntyre, A., Mix, A.C.,
Morley, J.J., Pisias, N.G., Prell, W.L., Shackleton, N.J., 1984. The
orbital theory of Pleistocene climate: support from a revised chronology
of the marine d18
O record. In: Berger, A.L., Imbrie, J., Hays, J.,
Kukla, G., Saltzman, B. (Eds.), Milankovitch and Climate, Part I. D.
Riedel, Dordrecht, pp. 269e305.
Ito, T., Kumazawa, M., Hamano, Y., Matsui, T., Masuda, K., 1993. Long term
evolution of the solar insolation variation over 4 Ga. Proceedings of the
Japan Academy, Series B: Physical and Biological Sciences 69, 233e237.
Ito, T., Masuda, K., Hamano, H., Matsui, T., 1995. Climate friction:
a possible cause for secular drift of Earth’s obliquity. Journal of
Geophysical Research 100 (B8), 15147e15161.
Jovane, L., Sprovieri, M., Coccioni, R., Florindo, F., Marsili, A., Laskar, J.,
2010. Astronomical calibration of the middle Eocene Contessa Highway
section (Gubbio, Italy). Earth and Planetary Science Letters 298, 77e88.
Kent, D.V., 1999. Orbital tuning and geomagnetic polarity timescales.
Philosophical Transactions, Royal Society of London, Series A 357,
1995e2007.
Kent, D.V., Olsen, P.E., 2008. Early Jurassic magnetostratigraphy and
paleolatitudes from the Hartford continental rift basin (eastern North
America): testing for polarity bias, and abrupt polar wander in association
with the central Atlantic magmatic province. Journal of
Geophysical Research 113, B06105. doi: 10.1029/2007JB005407.
Kim, J.C., Lee, Y.I., 1998. Cyclostratigraphy of the Lower Ordovician
Dumugol Formation, Korea: meter-scale cyclicity and sequencestratigraphic
interpretation. Geoscience Journal 2, 134e147.
Ko¨ppen, W., Wegener, A., 1924. Die Klimate der geologischen Vorzeit.
Borntra¨ger, Berlin, p. 256.
Kozur, H.W., Bachmann, G.H., 2005. Correlation of the Germanic Triassic
with the international scale. Albertiana 32, 21e35.
Kuiper, K.F., Deino, A., Hilgen, F.J., Krijgsman, W., Renne, P.R.,
Wijbrans, J.R., 2008. Synchronizing rock clocks of Earth history.
Science 320, 500e504.
Lanci, L., Muttoni, G., Erba, E., 2010. Astronomical tuning of the Cenomanian
Scaglia Bianca Formation at Furlo, Italy. Earth and Planetary
Science Letters 292, 231e237.
Laskar, J., 1990. The chaotic motion of the solar system: a numerical estimate
of the size of the chaotic zones. Icarus 88, 266e291.
Laskar, J., 1994. Large scale chaos in the Solar System. Astronomy and
Astrophysics 287, L9eL12.
Laskar, J., 1999. The limits of Earth orbital calculations for geological timescale
use. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London,
Series A 357 1785e1759.
Laskar, J., 2003. Chaos in the Solar System. Annales Henri Poincare 4
(Suppl. 2), S693eS705.
Laskar, J., 2006. Astronomical limits in using orbital tuning methodology for
the Geologic Time Scale. 11th
international Congress, International
Association for Mathematical Geology Liege, Belgium, 3e8 September.
Laskar, J., Quinn, T., Tremaine, S., 1992. Confirmation of resonant structure
in the Solar System. Icarus 95, 148e152.
Laskar, J., Joutel, F., Boudin, F., 1993a. Orbital, precessional and insolation
quantities for the Earth from À20 Myr to þ10 Myr. Astronomy and
Astrophysics 270, 522e533.
Laskar, J., Joutel, J., Robutel, P., 1993b. Stabilization of the Earth’s obliquity
by the Moon. Nature 361, 615e617.
Laskar, J., Robutel, P., Joutel, J., Gastineau, M., Correia, A.C.M.,
Levrard, B., 2004. A numerical solution for the insolation quantities of
the Earth. Astronomy and Astrophysics 428, 261e285.
Laskar, J., Fienga, A., Gastineau, M., Manche, H., 2011. La2010: a new
orbital solution for the long term motion of the Earth. Astronomy and
Astrophysics, 532. doi: 10.1051/0004-6361/201116836.
Levrard, B., Laskar, J., 2003. Climate friction and the Earth’s obliquity.
