HERBHigher Education in Russia and Beyond
Student employment: combining study and work
I S S U E
3(24)
F A L L
2020
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Dear colleagues,
Student employment or combining study and work by
university students is an important issue for the main
stakeholders of higher education system, including
universities, students, employers, educational authorities
and households and the topic brings attention of the wider
community of higher education researchers, education
economists and sociologists.
The main purpose of our efforts is to create a picture of
the incidence, motivation, educational and labour market
outcomes of student employment in a region of Central
and Eastern Europe, Russia and CIS countries. The
current issue brings together articles, expert opinions and
overviews devoted to the issue of student employment in
Russia, Belarus, Czech Republic, Estonia, Finland, Hungary,
Kazakhstan, Netherlands, Poland, Romania, Serbia,
Slovakia, Slovenia and Ukraine. The introductory part of
the issue is devoted to an overview of the problem of student
employment in the European Union and Russia. The next
part presents analyses of the determinants and patterns
of student employment, including a comparison of the
motivations—finance and work experience—of combining
of study and work. The following part highlights differences
in student employment by level of education including
vocational training, higher and doctoral education. The last
part is devoted to the labour market outcomes of working
while studying.
Guest editor Victor Rudakov
(Research Fellow, Centerfor Institutional Studies
and Laboratoryfor Labour Market Studies,
Assistant Professor, Faculty of Economic Sciences,
National Research University
Higher School of Economics, Moscow)
Cover:
Barge Haulers on the Volga by Ilya R
National Research University Higher School of Economics
National Research University Higher School of Economics
is the largest center of socio-economic studies and
one of the top-ranked higher education institutions in
Eastern Europe. The University efficiently carries out
fundamental and applied research projects in such fields
as computer science, management, sociology, political
science, philosophy, international relations, mathematics,
Oriental studies, and journalism, which all come together
on grounds of basic principles of modern economics. HSE
professors and researchers contribute to the elaboration
of social and economic reforms in Russia as experts. The
University transmits up-to-date economic knowledge to
the government, business community and civil society
through system analysis and complex interdisciplinary
research. Higher School of Economics incorporates
97 research centers and 32 international laboratories,
which are involved in fundamental and applied research.
Higher education studies are one of the University's key
priorities. According to recent QS World University
Ranking, HSE is now among the top 150 universities in
the subject of "Education". This research field consolidates
intellectual efforts of several research groups, whose
work fully complies highest world standards. Experts in
economics, sociology, psychology and management from
Russia and other countries work together on comparative
projects. The main research spheres include: analysis of
global and Russian higher education system development,
transformation of the academic profession, effective
contract in higher education, developing educational
standards and HEI evaluation models, etc.
Center for Institutional Studies
The Center for Institutional Studies (CInSt) is one of HSE
University's research centers. It focuses on fundamental
and applied interdisciplinary research in the field of
institutional analysis of the economics and sociology of
science and higher education. CInSt is integrated into
international higher education research networks and
cooperates with foreign experts through joint comparative
projects that cover the issues of higher education
development and education policy. As part of our longterm
cooperation with the Boston College Center for
International Higher Education, CInSt has taken up the
publication of the Russian version of the "International
Higher Education" newsletter.
One of the main research areas of CInSt is the study
of applicant and student strategies related to higher
education and the link between education and the labour
market. Our studies analyze the issues that applicants
face during the admission process, the factors of student
success during their studies at universities, the issue of
student employment and combining of study and work.
We also study the expected and actual returns to education
and labour market outcomes of university graduates
depending on educational factors and strategies of schoolto-work
transition with particular attention to gender
issues. Research on university graduates is conducted in
collaboration with other research centers, including The
Laboratory for Labour Market Studies at HSE University,
Center for Research in Higher Education Policies of the
University of Porto, and Ghent University.
The results of the research are published in leading
educational journals, such as Higher Education, Higher
Education Quarterly, Urban Education, International
Journal of Educational Development, European Journal
of Education, Journal of Education and Work, Journal of
Higher and Further Education, Tertiary Education and
Management and other outlets.
Contents
HERB
Issue 3(24) Fall 2020
Student employment: combining study and work
Student employment overview
6 Maarja Beerkens
Student employment in Europe: A n economic, financial and cultural phenomenon
8 Victor Rudakov
Student employment in Russia: incidence, motivation and labour market outcomes
Motivation, determinants and patterns of student
employment
9 Zsofia Kocsis, Nataliia Varha, Klara Kovacs, Nataliia Nikon, Bohdanna Hvozdetska
Working or learning? The Case of Hungary, Romania, Ukraine, Slovakia and Serbia
12 IzabelaOstoj
Determinants of Student Employment in Poland
13 Larissa Titarenko
Combining study and work in Belarus: the effects of state job assignment
14 Marko Rupercic
Student work, competences and employment: a case study of Slovenia
16 Dilrabo Jonbekova
Drivers of Student Employment in Kazakhstan
18 Jouni Helin, Joonas Hirvonen, Kristian Koerselman, Taru Siekkinen
Work and studies in Finland during COVID-19
Higher Education in Russia and Beyond / Na3(24) / Fall 2020 4
Student employment by level of education
20 Pavel Travkin
Student Employment in Vocational and Higher Education in Russia
21 SauleBekova
To work or not to work during a PhD?
22 Zsofia Kocsis, Gabriella Pusztai
Differences in student work according to educational factors
at a Hungarian university
Labour market outcomes of student
employment
24 Martin Guzi
Wages of Czech graduates: The positive effects of work experience
gained before graduation
25 Tomasz Zajac
Student employment in Poland: evidence from the Polish Graduate Tracking System
Reading list
5 Higher Education in Russia and Beyond / Na3(24) / Fall 2020
Student employment in
Europe: An economic,
financial and cultural
phenomenon
Maarja Beerkens
Assistantprofessor: Leiden University (Netherlands)
m.beerkens®fgga.leidenuniv.nl
Student employment is a complex phenomenon. The proportion
of working students varies considerably across
countries in Europe: from 77% in the Netherlands to 24%
in Serbia and Italy [1]. What explains such a variation, and
what does it say about the learning and living environment
of students in these countries? While we know about the
profile of working students, the cross-country variation remains
largely unexplained. In this brief paper, we highlight
the main factors that contribute to student employment,
and argue that a combination of economic, financial and
cultural aspects leads to different employment patterns
across Europe.
Is student employment a problem?
Student employment is often presented as a problem. The
critics see it as a signal of insufficient student support that
diverts students' attention away from their core task—academic
achievement. It is particularly a problem if students'
socio-economic background determines whether they
need to work, and thereby sacrifice their academic progress.
