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ELECTRODE-LESS PLASMA JET SYNTHESIS OF CORE-SHELL
IRON/IRON OXIDE NANOPARTICLES
Jaroslav HNILICA1
, Vít KUDRLE1
, Ondřej JAŠEK2
1 Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic, EU, yaryk@mail.muni.cz
2 CEITEC - Central European Institute of Technology, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic, EU
Abstract
We report on core-shell iron and iron oxide nanoparticle prepared by plasma synthesis controlled by process
gas mixture. The synthesis was carried out using an atmospheric pressure microwave electrodeless plasma
jet. We focused on phase composition control and better passivation. We studied the influence of O2, H2 and
N2 admixtures to the Ar process gas on the properties of the prepared nanomaterial. Similarly to thermal
process, the oxygen admixture preferentially produced Fe2O3 nanoparticles whereas hydrogen admixture
resulted in particles with higher metallic content. However, in contrast to thermal process, the addition of
nitrogen did not produce iron nitride, but iron/iron-oxide core-shell nanoparticles with enhanced chemical
stability.
Keywords: core-shell, iron/iron oxide,nanoparticles, electrode-less,
1. INTRODUCTION
In recent years, the interest in iron and iron oxide based nanomaterials (e.g nanoparticles, nanopowders,
nanolayers, etc.) is growing due to their Unixe properties. The research and development is truly
interdisciplinary: magnetism, catalysis, optics, sorption, biocompatibility, chemical stability, etc. [1, 2, 3].
Nowadays, the iron based nanomaterials are produced commercially using well-established chemical
methods, for example co-precipitation, micelles, microemulsion or hydrothermal syntheses. However, these
methods often use solvents or surfactants and involve complicated or multistep procedures. As a result,
there is a modern trend to replace the wet chemical steps by plasma based technology that could provide an
environmentally attractive alternative [4, 5].
A wide range of methods involving plasmas is now available for the preparation of iron-based nanoparticles,
e.g. arc discharge, flame synthesis, laser pyrolysis, microwave plasma synthesis and many others. We
recently investigated the synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles in microwave torch discharge [6, 7, 8].
In this paper, we have decided to carry out a similar study using a different, electrodeless design. Moreover,
we focused more on influence of working gas composition on the properties of the prepared nanopowders.
2. EXPERIMENTAL
The synthesis of iron based nanoparticles was carried out in atmospheric pressure microwave electrodeless
jet – surfatron [9] – from iron pentacarbonyl (Fe(CO)5) mixed with argon. Figure 1 shows the experimental
setup. We operated the microwave generator (2.45 GHz) in amplitude modulation mode using a function
generator (sinus waveform, 260 Hz frequency) in order to stabilise the plasma discharge. The microwaves
were fed to the wave launcher (surfatron) via waveguide, ferrite circulator and coaxial cable. The mean
microwave power was maintained at 250 W, whereas the reflecte power was below 10 W. The surfatron
device itself (commercial SAIREM Surfatron 80 with integrated matching) exploited a surface wave
propagating along plasma boundary to sustain relatively long plasma column. It consisted of coaxial
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resonant cavity through which a fused silica discharge tube (80 mm in length, 6 mm and 8 mm inner and
outer diameter, respectively) passed.
Fig.1 Schematic drawing of the experimental setup
Thermal management was carried out by water cooling of the generator, circulator and surfatron itself.
Additionally, the discharge tube was cooled by compressed air.
The flow of working gas, argon, was maintained at 508 sccm by a flow controller. The admixture like O2 or H2
(7.3 sccm) could be added into the main inlet upstream from the discharge.
The iron pentacarbonyl Fe(CO)5 liquid precursor (Alfa Aesar, 99.5% purity) was kept in a evaporator and its
vapours (0.05 sccm) were transported into the discharge by 100 sccm argon or nitrogen flowing above its
surface. The elongated form of a surface wave plasma allowed us to add Fe(CO)5 downstream from the
excitation zone, where the active species concentration was still high enough but no conductive deposit was
endangering the coupling slit of the surfatron. The nanoparticulate product was collected on the wall of the
discharge tube downstream from the mixing tee and on the additional lter. X-ray powder diraction (XRD) was
carried out with PANalytical X'Pert Pro MPD device using Co K radiation. Raman micro-spectroscopy
measurements were performed using Jobin Yvon Labram HR-800 microscope and Renishaw inVia Raman
microscope. The spectra were excited with Ar laser (514 nm). The laser power was limited to 1 mW in order
to avoid thermally induced phase transformations during the collection of the Raman spectrum. To observe
the morphology we used the field emission scanning electron microscope TESCAN Mira 3 in bright field
transmitted electron mode.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
In the following, we discuss the influence of working gas composition on the properties of the prepared
nanopowders using three selected experimental conditions. In all cases the main plasma gas was argon at
flow-rate 508 sccm and the precursor vapours were introduced at flow rate of 0.05 sccm. Sample S1 was
prepared using 7.3 sccm of oxygen admixture to the main gas and 100 sccm of Ar carrying the precursor
vapours. Sample S2 was prepared using 7.3 sccm of hydrogen admixture to the main gas and 100 sccm of
Ar carrying the precursor vapours. And the sample S3 used 100 sccm of nitrogen to carry the precursor
vapours.
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Table 1 Composition of the samples as obtained from X-ray diffraction.
Sample Composition ICSD dXRD wt.
No. [nm] [%]
S1 -Fe2O3 82137 59 58
-Fe2O3 87119 27 42
S2 -Fe 53451 39 39
Fe3O4 (+ -Fe2O3) 75627 18 61
S3 -Fe 53451 33 74
Fe3O4 75627 13 26
After each synthesis run, the prepared nanopowder was brushed off the discharge tube walls, stored in
Eppendorf test tubes and analysed without any further purification or treatment.