Geophysical Journal International 154, 970e990.
Liebrand, D., Lourens, L., Hodell, D.A., de Boer, B., van de Wal, R.S.W.,
Pa¨like, H., 2011. Antarctic ice sheet and oceanographic response to
eccentricity forcing during the early Miocene. Climate of the Past 7,
869e880.
Locklair, R.E., Sageman, B.B., 2008. Cyclostratigraphy of the Upper
Cretaceous Niobrara Formation, Western Interior, USA: a ConiacianSantonian
orbital timescale. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 269,
539e552.
Lourens, L., Antonarakou, A., Hilgen, F.J., Van Hoof, A.A.M., VergnaudGrazzini,
C., Zachariasse, W.J., 1996. Evaluation of the Plio-Pleistocene
astronomical timescale. Paleoceanography 11 (4), 391e413.
Lourens, L.J., Wehausen, R., Brumsack, H.J., 2001. Geological constraints
on tidal dissipation and dynamical ellipticity of the Earth over the past
three million years. Nature 409, 1029e1033.
Lourens, L.J., Hilgen, F., Shackleton, N.J., Laskar, J., Wilson, D., 2004. The
Neogene Period. In: Gradstein, F., Ogg, J., Smith, A. (Eds.),
A Geologic Time Scale 2004. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,
pp. 400e440.
Lourens, L.J., Sluijs, A., Kroon, D., Zachos, Z.C., Thomas, E.,
Ro¨hl, U., Bowles, J., Raffi, I., 2005. Astronomical pacing of late
Palaeocene to early Eocene global warming events. Nature 435,
1083e1087.
Lyell, C., 1867. Principles of Geology. Vol. 1, tenth ed. John Murray,
London, p. 670.
Matthews, R.K., Frohlich, C., Duffy, A., 1997. Orbital forcing of global
change throughout the Phanerozoic: a possible stratigraphic solution to
the eccentricity phase problem. Geology 25, 807e810.
Menning, M., Gast, R., Hagdorn, H., Kading, K.-C., Simon, T., Szurlies, M.,
Nitsch, E., 2005. Zeitskala fu¨r Perm und Trias in der Stratigraphischen
Tabelle von Deutschland 2002, zyklostratigraphische Kalibrierung von
ho¨herer Dyas und Germanischer Trias und das Alter der Stufen Roadium
bis Rhaetium 2005. In: Menning, M., Hendrich, A. (Eds.), Erla¨uterungen
zur Stratigraphischen Tabelle von Deutschland. Newsletters of
Stratigraphy, 41(1/3), pp. 173e210.
Meyers, S., Sageman, B., Hinnov, L.A., 2001. Integrated quantitative stratigraphy
of the Cenomanian-Turonian Bridge Creek Limestone member
using evolutive harmonic analysis and stratigraphic modeling. Journal of
Sedimentary Research 71, 627e643.
Meyers, S., Siewert, S.E., Singer, B.S., Sageman, B.B., Condon, D.J.,
Obradovich, J.D., Jicha, B.R., and Sawyer, D.A., in press, Intercalibration
of radioisotopic and astrochronologic time scales for the
Cenomanian-Turonian Boundary interval, Western Interior Basin, USA.
Geology.
81Chapter | 4 Cyclostratigraphy and Astrochronology
To protect the rights of the author(s) and publisher we inform you that this PDF is an uncorrected proof for internal business use only by the author(s), editor(s), reviewer(s), Elsevier and typesetter
TNQ Books and Journals Pvt Ltd. It is not allowed to publish this proof online or in print. This proof copy is the copyright property of the publisher and is confidential until formal publication.
10004-GRADSTEIN-9780444594259
Milankovitch, M., 1941. Kanon der Erdbestrahlung und seine Anwendung
auf das Eiszeitenproblem. Royal Serbian Academy, Section of Mathematical
and Natural Sciences, Belgrade, p. 633 [and 1998 reissue in
English: Canon of Insolation and the Ice-Age Problem. Belgrade:
Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Section of Mathematical and
Natural Sciences, 634 pp.].
Min, K., Mundil, R., Renne, P.R., Ludwig, K.R., 2000. Systematic errors in
40
Ar/39
Ar geochronology through comparison with U/Pb analysis of
a 1.1-Ga rhyolite. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 64, 73e98.