There is some evidence to substantiate this concern,
but the evidence is far from conclusive. Students from families
with lower income and/or lower educational levels tend
to work more [2], but not everywhere [3]. While working
students seem to spend less time on their studies, there is
little proof that this hurts their academic achievement [4].
Alternatively, massive student employment can be a signal
of educational quality. If working many hours is reconcilable
with full-time study, perhaps the study does not offer
enough of a challenge. It can lead to a situation where
students feel a need to work in order to distinguish themselves
for better career opportunities [5]. It is remarkable
that student employment differs considerably across different
fields of study and across countries.
Student employment can also be seen neutrally, as a matter
of fact. Students have always had side-jobs, and in the
context of life-long learning there will be more and more
working students entering higher education. The higher
education system may need to adjust to the diverse needs
of its increasingly heterogenous student body, instead of
problematizing student employment. Regardless of the
perspective, it is important to understand the reasons why
students work, and how they combine work and studying
most effectively.
Financial factors
Financial arguments are usually the most prominent in
explaining student employment. The more alternative resources
students have at their disposal for covering their
study and living costs, the less need there is to work, theoretically
speaking. A large proportion of European students
work for financial reasons, and they claim that they
would not be able to afford to study without this income
[1]. Cross-country differences, however, reveal interesting
discrepancies. Student satisfaction with their material
well-being varies significantly across countries (e.g. 4% of
students are dissatisfied in Spain versus 35% in Austria),
and it does not appear to be correlated with their material
well-being in an objective sense [2].
Country-level employment patterns do not seem to be
related to the generosity of the student support system.
An OECD [6] exercise divides countries into four groups
based on their financial (support) system. In the first group
are countries with no or low tuition fee and a generous
student support system, mostly Scandinavian countries.
Based on Eurostudent [1] data, these countries demonstrate
a slightly below average employment rate, but they
are far above Southern European countries (Italy, Portugal
and Turkey) that according to the OECD have less developed
student support systems (Figure 1). We see no significant
difference between the Netherlands—a country
of high tuition fees and a well-developed student support
system—and Germany, which has a less developed student
support system.
Two conclusions can be drawn from this. First, the financial
needs of students are not only a matter of objective
reality but also societal norms. Ehrenberg [7] shows that
the increasing student debt in the US is related not only to
increasing educational and living costs, but also with increasing
students expectations of consumption benefits. In
other words, the perception of financial needs is also normative.
Secondly, student employment patterns are probably
influenced by the labour market and the economic
structure more generally, as demonstrated by regional
similarities.
Economic factors
Student employment decisions are likely to depend on
access to work. Arguably, the more available employment
opportunities are, and the better they are in terms of income
and working conditions, the more likely students
are to work. Periods of economic growth have been shown
to boost student employment [8], providing a surplus of
good work opportunities. Economic growth often creates
demand for flexible work—either unskilled or skilled—
that fits student workers particularly well [9]. European
countries differ significantly in the rate of youth unemployment,
and countries with high youth unemployment
tend to demonstrate lower student employment rates.
Countries differ greatly in the extent of part-time and flexible
jobs. All these factors influence whether potential student-workers
find a place in the labour market.
Higher Education in Russia and Beyond / Ns3(24) / Fall 2020 6
Figure 1. Regular and occasional student employment during a lecture period in selected European countries, 2018
(% of all students).
100
75
50
25
c
CD
" O
CD
g
CD
E
c
CD
a
_ro
CD
CD
"ro
CD £ O
Q .
CD
O
Q .
CD
CD
CD
< B
1
Regular paid job Occassional paid job
Data source: Eurostudent [1], OECD [6]. Note: the number behind the country name shows a classification in OECD
(2014): l=no/low tuition fee + a well developed student support; 2=high tuition fee + well-developed student support;
4=low tuition fee + less developed student support.
Two conclusions can be drawn from the data. Students are
not only responding to their individual financial needs,
but also to the opportunities that the economic context
offers to them. Secondly, European countries have gone
through economic fluctuations over the past 15 years, but
student employment rates—although following the economic
trends—remain stable relative to each other.
Career perspectives
Students work not only for financial reasons. More than
half of the working students report that they work in order
to get experience and/or to distinguish themselves in
the labour market [1]. It can be argued that due to the increasing
number of graduates in most countries, students
need additional credentials to promote themselves in the
market, either through work experience or through other
extra-curricular activities. In more egalitarian higher
education systems the need to stand out may be even
stronger than in highly selective and differentiated higher
education systems [5]. In all countries, older students are
more likely to work than younger students [1], indicating
increasing financial independence from parents, but also,
perhaps, an approaching career decision. The link between
student employment and other (extra-)curricular activities
is subject for future research.
Conclusion
Working students have been studied thoroughly: consistently
across countries they tend to be older, at a higher level
of studies, (slightly) more often first-generation students,
and in financial need. However, these same factors fail to
explain the large cross-country variation in employment
patterns. While financial and economic considerations
matter, student employment seems to be also a cultural
phenomenon. It is linked to norms of what is perceived
as a normal' student standard of living, a normal' student
job and a normal' student lifestyle in terms of study and
work. These norms and formal institutions are likely to reinforce
each other: labour market expectations adjust to
the supply of student workers and vice versa, expectations
of educational engagement and student lifestyle adjust
themselves to working patterns. Student employment thus
remains a complex mix of financial and economic factors,
but also cultural factors, which reinforce existing patterns.
References
[1] Eurostudent (2018a). Social and Economic Conditions
of Student Life in Europe: Eurostudent VI, 2016-2018.
Synopsis of Indicators. Retrieved from https://www.euros-
tudent.eu/download_files/documents/EUROSTUDENT_
VI_Synopsis_of_Indicators.pdf
7 Higher Education in Russia and Beyond / Na3(24) / Fall 2020
[2] Eurostudent (2018b). Combining Studies and Paid
Jobs: Thematic Review, by K. Maseviciüte, V. Saukeckiene,
E.Ozolinciüte. Retrieved from https://www.eurostudent.
eu/download_files/documents/TR_paid_jobs.pdf
[3] Jacob, M., Gerth, M., Weiss, E (2020). Social Inequalities
in Student Employment and the Local Labour Market.
Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie,
72, 55-80.
[4] Neyt, B., Omey, E., Verhaest, D., & Baert, S. (2019).
Does student work really affect educational outcomes?
A review of the literature. Journal of Economic Surveys,
33(3), 896-921.