Fig.2 XRD patterns of the synthesised samples for three different gas mixtures. Dominant orientations for
relevant iron and iron oxide allomorphs are shown, too
The XRD diffractograms of all three samples are shown in Figure 2. The Rietveld refinement was carried out
using software [10] and database [11], giving us the mean coherence length dXRD (crystallite size). The
results are summarised in Table 1. The samples consisted of rhombohedral hematite (-Fe2O3), tetragonal
maghemite (-Fe2O3), cubic iron (-Fe) and cubic magnetite (Fe3O4). The mean crystallite size in all samples
was in the order of tens of nanometres. It should be noted that XRD of nanopowders has often some
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difficulties in distinguishing between magnetite and maghemite. As was suggested in [12], i.e. using the
integral (area) of tetragonal maghemite peaks (103), (113), (203), (116) and integral of (111) magnetite peak,
we estimate the magnetite to maghemite ratio in sample S2 to be approximately 10:1. In sample S3 no
additional maghemite XRD peaks were observed.
The synthesised samples were also analysed by the Raman spectroscopy. Iron oxides, including hematite,
maghemite and magnetite, exhibit distinct Raman active phonon modes which can be observed in the
measured spectra, see Figure 3.
Fig.3 Raman spectra of the synthesised samples for three different gas mixtures
For sample S1 we found strong peaks at 220 and 491 cm-1 and lower intensity peaks at 239, 284, 401, 601
and broad peak at 1300 cm-1. These peaks could be attributed to hematite structure, phonon modes 229
(A1g), 249 (Eg), 295 (Eg), 302 (Eg), 414 (Eg), 500 (A1g), 615 (Eg), 660 (longitudinal optical Eu) cm-1 [13]. Slight
downshift of the mode frequencies could be attributed to influence of the laser power as observed by [14].
Spectra of sample S2 have shown a mixture of hematite, magnetite and maghemite features. Besides the
above mentioned strong hematite peaks, we could observe peak at 664 cm-1 belonging to magnetite A1g
phonon mode and shoulder peak at 713 (A1g) cm-1 and above 1400 cm-1, which we assigned to maghemite.
The presence of hematite in Raman spectra is in contradiction to XRD analysis and is probably caused by
the laser induced change in the sample composition despite a careful procedure and low power setting (1
mW) used in the Raman analysis.
Sample S3 spectra showed intensive peak at 674 cm-1 which we assigned to magnetite. Also some broad
features in the range of 300 to 600 cm-1 could be observed and assigned to magnetite [13]. This result is
consistent with our XRD analysis.
The morphology of the synthesized nanopowder was studied using scanning transmission electron
microscopy (STEM) mode of scanning electron microscope (SEM). We found roughly spherical nanoparticles
of different sizes in the micrograph of the sample S3 (see Figure 4). Both the chains of very small particles
(10-15 nm in diameter) and the large particles (more than 20-40 nm in diameter) were found at higher
magnifications. Individual -Fe particles larger than 50 nm as well as the aggregated particles exhibited
core-shell morphology. The shell of -Fe particles is assumed [15] to be formed of Fe3O4. The abundance of
both materials corresponds to the results from XRD.
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Fig.4 Scanning transmission electron micrograph of sample S3
When the results from all analytic techniques are combined, we can draw following conclusions: (i) As
expected, the admixture of O2 leads to the preferential formation of fully oxidised iron oxide phases: -Fe2O3
and -Fe2O3. (ii) Hydrogen admixture, on the other hand, produces more material in a metallic state.
However, the nanoproduct was well passivated and therefore, despite its immense specific surface area, not
pyroforic. (iii) Adding nitrogen, well passivated product with even more metal (-Fe percentage twice as
much as with hydrogen admixture) was obtained. No iron nitride was detected.
The formation of core shell nanoparticles is probably a two step process. In the first one, the reducing
atmosphere in the active discharge preferentially produces metallic nanoparticles. Then, as the nanoparticles
are carried to the open end of the discharge tube, they gradually cool down and in the same time they
experience the influence of the oxygen backdiffusing from the outer atmosphere. The lowered temperature
and gradual introduction of oxygen prevents deep penetrating oxidation and only a thin protective layer of
oxide forms. More quantitative explanation is not possible without detailed model including aerosol flow,
diffusion, strong temperature gradients and homogeneous and heterogeneous chemistry. The hypothesis of
two step process is supported by the fact, that we were not able [16] to passivate the nanoparticles using
different experimental device which does not have the oxygen concentration gradient.
3. CONCLUSIONS
Iron based nanoparticles were synthesised in atmospheric pressure electrode-less microwave plasma jet surfatron.
Using several common admixtures to a main argon gas, we controlled the chemical and phase
composition of produced nanoparticles.
In oxygen containing plasma, the product was preferentially formed of fully oxidised Fe2O3 allomorphs. In
hydrogen containing atmosphere a greater abundance of metallic iron was observed. This iron nanopowder
was found to be passivated by oxide shell, formed during later stages in the plasma afterglow. These results
are consistent with common thermal process.
However, the addition of nitrogen did not produce iron nitride in contrast to thermal process, but iron/iron
oxide core-shell nanoparticles with enhanced chemical stability.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research has been supported by the project R&D centre for low-cost plasma and
nanotechnology surface modifications CZ.1.05/2.1.00/03.0086 funded by European Regional
Development Fund, by the project CEITEC - Central European Institute of Technology
CZ.1.05/1.1.00/02.0068 from European Regional Development Fund and by the Czech Science
Foundation P205/10/1374. The authors would like to thank Dušan Hemzal for Raman spectroscopy,
Martin Haničinec for SEM micrograph and Mojmír Meduňa and Bohumil David for XRD
measurements.
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