Mitchell, R.N., Bice, D.M., Montanari, A., Cleaveland, L.C.,
Christianson, K.T., Coccioni, R., Hinnov, L.A., 2008. Ocean anoxic
cycles? Prelude to the Livello Bonarelli (OAE 2). Earth and Planetary
Science Letters 267, 1e16.
Mourik, A.A., Bijkerk, J.F., Cascella, A., Hu¨sing, S.K., Hilgen, F.J.,
Lourens, L.J., Turco, E., 2010. Astronomical tuning of the La Vedova
High Cliff section (Ancona, Italy)eimplications of the middle Miocene
Climate Transition for Mediterranean sapropel formation. Earth and
Planetary Science Letters 297, 249e261.
Munk, W., 1997. Once again: once againetidal friction. Progress in
Oceanography 40, 7e35.
Nestor, H., Einasto, R., Nestor, V., Marss, T., Viira, V., 2001. Description of
the type section, cyclicity and correlation of the Riksu Formation
(Wenlock, Estonia). Proceedings of the Estonian Academy of Sciences,
Geology 50, 149e173.
Nestor, H., Einasto, R., Mannik, P., Nestor, V., 2003. Correlation of lowermiddle
Llandovery sections in central and southern Estonia and sedimentation
cycles of lime muds. Proceedings of the Estonian Academy of
Sciences, Geology 52, 3e27.
Ogg, J.G., Gradstein, F.M., Lugowski, A., Ault, A., 2011. TimeScale Creator
Available at. http://www.tscreator.org.
Olsen, P.E., Kent, D.V., 1996. Milankovitch climate forcing in the tropics of
Pangea during the Late Triassic. Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology
Palaeoecology 122, 1e26.
Olsen, P.E., Kent, D.V., 1999. Long-period Milankovitch cycles from the
Late Triassic and Early Jurassic of eastern North America and their
implications for the calibration of the Early Mesozoic time-scale and the
long-term behaviour of the planets. Philosophical Transactions of the
Royal Society of London, Series A 357, 1761e1786.
Osleger, D.A., 1995. Depositional sequences on Upper Cambrian carbonate
platforms: variable sedimentologic responses to allogenic forcing. In:
Haq, B.U. (Ed.), Sequence Stratigraphy and Depositional Responses to
Eustatic, Tectonic and Climate Forcing. Kluwer Academic Publishers,
Dordrecht, pp. 247e276.
Paillard, D., Labeyrie, L., Yiou, P., 1996. Macintosh program performs timeseries
analysis. Eos 77, 379.
Pa¨like, H., Shackleton, N.J., 2000. Constraints on astronomical parameters
from the geological record for the last 25 Myr. Earth and Planetary
Science Letters 182, 1e14.
Pa¨like, H., Shackleton, N.J., Ro¨hl, U., 2001. Astronomical forcing in Late
Eocene marine sediments. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 193,
589e602.
Pa¨like, H., Laskar, J., Shackleton, N.J., 2004. Geological constraints on the
chaotic diffusion of the Solar System. Geology 32, 929e932.
Pa¨like, H., Norris, R.D., Herrle, J.O., Wilson, P.A., Coxall, H.K., Lear, C.H.,
Shackleton, N.J., Tripati, A.K., Wade, B.S., 2006. The heartbeat of the
Oligocene climate system. Science 314, 1894e1898.
Petit, J.R., Jouzel, J., Raynaud, D., Barkov, N.I., Barnola, J.-M., Basile, I.,
Bender, M., Chappellaz, J., Davis, M., Delaygue, G., Delmotte, M.,
Kotlyakov, V.M., Legrand, M., Lipenkov, V.Y., Lorius, C., Pe´pin, L.,
Ritz, C., Saltzman, E., Stievenard, M., 1999. Climate and atmospheric
history of the past 420,000 years from the Vostok ice core, Antarctica.
Nature 399, 429e436.
Prokopenko, A.A., Karabanov, E.B., Williams, D.F., Kuzmin, M.I.,
Shackleton, N.J., Crowhurst, S.J., Peck, J.A., Gvozdkov, A.N.,
King, J.W., 2001. Biogenic silica record of the Lake Baikal response to
climatic forcing during the Brunhes. Quaternary Research 55, 123e132.
Ray, R.D., Eanes, R.J., Lemoine, F.G., 2001. Constraints on energy dissipation
in the Earth’s body tide from satellite tracking and altimetry.
Geophysical Journal International 144, 471e480.