[5] Beerkens, M., E. Mägi, L. Lill (2011). University studies
as a side job: the causes and consequences of massive
student employment in Estonia. Higher Education, 61(6),
679-692.
[6] OECD (2014). How much do tertiary students pay
and what public support do they receive? Education at a
Glance 2014: OECD Indicators. OECD Publishing, http://
dx.doi.org/10.1787/888933117706
[7] Ehrenberg, R.G (2002) Tuition Rising: Why College
Costs So Much? Harvard University Press.
[8] Darmody, M . , Smyth, E. (2008). Full-time students?
Term-time employment among higher education students
in Ireland. Journal of Education and Work, 21(4), 349-362.
[9] Canny, A. (2002). Flexible Labour? The Growth of Student
Employment in the UK. Journal of Education and
Work, 15(3), 277-301.
Student employment
in Russia: incidence,
motivation and labour
market outcomes
Victor Rudakov
Research Fellow: Centerfor Institutional Studies,
Senior Research Fellow: Laboratoryfor Labour market
studies, Assistant Professor: Faculty ofEconomic
Sciences, HSE University (Moscow, Russia)
vrudakov<a>hse.ru
During last two decades there has been a rapid massification
of higher education in Russia, mainly due to the
growth of private universities, and programs in business,
economics, law and social sciences. Higher education
enrollment rose from 30% of high school graduates in
late 1980s to 60-70% in 2018. This massive expansion of
higher education has led to a differentiation of higher education
by quality and a decrease in the significance of a
university degree as a signal on graduate abilities in the
labour market. Employers hiring recent university graduates
face uncertainty about their productivity and since a
degree is no longer a signal of abilities due to the relatively
low average standards of education. Other factors, such
as work experience, have become important signals of
graduate abilities. The mismatch of educational programs
to labour market requirements and the importance of
practical and soft skills for employment also create demand
for work experience before graduation. From the
viewpoint of employers, the most employable graduates
are those with work experience or/and a degree from a
leading university. Consequently, since work experience
accumulated during studies has become an important
comparative advantage in the labour market and due to
the relatively low workload during studies, Russian higher
education students actively combine study and work.
This article considers the incidence, motivation and determinants
of student employment while studying and
the educational and labour market outcomes of student
employment.
Incidence and patterns of student
employment while studying
Combining study and work in Russia is a very wide-spread
phenomenon. According to the data of a Russian Federal
Statistics nation-wide survey of university graduates [1],
around 40% of university students in 2010-2015 combined
study and work. A survey of university students,
carried out by Ministry of Education and Science of Russian
Federation and HSE University (MEMO survey), [2]
indicated that during the period 2010-2018 the share of
students who combined study and work in Russia lay between
47 and 54%, with increases in periods of economic
growth or recovery and declines during recessions.
The distinctive feature of student employment in Russia is
that unlike in many European countries, students in Russia
tend to combine studies with qualified jobs related to
their specialization and by this complement their formal
education with practical skills relevant for the labour market.
Graduates of the most selective universities combined
study and work even more often then students from less
selective or regional universities mainly due to the fact
that selective universities appear in most developed areas
with developed labour markets with plenty of jobs including
distant and part-time. According to an HSE University
graduate survey [3], around 80% of students had obtained
work experience during their studies.
The incidence of student employment while studying differs
considerably by degree: among BA and Specialist students,
around 47% combined study and work and among
M A students around 75%. On average, students dedicated
26 hours per week to paid work, which is 2/3 of average
working week. Master's students worked even more:
around 30 hours a week. The majority of students start
their employment in the 3rd year of their studies.
Higher Education in Russia and Beyond / Ns3(24) / Fall 2020 8
Motivation and determinants of student
employment
There are two main motivations for student employment:
financial and labour market motivations (to obtain work
experience, job search or job matching motivation). Current
research shows that in West European countries and
the US, the main motivation for student employment is financial.
The massification of higher education contributed
to the enrollment of students from diverse socio-economic
backgrounds, who need to work to support families, maintain
living standards or even pay tuition fees. In the Western
world, student employment while studying is more of
a negative signal for employers as it indicates that student
is likely to a represent low-income family and did not dedicate
time enough to his/her studies.
On the contrary, in the countries of Eastern Europe and
Russia a significant motivation of student employment
while studying is related to the accumulation of work experience,
which is valued by employers after graduation. That
is why Russian students tend to combine studies with qualified
jobs related to their field of study and many of them
continue this particular job after graduation. According to
a Russian student survey (MEMO), labour market motivation
is important for 70% of students. By obtaining work
experience, students may signal their ambitions and abilities
to potential employers and accumulate practical and
soft skills. As a result, the specific form of gradual schoolto-work
transition (studying, then combining study and
work, then working) is very common in Russia. Research
on patterns of student employment in Russia shows that
students of more selective universities are more likely to
combine study and work but tend to work less intensively
compared to students from other universities.
Educational and labour market outcomes
of student employment
Empirical studies on the educational outcomes of student
employment in Russia have not found a significant impact
of student employment on academic achievement, except
for PhD students. This can be explained by the relatively
low workload, the fact that students start to combine
studies and work in their 3rd year, after the majority of the
most difficult courses have been passed, and by the fact
that students tend to combine studies with part-time jobs.
Study in many M A programs is designed to let students
combine studies even with full-time jobs (low educational
workload, evening classes).
Studies on labour market outcomes of student employment
shows that there is a significant wage premium for
combining study and work for recent university graduates.
Students who gained work experience during their studies
earn 26-40% more than those who did not. There is also
evidence that the intensity of student employment is positively
correlated with the early-career wages of graduates.
This analysis shows that student employment does not
seem to have significant short-term negative consequences
but is a way for students and employers to adjust to the
inefficiency of the educational system and its relatively low
standards of quality and incoherence to the requirements
of the labour market. By combining study and part-time
work students obtain soft skills and the knowledge necessary
for performing their jobs; employers receive better
trained graduates, who are more familiar with labour market
requirements, and universities receive more students
who have lower opportunity costs as they can combine
work and studies. However, this steady state is not optimal
as it leads to extensive public and private monetary
and non-monetary educational spending and even if it
does not affect academic achievement, it is likely to affect
the quality of education and the accumulation of human
capital, and by this may have negative consequences in the
long-run and may need to be improved.