Renne, P.R., Deino, A.L., Walter, R.C., Turrin, B.D., Swisher, C.C.,
Becker, T.A., Curtis, G.H., Sharp, W.D., Jaouni, A.-R., 1994. Intercalibration
of astronomical and radioisotopic time. Geology 22, 783e786.
Renne, P.R., Swisher, C.C., Deino, A.L., Karner, D.B., Owens, T.,
DePaolo, D.J., 1998. Intercalibration of standards, absolute ages and
uncertainties in 40
Ar/39
Ar dating. Chemical Geology 145, 117e152.
Renne, P.R., Mundil, R., Balco, G., Min, K., Ludwig, K.R., 2010. Joint
determination of 40
K decay constants and 40
Ar*/40
K for the Fish Canyon
sanidine standard, and improved accuracy for 40
Ar/39
Ar geochronology.
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 74, 5349e5367.
Rivera, T.A., Storey, M., Zeeden, C., Hilgen, F., and Kuiper, K., in press, A
refined astronomically calibrated 40
Ar/39
Ar age for Fish Canyon sanidine.
Earth and Planetary Science Letters.
Rodionov, V.P., Dekkers, M.J., Khramov, A.N., Gurevich, E.L.,
Krijgsman, W., Duermeijer, C.E., Heslop, D., 2003. Paleomagnetism
and cyclostratigraphy of the Middle Ordovician Krivolutsky Suite,
Krivaya Luka section, southern Siberian Platform: record of nonsynchronous
NRM-components for a non-axial geomagnetic field?
Studia Geophysica et Geodaetica 47, 255e274.
Rubincam, D.P., 1994. Insolation in terms of Earth’s orbital parameters.
Theoretical and Applied Climatology 48, 195e202.
Rubincam, D.P., 1995. Has climate changed the Earth’s tilt? Paleoceanography
10, 365e372.
Ruhl, M., Deenen, M.H.L., Abels, H.A., Bonis, N.R., Krijgsman, W.,
Ku¨rschner, W.M., 2010. Astronomical constraints on the duration of the
early Jurassic Hettangian stage and recovery rates following the endTriassic
mass extinction (St. Audrie’s Bay/East Quantoxhead, UK).
Earth and Planetary Science Letters 295, 262e276.
Schwarzacher, W., 1947. U¨ ber die sedimenta¨re Rhythmik des Dachsteinkalkes
von Lofer. Verhandlung der Geologische Bundesanhalt, Wien
1947, 175e188.
Schwarzacher, W., 1954. Die Grossrhytmik des Dachsteinkalkes von Lofer.
Tschermaks Mineralogische und Petrograpfische Mitteilungen 4, 44e54.
Schwarzacher, W., 1993. Cyclostratigraphy and the Milankovitch Theory.
Developments in Sedimentology 54, 225.
Shackleton, N., 1967. Oxygen isotope analyses and Pleistocene temperatures
re-assessed. Nature 215, 15e17.
Shackleton, N.J., Berger, A., Peltier, W.A., 1990. An alternative astronomical
calibration of the lower Pleistocene time scale based on ODP Site
677. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh-Earth Sciences 81,
251e261.
Shackleton, N.J., Crowhurst, S., Hagelberg, T., Pisias, N.G., Schneider, D.A.,
1995. A new Late Neogene time scale: application to Leg 138 Sites.
Proceedings of the ODP, Scientific Results 138, 73e101.
Shackleton, N.J., Crowhurst, S.J., Weedon, G.P., Laskar, J., 1999. Astronomical
calibration of Oligocene-Miocene time. Royal Society of
London Philosophical Transactions, series A 357, 1907e1929.
82 The Geologic Time Scale 2012
To protect the rights of the author(s) and publisher we inform you that this PDF is an uncorrected proof for internal business use only by the author(s), editor(s), reviewer(s), Elsevier and typesetter
TNQ Books and Journals Pvt Ltd. It is not allowed to publish this proof online or in print. This proof copy is the copyright property of the publisher and is confidential until formal publication.
10004-GRADSTEIN-9780444594259
Siewert, S.E., Singer, B.S., Condon, D., Meyers, S.R., Sageman, B.B.,
Jicha, B.R., Obradovich, J., Sawyer, D.A., 2011. Integrating Astrochronology
of the Upper Cretaceous Niobrara Formation with 40
Ar/39
Ar
and U-Pb Geochronology. 2011 UW-Madison Geoscience Graduate
Symposium 27th
April, Oral presentation.
XSimonson, B.M., Hassler, S.W., 1996. Was the deposition of large
Precambrian iron formations linked to major transgressions? Journal of
Geology 104, 665e676.
Smith, M.E., Chamberlain, K.R., Singer, B.S., Carroll, A.R., 2010. Eocene
clocks agree: coeval 40
Ar/39
Ar, U-Pb, and astronomical ages from the
Green River Formation. Geology 38, 527e530.
Sprenger, A., Ten Kate, J., 1993. Orbital forcing of calcilutite-marl cycles in
southeast Spain and an estimate for the duration of the Berriasian stage.
Geological Society of America Bulletin 105, 807e818.
Sprovieri, M., Coccioni, R., Lirer, F., Pelosi, N., Lozar, F., 2006. Orbital
tuning of a lower Cretaceous composite record (Maiolica Formation,
central Italy). Paleoceanography 21, PA4212. doi:10.1029/
2005PA001224.
Strasser, A., 2007. Astronomical time scale for the Middle Oxfordian to Late
Kimmeridgian in the Swiss and French Jura Mountains. Swiss Journal of
Geosciences 100, 407e429.
Suan, G., Pittet, B., Bour, I., Mattioli, E., Duarte, L.V., Mailliot, S., 2008.
Duration of the Early Toarcian carbon isotope excursion deduced from
spectral analysis e consequence for its possible causes. Earth and
Planetary Science Letters 267, 666e679.
Sun, Y., Clemens, S.C., An, Z., Yu, Z., 2006. Astronomical timescale and
palaeoclimatic implication of stacked 3.6-Myr monsoon records from
the Chinese Loess Plateau. Quaternary Science Reviews 25, 33e48.
Szurlies, M., 2004. Magnetostratigraphy: the key to global correlation of the
classic Germanic Trias e case study Volpriehausen Formation (Middle
Buntsandstein), Central Germany. Earth and Planetary Science Letters
227, 395e410.
Szurlies, M., 2007. Latest Permian to Middle Triassic cyclomagnetostratigraphy
from the Central European Basin, Germany:
implications for the geomagnetic polarity timescale. Earth and Planetary
Science Letters 261, 602e619.
Taner, M.T., 2000. Attributes revisited. Technical Publication, RockSolid
Images, Inc, Houston, TX. Available from: http://www.rocksolidimages.
com/pdf/attrib_revisited.htm.
Taner, M.T., Koehler, F., Sheriff, R.E., 1979. Complex trace analysis.
Geophysics 44 (6), 1041e1063.
Tanner, L.H., 2010. Cyclostratigraphic record of the Triassic: a critical
examination. Geological Society of London, Special Publications 334,
119e137.
Thomson, D.J., 1982. Spectrum estimation and harmonic analysis. IEEE
Proceedings 70, 1055e1096.
Thomson, D.J., 1990. Quadratic-inverse spectrum estimates: applications to
Palaeoclimatology. Philosophical Transactions: Physical Sciences and
Engineering 332, 539e597.
Tucker, M., Garland, J., 2010. High-frequency cycles and their sequence
stratigraphic context: orbital forcing and tectonic controls on Devonian
cyclicity, Belgium. Geologica Belgica 13, 213e240.
Waelbroeck, C., Labeyrie, L., Michel, E., Duplessy, J.C., McManus, J.F.,
Lambeck, K., Blabon, E., Labracherie, M., 2002. Sea-level and deep
water temperature changes derived from benthic foraminifera isotopic
records. Quaternary Science Reviews 21, 295e305.
Weedon, G.P., Jenkyns, H.C., 1999. Cyclostratigraphy and the Early Jurassic
timescale: data from the Belemnite Marls, Dorset, southern England.
Geological Society of America Bulletin 111, 1823e1840.
Weedon, G.P., Jenkyns, H.C., Coe, A.L., Hesselbo, S.P., 1999. Astronomical
Calibration of the Jurassic Time-scale from Cyclostratigraphy in British
Mudrock Formations. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
of London Series A 357 (1757), 1787e1813.
Weedon, G.P., Coe, A.L., Gallois, R.W., 2004. Cyclostratigraphy, orbital
tuning and inferred productivity for the type Kimmeridge Clay (Late
Jurassic), Southern England. Journal of the Geological Society, London
161, 655e666.
Westerhold, T., Ro¨hl, U., 2009. High resolution cyclostratigraphy of the
early Eocene e new insights into the origin of the Cenozoic cooling
trend. Climate of the Past 5, 309e327.