Summary
More than half of Russian university students combine
study and work and dedicate on average 2/3 of their working
week to paid work. A significant motivation for employment
while studying, in addition to financial motivation,
is the necessity to obtain work experience, which is
valued by employers as an additional signal of the abilities
of university graduates and their soft skills. Student employment
does not considerably affect academic achievement
due to the relatively low educational workload and
the limited intensity of student employment. There is a
significant and large positive effect of student employment
on salaries of graduates in the early stages of their careers.
Notes
[ 1 ] Survey ofemployability oftertiary education graduates -
https://rosstat.gov.ru/free_doc/new_site/population/trud/
itog_trudoustr/index.html
[2] Monitoring of Education Markets and Organizations -
https://memo.hse.ru/
[3] Center for Institutional Research. - https://cim.hse.ru/
en/alumnisurvey_en
Working or learning?
The Cases of Hungary,
Romania, Ukraine,
Slovakia and Serbia
Zsofia Kocsis
Assistant lecture: University of Debrecen (Hungary)
kocsis.zsofia<a>arts.unideb.hu
9 Higher Education in Russia and Beyond / Ns3(24) / Fall 2020
Nataliia Varha
Assistantprofessor: Uzhhorod National University
(Ukraine)
nataliya.varha(S)uzhnu.edu.ua
Klara Kovacs
Senior lecturer: University of Debrecen (Hungary)
kovacs.klara<3)arts.unideb.hu
Nataliia Nikon
Assistantprofessor: Odessa National Polytechnic
University (Ukraine)
nikonnataliy<a>ukr.net
Bohdanna Hvozdetska
Assistantprofessor: Drohobych Ivan Franko State
Pedagogical University (Ukraine)
bogdankauafm&>gmail.com
Introduction
Education research has been studying student employment
for several decades. Student employment found its
way to university campuses as a result of the expansion of
higher education around the turn of the millennium, partly
because the expansion opened up higher education to
low socio-economic-status students, who needed to earn
Figure 1. Students' motivation to work (Eurostudent VI)
money, and partly because, in addition to traditional theoretical
training, practical training also gained ground. As
working students have diverse sociocultural backgrounds,
family subcultures, experiences and visions for the future,
their transition to work also shows a varied pattern [1].
The frequency and motives of student employment correlate
with students' socio-economic status [1,2,3]. Based on
students' sociocultural backgrounds it can be assumed that
student work increases social inequality. The number of
working students from less favourable socio-cultural backgrounds
(e.g. working class) is higher. Considering that
they work in low-paid jobs requiring no qualifications, it
seems they are even more threatened by marginalization
[4]. The same applies to motivation: the more highly qualified
a student's background, the more likely they are to
be motivated by professional ambitions rather than by
circumstances [2]. In the Balkan countries, students are
primarily motivated by the fact that they could not afford
to go to university without paid work, by gaining work experience
and by the need to support others. At least 60%
of students work primarily in order to cover their everyday
expenses.
Gaining work experience motivates Slovakian and Romanian
students (63%) more than their Serbian and Hungarian
peers (49-50%). While in Slovakia, Hungary and Serbia
gaining work experience is the chief motivation among
Master's students, in Romania both Bachelor's and Master
students are motivated by this [2].
Serbia
Slovakia
Romania
Hungary
20 AO 60 80
• I work because I have to support others financially
• Without my paid jobs I could not afford to be a student
• I work to gain experience
• I work to cover my living costs
Data source: Eurostudent VI [2], Student motivation to work. Note: Share of all working students* for whom the following
reasons to work applies (%), authors calculations
Student employment in the eastern region
of the European Higher Education Area
PERSIST was conducted in the eastern region of the European
Higher Education Area, in higher education institutions
of Eastern Hungary, Slovakia, Ukraine, Romania and
Serbia [5]. The final number of the Hungarian sample [6]
was 934, it was representative for faculties, fields of study
and forms of financing; quota sampling was used. In the
institutions outside Hungary [7] probability sampling was
used; students were contacted by group in their courses,
where the entire population was questioned. The sample
number outside Hungary was 1,381. The sample included
second-year full-time BA and BSc students and second or
Higher Education in Russia and Beyond / Ns3(24) / Fall 2020 10
third-year students from undivided majors [8]. Based on
our quantitative results, student employment was most often
performed by Slovak students (30.9%), and every fifth
Hungarian student also worked every week. In Slovakia and
Hungary almost every third respondent worked every summer.
Monthly frequency is most common among Ukrainian
and Hungarian students. The number of those who never
work is the greatest in Romania, Serbia and Ukraine.
Table 1. Frequency of student employment by country (percentage, p = 0.000).
Hungary Romania Ukraine Slovakia Serbia X2 N
Never 38.8 69.3 56.3 29.3 66.7 205.818 2,257
Every year 28.2 14.5 19.7 29.3 17.2
Every month 13.4 5.9 14.7 10.6 4.3
Every week 19.8 10.4 9.3 30.9 11.8
Data source: PERSIST 2019. Note: Underlined values indicate
ed in a random layout.
We also examined the extent to which paid work was related
to the students' studies. Although Ukrainian students
have a smaller share of paid work, most of those work in
their field of study (10.1%). The reason for this is economic
emigration; a prolonged economic recession pushed a
significant proportion of the population to work abroad
(mostly in Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia and Hungary).
As a result, labour shortages in many cases are reduced
by the employment of students who have not completed
their studies. Research has also shown that working students
may request flexible class attendance in Ukraine. A
fifth of Hungarian students have study-related jobs [1].
The proportion of Hungarian students whose work is not
related to their studies is the highest (78.6%). Since the establishment
of student job centres in Hungary, the majority
of students have been looking for work through these
cooperatives, but these centres mainly offer typical student
work that is rarely related to studies.
Motivation
Students from different regions have different work values,
which are rooted in their different cultural and economic
backgrounds. Hungarian and Slovakian students
have material-instrumental work values, whereas students
from less prosperous regions tend to do voluntary work
[9]. The most conspicuous difference between the eastern
and western regions of Europe is the role and status of parents.
In Eastern Europe, parents take a more active part
in their children's lives and support them in their studies,
and therefore students are less concerned about finances
as it is considered the parents' responsibility [3]. We found
significant differences in what motivates students from
countries with different levels of economic development
to do paid work. Building new relationships, networking
and earning for leisure activities were the most common
among Slovak students (2.69 and 2.12 points, a scale ranging
from 1 to 4 points, the higher the score, the more consistency).