Westerhold, T., Ro¨hl, U., Laskar, J., Bowles, J., Raffi, I., Lourens, L.J.,
Zachos, J.C., 2007. On the duration of magnetochrons C24r and C25n
and the timing of early Eocene global warming events: implications
from the Ocean Drilling Program Leg 208 Walvis Ridge depth transect.
Paleoceanography 22, PA2201. doi: 10.1029/2006PA001322.
Westerhold, T., Ro¨hl, U., Raffi, I., Fornaciari, E., Monechi, S., Reale, V.,
Bowles, J., Evans, H.F., 2008. Astronomical calibration of the Paleocene
time. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 257, 377e403.
Westerhold, T., Ro¨hl, U., McCarren, H.K., Zachos, J.C., 2009. Latest on the
absolute age of the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM): new
insights from exact stratigraphic position of key ash layers þ19 and
À17. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 287, 412e419.
Whiteside, J.H., Olsen, P.E., Eglinton, T., Brookfield, M.E.,
Sambrotto, R.N., 2010. Compound-specific carbon isotopes from
Earth’s largest flood basalt eruptions directly linked to the endTriassic
mass extinction. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences 107 (5), 6721e6725.
Williams, G.E., 2000. Geological constraints on the Precambrian history of
Earth’s rotation and the Moon’s Orbit. Reviews of Geophysics 38, 37e59.
Williams, D.F., Peck, J., Karabanov, E.B., Prokopenko, A.A.,
Kravchinsky, V., King, J., Kuzmin, M.I., 1997. Lake Baikal record of
continental climate response to orbital insolation during the past 5
million years. Science 297, 1114e1117.
Wotzlaw, J., Schalteggger, U., Kuiper, K., Guenter, D., 2010. Deriving
accurate eruption ages from complex zircon populations: insights from
zircon trace element chemistry and intercalibration with astronomical
time. American Geophysical Union Fall Meeting San Francisco, 13e17
December, abstract #V31Ae2312.
Zio´1kowski, P., Hinnov, L.A., 2010. High-resolution cyclostratigraphic
analysis of the magnetic susceptibility record from the Upper Bajocian
to Upper Bathonian of Central Poland and the mineralogical link
between magnetic susceptibility and palaeoclimatic changes. 8th
International
Congress on the Jurassic System Sichuan, China, 9e13 August,
abstract.
83Chapter | 4 Cyclostratigraphy and Astrochronology
To protect the rights of the author(s) and publisher we inform you that this PDF is an uncorrected proof for internal business use only by the author(s), editor(s), reviewer(s), Elsevier and typesetter
TNQ Books and Journals Pvt Ltd. It is not allowed to publish this proof online or in print. This proof copy is the copyright property of the publisher and is confidential until formal publication.
10004-GRADSTEIN-9780444594259
AUTHOR QUERY FORM
Book: GRADSTEIN-9780444594259
Chapter: 04
Please e-mail your responses and any
corrections to:
E-mail: P.Wilkinson@Elsevier.com
Dear Author,
Any queries or remarks that have arisen during the processing of your manuscript are listed below and are highlighted by
flags in the proof. (AU indicates author queries; ED indicates editor queries; and TS/TY indicates typesetter queries.)
Please check your proof carefully and answer all AU queries. Mark all corrections and query answers at the appropriate
place in the proof (e.g., by using on-screen annotation in the PDF file http://www.elsevier.com/framework_authors/
tutorials/ePDF_voice_skin.swf) or compile them in a separate list, and tick off below to indicate that you have answered
the query.
Please return your input as instructed by the project manager.
Uncited reference: References that occur in the reference list but are not cited in the text. Please position each
reference in the text or delete it from the reference list.
The following are not cited Prokopenko et al., 2001
Missing reference: References listed below were noted in the text but are missing from the reference list. Please
make the reference list complete or remove the references from the text.
NIL
Location in Chapter Query / Remark
AU:1, page 77 Should these have 40 and 39 superscripts?
,
AU:2, page 71 Please insert table title?
,
AU:3, page 76 Please insert table title?
,
GRADSTEIN: 04
Non-Print Items
Abstract:
The Milankovitch theory that quasi-periodic oscillations in the Earth-Sun position have induced significant 104
-106
year
variations in the Earth’s stratigraphic record of climate is widely acknowledged. This chapter summarizes the Earth’s
astronomical parameters, the nature of astronomically forced solar radiation, fossil astronomical signals in the stratigraphic
record, and the use of these signals in calibrating geologic time.
Keywords: ---