The latter is the most important motivation for
Hungarian students as is covering the costs of living (2.78
points). Paid work is the most important source of income
for students in Ukraine and Romania (2.79 points). Romathat
this cell has a much larger value than it could be expect nian
and Serbian students worked to gain work experience
(2.73 and 2.7 points). Among other reasons, most often
cited by Ukrainian students, were to lay the foundation for
their career, to achieve financial independence from their
parents, and to earn money for summer vacations.
Conclusion
The motivations for student employment differ. Hungarian
and Slovakian students are motivated by earning for
leisure activities, while for Ukrainian, Romanian and Serbian
students these are mainly material factors, the opportunity
to earn for themselves and their families, that is, as
a means of achieving material well-being. The differences
are mainly due to the financial situation, as students in
Hungary and Slovakia are in a better financial situation
than students in other countries based on subjective and
objective financial indicators. As a result, they are less dependent
on income from employment. Study-related work
is atypical, regardless of the country. Although our results
show that Ukrainian students work less regularly, the work
is more related to their studies, which can be explained by
emigration and the subsequent labour shortage.
While study-related work has a proven positive effect,
non-study-related work can have negative consequences.
Student employment reduces the time spent on studying
and prevents them from becoming embedded in the university
environment, while working students are characterized
by a narrower network of institutional relationships. Our
research has also shown that students' professional plans are
directed towards external labour migration, which will negatively
affect the economic development of the regions due
to the loss of prospective members of the workforce.
References and notes
[1] Pusztai, G. & Kocsis, Zs. (2019). Combining and Balancing
Work and Study on the Eastern Border of Europe.
Social Sciences, 8(6).
[2] Maseviciute, K., Saukeckiene, V. & Ozolinciute, E.
(2018) Combining Studies and Paid Jobs. Thematic review.
UAB "Araneum", Vilnius (Lithuania), 7-67. ISBN 978-609-
468-169-1.
11 Higher Education in Russia and Beyond / Na3(24) / Fall 2020
[3] Saveanu, S.M., & Stefanescu, F. (2019). Working or
Learning? Working Students in the Romanian-Hungarian
Cross-Border Area. Revista Romaneasca pentru Educatie
Multidimensionala, 11(4), 248-277. doi:10.18662/
rrem/168.
[4] Richardson, M., Evans, C , & Gbadamosi, G. (2009).
Funding Full-Time Study through Part-Time Work, lournal
of Education and Work, 22(4), 319-334.
[5] The research project no. 123847 was financed by the
K17 programme through funding from the National Research,
Development and Innovation Fund
[6] University of Debrecen, University of Nyiregyhaza,
Debrecen Reformed Theological University
[7] The Babes-Bolyai Universityin Cluj-Napoca, University
of Oradea, Emanuel University in Oradea, Partium Christian
University, Sapientia Hungarian University of Transylvania
(Romania), Constantine the Philosopher University
in Nitra, lanos Selye University (Slovakia), University
of Novi Sad, Novi Sad and Hungarian Teaching Language
Teacher Training Faculty, Subotica (Serbia), Uzhhorod
National University, Ferenc Rakoczi II. Transcarpathian
Hungarian Institute, Mukachevo State University, Drohobych
Ivan Franko State Pedagogical University, Odessa
National Polytechnic University (Ukraine)
[8] In courses with a low number of students, senior students
were included in the sample.
[9] Pusztai, G. & Markus, Zs. (2019). Paradox of assimilation
among indigenous higher education students in four
central European countries. Studies of Migration, Integration,
Equity, and Cultural Survival, 13(4) 201-216, doi:
10.1080/15595692.2019.1623193.
Determinants of Student
Employment in Poland
Izabela Ostoj
Associate Professor: Department ofEconomics,
University of Economics in Katowice (Poland)
izabela.ostoj(a)ue.katowice.pl
Combining full-time studies with work is a controversial
phenomenon that is explored in many countries. It is very
popular in Poland for various reasons, including the conditions
within the higher education system.
Higher education in Poland
Higher education in Poland is organized accordingly to
the Bologna process. Students can pursue education at
public or private universities. They can study in full-time
programs (weekdays) or part-time programs (weekends or
evenings). In Poland, full-time programs offered by public
universities are free of charge (the exception are usually
English language programs). Payment for studies applies
to all students in non-public higher education institutions
(HEI) and in part-time programs at public universities.
Part-time programs are by definition programs for working
people. According to data from the Statistical Yearbook
of the Republic of Poland 2019, in the 2018-2019
academic year there were 392 HEI in Poland, with 1.23M
million students. The majority (66%) studied in full-time
programs, but the proportion of students in part-time programs
(34%) was relatively high compared to other countries
according to Eurostudent VI 2016-2018 [1]. In the
2018-2019 academic year, 73% of students studied at public
universities, while 58% studied in public HEI full-time
programs, i.e. non-fee-paying studies, so it can be concluded
that the majority of students in Poland are in studies
which are generally accessible. Admissions are based
on the results of a matriculation examination. Students
bear other costs related to their studies: travel, rent, etc.
A relatively small percentage (18.5%) of students, received
scholarships including scholarships for the best students
and social grants [2].
Humanities (including education, arts, languages) and
socio-economic studies (relatively less- time consuming),
are very popular in Poland. Almost half of students choose
such studies. Young people usually start their studies at the
age of 19 or 20 (if they are graduates of a technical school).
The weakness of Polish higher education is the low share
of internships in study programs. For example, a full-time
student at an economics HEI has a compulsory internship
only during the bachelors degree program, of at least 120
hours, which is to be completed in inter-semester breaks.
Paid work can be counted as an internship. There are no
official statistics on this subject, but various studies show
that about half of full-time students in Poland are in paid
employment.
Why do full-time students in Poland work?
There are four categories of reasons to work while studying
in Eastern European countries [3]: 1) financial, 2) favorable
labor demand, 3) a change in the nature of studies, which
became more available for representatives of different social
groups, including those less affluent, combined with
more flexible studying conditions, e.g. fewer hours spent
at university 4) the need to gain professional experience
and build social networks. In Eastern European countries
students often work to show their abilities and ambition
due to the relatively low level of academic standards and
the decreasing importance of degrees caused by the massification
of higher education.
We suggest all of the above reasons are valid in Poland. We
designed and conducted research on paid student work to
confirm this hypothesis. The survey was an anonymous
questionnaire and it covered all first-year students of a fulltime
master's degree program in economics at the Faculty
of Economics, the University of Economics in Katowice in
2014-2017 (499 students: 2014—124, 2015—192, 2016—
116; 2017—68; the average age was approximately 23).
Higher Education in Russia and Beyond / Na3(24) / Fall 2020 12
They were students who had already obtained a bachelor s
degree and who were about 1.5 years away from graduation
and entering the labor market. In the research period, 52%
of students worked in 2014, 49% in 2015, 54% in 2016, and
72% of students worked in 2017. The results showed that
the main reasons for working were financial (45% of working
students, four-year average) or financial combined with
the desire to gain professional experience (38%). The level
of remuneration was of major importance when choosing
a workplace (43%), but the importance of acquiring new
competences grew in the last year of survey. A small percentage
of students planned to continue working in the
same place after graduation (10.5%). More than half of the
students who were not working were going to look for a job
[4]. The possibility of combining studies and work depends
not only on the cost of studying but also on how time-consuming
study programs are. For example, economics is relatively
less time-consuming than other programs and has
a small proportion of laboratory classes. Universities often
organize classes so as to reduce the costs and time allocated
to commuting and, as a result, they schedule classes only 3
or 4 days a week. The remaining days (including weekends)
can be devoted to work. Additionally, participation in lectures
is usually optional (only seminars are mandatory).
Employers willingly hire students on the basis of flexible
contracts. The problem is, however, the frequent incompatibility
of the type of work performed with the field of study.
Work allows students to acquire general social competences,
but rarely professional ones.
Student employment during a pandemic
COVID-19—instead of conclusions
During the COVID-19 pandemic, in the second quarter of
2020 the level of economic activity dropped. GDP in Poland
decreased by 8.9% compared to the same period the
previous year. The number of employed decreased slightly,
but paid employment was lost mainly by those working
on the basis of flexible, fixed-term contracts, beyond the
statistics. All HEI in Poland have switched to online education.
Students have more free time (they did not spend
time commuting, working in the library, youth events,
trips, etc.), but there are fewer job opportunities. The global
student surveys conducted in May-June 2020 by CovidSocLab
[5] showed that in Poland 11% of the surveyed
students lost their job permanently, 18% temporarily, 11%
had their salary reduced, and only 20% continued to work
as before. Judging from these statistics, the COVID-19
pandemic is likely to change the patterns of student em-
ployment.
References and notes
[1] Hauschildt, K., Vogtle, E. M . & Gwosc, C. (2018). Social
and economic conditions of student life in Europe. Eurostudent
VI2016-2018. - Synopsis of indicators, Bielfield,
Bertelsman Verlag.
[2] Statistics Poland. (2019), Statistical Yearbook of the Republic
of Poland 2019.
[3] Beerkens, M., Magi, E., Lill, L. (2011). University studies
as a side job: causes and consequences of massive student
employment in Estonia. Higher Education, 61(6 ),
679-692.
[4] For more detailed data see: Ostoj I. (2018). Reasons
full-time students of economics in Poland undertake jobs.
Managerial Economics, 19(1), 117-132.; Ostoj, I. (2020).
The significance of motivations and selected effects of student
employment in the course of studies: A case of an
economics study program in Poland. European Journal of
Educational Research, 9(1), 165-177..
[5] CovidSocLab. Retrived from http://www.covidsoclab.
org/
Combining study and work
in Belarus: the effects of
state job assignment
Larissa Titarenko
Professor: Department of Sociology, Belarusian State
University (Minsk, Belarus)
Larissa@bsu.by
This paper discusses the Belarusian practice of student
employment taking into account the state assignment of
work to graduates.
State regulation of the first workplace
Higher education in Belarus has a specific feature: there
is a state regulation mandating the first workplace for
graduates whose study was state funded. Currently, just
under 45% of all students do not pay for their education,
therefore their first job is according to the state assignment.
Students do not like this rule because the state jobs
are less paid than jobs in the private sector. In 2015, when
Belarus joined the Bologna process, the country promised
to follow Bologna principles, and the rejection of mandatory
work placement was one of the main requirements
of the Bologna system. However, this did not happen, and
remains a problem for thousands of young graduates who
want to make their own decisions about their place of
work. This feature of the Soviet period, restored in 1997, is
viewed by the state as the students working off their higher
education and an easy way to fill unattractive (although
necessary) workplaces.
Overall, student attitudes to labor employment are formed
under the contradictory influence of state social policy, on
the one hand, and their personal interests constructed by
mass media and market ideology, on the other. The state
13 Higher Education in Russia and Beyond / Na3(24) / Fall 2020
provides the first workplace for graduates i.e. guarantees
them employment. The second factor, individual interests
and the media, stimulates expectations of a high quality
of life and a well-paid job from the beginning of their em-
ployment.
According to previous research, some students agree to
take the state job assignment, either following traditional
work values or not being able to avoid a state workplace.
We selected three groups of students. The first group are
those enrolled in studies on the recommendations of state
enterprises and institutions and receive scholarships from
them. In accordance with the law, such specialists must
work for five years. The second group are those whose
study is state funded and who are obliged to work in the
state job assignment for two years. The third group are
those who pay for their study but can ask for a state assignment,
if they do not want to, or cannot find a job.
How to Avoid a State Work Assignment
Most state-funded students try to avoid the state assigned
workplace because they want to find a job on their own.
They use several strategies for this. A popular strategy is to
find a job themselves and provide an official request from
this organization for their placement. This request is welcomed
by the leadership of universities, if it is sent from
government organizations that correspond to the student's
profession. It also requires a guarantee from this organization
that the graduate will work for two years. Employers
do not appreciate this mechanism because they have
to provide benefits to the young professionals. During the
last few years students have been allowed to work in the
private sector if the job corresponds to the students area
of study. Students have to find a potential employer and
be employed there before they graduate, which means the
students need to work in parallel to their studies. Otherwise
it will be difficult to demonstrate their professional
qualities and competences for the future employer who
usually need young workers with some experience.
According to research data, around one third of the students
in Belarus have a job. The question is whether these
students differ from the rest in their value orientations, gender,
or area of studies (technical, natural science and social).
National Case Study
We have been researching student value orientations, including
labor attitudes, for several years [1]. However, only
in 2016 did our survey include the questions necessary for
analysing student motivation for employment during their
study, their expectations regarding their future work and
the qualities that will be in demand in the workplace. The
national sample included ten universities that represent
three major areas of study (technical, natural science and
social). The proportion of males and females corresponded
to the national division of students. The initial sample
consisted of more than 450 students; for our analysis of students'
attitudes to their future work, we selected only 3rd
and 4th year students who are concerned about their future
employment. Our final sample included 275 students.
Our study revealed that 40% of senior students are not
looking for a job, 30% are combining study and work, another
30% are looking for work. A student's labor status
is not statistically related to the course of study, gender
or area of study. Differences between groups in academic
achievements are also not statistically significant. The major
difference between those who have a job and those who
do not is the conditions of study (state-funded or private).
Motivations to work include the desire to find a good
workplace (and avoid the state job assignment) and to get
work experience. Some students mentioned the need to
earn money for living expenses.
There are no differences in work expectations between
those who are already employed and those who are not:
67% of those who are already working and 60% of those
who are not looking for work said that they want to work
in their specialty. These results are in line with the nationwide
survey of Belarusian youth about workplace criteria.
Conclusion
The state job assignment cannot prevent students from
looking for employment in accordance with their interests
and education and which pays high salaries. Instead, it
stimulates students to work and study in parallel. Students
who are already working (about 30%) rely on themselves
for finding employment. Therefore, student employment is
the best strategy for bypassing the state work assignment
and a way to gain work experience.
Notes
[1] The data are in the archive of the Department of Sociology,
Belarusian State University
Student work, competencies
and employment: a case
study of Slovenia
Marko Rupercic
Expert on Student work: Slovenian Student Union
(Slovenia)
marko.rupercic&>studentska.org.si
Student work and controversies
The employment status of Slovenian students during the
academic year is diverse: they either do not work (42%),
engage in full-time employment (7%), engage in other
contractual employments (5%), or engage in student work
(46%) [ 1 ]. The latter is temporary or occasional work, flexible
enough to be combined with the study calendar and
Higher Education in Russia and Beyond / Na3(24) / Fall 2020 14
limited only to students enrolled in secondary and tertiary
education. In contrast to other types of work in Slovenia,
student work is paid by the hour, and provided by student
work agencies, which ensures some level of security. It
is, therefore, widespread; approximately 60% of Slovenian
students do at least one hour of student work per year
(with the average being 8.3 hours per week). Student work
represents about 3% of the national labour market in work
hours, and is the focus of this article.
A number of papers present student work as mainly low
paid, menial, precarious work in sectors with low added
value. Sustersic [2] offers an overview of the student work
market and divides it into manual labour (22%), other
non-complex labour (50%), and complex professional labour
(28%). He claims that student work shares segments
of the labour market with unqualified workers and young
graduates, and further advocates that student work as such
cannot provide the competencies needed for improving
the employability of students.
However, it has been proven that student work plays a
great role in graduate employability. It represents a stepping
stone, as more than 50% of working students find full
time employment after graduation with the same employer
for whom they worked as students [3]. When compared
to non-working students, students who combine study
and work find more stable and better paid employment
after graduation [4].
Regretfully, since definitive data is insufficient, only estimated
statistics are available. These estimates show that
about 35% of students doing student work are employed
as service and sales workers (ISCO 5), and about 20% as
clerical support workers (ISCO 4), 15% of students work
either as technicians and associate professionals (ISCO
3) or elementary workers (ISCO 9). These categories include
work in food and drink services and administration,
where around 20% of students find employment in each of
the sub-categories respectively. These types of work generally
do not complement the study programme and simply
cannot improve graduate employability to the degree
shown by Bartolj. Bridging the gap between these seemingly
contradictory results was the topic of the research on
competencies gained through student work [5].
Student work and competencies
Researchers have divided the student labour market into
19 categories and 99 subcategories of work, with students
and employers estimating the development of key transversal
competencies by engaging in different fields of student
work. With further measurement and taking into
consideration expected and actual competencies of graduates,
an estimation of the development of such competencies
in formal higher education was made.
The decision to focus on transversal competencies was deliberate.
Since the majority of students work in fields not
directly linked to their educational programme, the development
of other competencies needed in the labour market
is crucial.
Practical education (internships, traineeships, or other
work placements) contributed the most to the development
of competencies, followed by formal higher education
and student work. Since practical education is almost
non-existent in university education (in which 60% of Slovenian
post-secondary students are enrolled), the importance
of formal education and student work is highlighted.
When comparing data on the actual competencies of graduates
and the degree of the development of these competencies
through student work, we concluded that formal
higher education is still more important in developing
competencies than student work. Competencies such as
communication in a foreign language, written communication,
IT literacy, searching for and interpreting information,
mathematical literacy, and analytical thinking and
problem solving are developed more in formal education.
However, competencies such as expert behaviour, adaptability,
manual skills, teamwork and cooperation, and customer
orientation are developed more through student
work.
Employers expect team work and cooperation, adaptability,
oral communication, and IT literacy to be the competencies
graduates should have developed most before entering
the labour market.
Competencies which are developed the most by student
work are team work and cooperation, adaptability, oral
communication, and customer orientation.
These competencies are obviously not developed equally
in different types of student work. Working in the fields
of education, sports, organizational and project work, and
food and drink services help develop the most important
competencies in the labour market.
It is also important to understand that there are different
degrees of professionalism in different study programmes.
Based on Eurostudent VI [6] data, studying natural sciences,
ICT, agriculture, and health and welfare takes on average
more than 40 hours per week, while these students
work on average 10 hours per week. This results in a more
direct career path, starting with enrolment in a study
programme. Students studying social sciences, business,
and services need around 30 hours per week for studying
and subsequently work around 20 hours per week, which
makes student work more important in developing competencies
and career paths.
Conclusion
Considering, on the one hand, the intensity of study in
different study programmes and the competencies developed
in formal education and, on the other, student work,
tertiary education needs to be understood in a broader
perspective when exploring graduate employability. This
includes the students' commitment to achieve the needed
ECTS points as well as creating opportunities to develop
competencies outside higher education institutions. Graduate
employability does not depend only on knowledge
and skills gained within the study programme, but also
competencies developed through voluntary or paid work,
15 Higher Education in Russia and Beyond / Na3(24) / Fall 2020
hobbies, interests, non-formal education, etc. Even if not
directly complementary to the study programme, these activities
are complementary to any formal education when
thinking in terms of employability, career orientation and
career building.
References
[1] Gril, A., Bijuklic, I., Autor, S. (2018). Evrostudent VI
Socialni in ekonomski pogoji zivljenja studentov v Evropi
2016-2018 [PDF]. Ljubljana: Pedagoski institut. [2]
Sustersic, J., Nastav, B. & Kosi, T. (2010). Ekonomski vidiki
studentskega dela. Koper: Fakulteta za management.
[2] Sustersic, J., Nastav, B. & Kosi, T. (2010). Ekonomski
vidiki studentskega dela. Koper: Fakulteta za management.
[3] K, Sp., & STA. (2010). Studentsko delo pozitivno vpliva
na iskanje prve zaposlitve. Delo. Retrieved from https://
www.delo.si.
[4] Bartolj, X, Polanec, S. (2015). Economics of tertiary
education: Analysis of students decisions and outcomes:
Doctoral dissertation. Ljubljana: T. Bartolj.
[5] Rupercic, M . , Hren J., & Kohont, A. (2018). Razvoj
kompetenc, pridobljenih s studentskim delom. Teorija in
praksa, 55(2), 263-280.
[6] EUROSTUDENT VI Database (Data Reporting Module),
(n.d.). Retrieved from http://database.eurostudent.eu/
Drivers of Student
Employment in
Kazakhstan
Dilrabo Jonbekova
Assistant Professor: Graduate School ofEducation,
Nazarbayev University (Kazakhstan)
dilrabo.jonbekova&nu.edu.kz
Socio-economic factors, structural issues within job markets
and changing modes of education have been key
drivers for combining work and study over the past few
decades. Similar to global trends, Kazakhstan continues
to experience growth in university student employment.
While official statistics are unavailable, a survey of 4,000
students by HeadHunter Group in 2013, showed that 67%
of Kazakh students were employed while studying at university
[1]. In 2016, 163,000 students registered for parttime
employment on HeadHunter - the most prominent
job search website in Kazakhstan. Research is required to
better understand the impact of this trend on educational
outcomes and distributional impacts, particularly for
women and households in rural communities.
Drivers of student employment
Four factors are driving growth in student employment in
Kazakhstan: (1) increasing tuition fees, (2) competition
in the job market (3) the introduction of distance education
and blended learning programs and (4) an increase in
part-time job availability.
Increasing tuitions fees
While the government continues to offer state scholarships,
70% of students pay tuition fees. Increases in tuition
fees has led to inequalities in access to education, particularly
for rural households who cannot afford university
fees for their children unless without the contribution of a
state grant. In 2019, 142,400 students at Kazakhstani universities
did not complete their degree requirements, and
for 20% of them it was due to financial difficulties [2]. The
rapid increase in tuition fees has forced students to take on
part-time employment to support their parents and ease
the burden of financial constraints.
Competition in the job market
Fierce competition for jobs is creating tremendous pressure
on students, placing greater emphasis on their knowledge
and skill development, and in differentiating themselves
from others in the job market. Combined work and study
has been a key avenue for many students to acquire the
skills and attributes required in the job market. With significant
investments made in education through various initiatives
[3], over the last three decades, the pool of talented
graduates has been increasing and leading to an oversupply
of university graduates—leaving some graduates unemployed
and others in jobs not related to their skills or educational
background. The mismatch between the supply
and demand of graduates has resulted in a situation where
employers are raising the bar for jobs that decades ago did
not require higher education. To ease the hiring process,
employers often prioritise candidates with work experience
relative to someone possessing only university credentials
[4, 5]. Work experience is increasingly valued and this is
one way through which recent graduates can differentiate
themselves from others. Therefore, students start seeking
employment at an undergraduate level to learn practical
skills, gain experience, and to develop a professional network.
Hence, those students who integrate work and studies
have better employment opportunities [5].
Distance education
The expansion of distance and blended-learning degrees,
and access to the internet has been another driver of students
combining work and study. Distance education and
blended-learning programs have made education more
affordable and accessible, particularly for individuals who
are unable to enroll in full-time programs because of an
inability to cover the cost of full-time university education
or the need to earn money to support a family. Such
programs have enabled students to pursue university education
without quitting their jobs. These programs have
made education more accessible for students with special
Higher Education in Russia and Beyond / Ns3(24) / Fall 2020 16
needs and mothers with small children who may have otherwise
not considered pursuing a university degree.
The COVID 19 pandemic in Kazakhstan has pushed universities
to switch to distance education or blended learning.
Unfortunately, not all universities have the capacities
and resources to support online teaching and learning.
This is has led to concerns about inequity in access to the
online provision of education, particularly for faculty and
students residing in remote areas where internet connectivity
remains poor [6]. It may have also resulted in a disadvantage
for students in rural regions in combining work
and study. One significant government response has been
investment in distance education through training and
improved access to technological resources.
Part-time jobs
An increase in part-time jobs has also been a driver for
student employment in Kazakhstan. Better access to the
internet and technology is enabling students to take on
paid work while studying without traveling a great distance.
More employers are now offering part-time jobs
based on service contracts, helping employers to avoid
paying for employee insurance, sick leave or annual leave.
Type of students combining work and study
Students who combine work and study are mainly those
from low-income households [7] who have to earn a living
and provide financial support to their families [8]. Among
those who combine work and study, many are self-funded
students [5,8], who come from other cities and have to live
far from their families and cover the cost of accommodation
and living expenses [8]. However, there also students
who combine work and study for professional motives such
as gaining work experience, developing practical skills, and
building a professional network for future employment.
Challenges of student employment
Despite the increase in student employment, students in
Kazakhstan face a number of challenges in combining
work and study. Female students, particularly those who
have small children, face tremendous pressure to combine
work and study due to social and cultural norms surrounding
household chores, child rearing and care. Similar to
other Central Asian countries, women are the ones who
are expected to manage household chores such as cooking
and cleaning, grocery shopping—irrespective whether
they work. Therefore, female students who combine work
and study, experience a triple challenge: juggling work,
study, and household chores. Although female students
are known to be high achievers in Kazakhstan both at
school and university, lack of support for female students
(at home and in the workplace) combining work and study
can adversely affect the quality of their education and their
emotional wellbeing.
Students combining work and study, especially those
through distance education or blended-learning programs,
feel the lack of face-to-face interactions with their
instructors and fellow students whereas those who have
chosen blended learning as a mode of instruction report
being 'isolated' from their peers [9]. Within such a program,
the dependency on computer, the internet and other
technologies against the backdrop of unequal access to the
technologies and IT literacy makes the learning process
more challenging. For these reasons, not everyone can
combine work and study, particularly individuals in rural
areas or those from socio-economic backgrounds who do
not have access to the required resources.
Concluding thoughts
The number of students balancing work and studies, either
to earn a living or enhance employability, is likely to
increase in Kazakhstan in the coming years. However, in
the current economic situation, job cuts and freezes on
hiring in Kazakhstan and globally, students who counted
on combining work and study are likely to struggle finan-
cially.
The increase in student employment suggests that there is
a greater need for higher education institutions to reconsider
traditional ways of providing education and consider
programs and teaching approaches that enable and engage
working students in their academic life more effectively.
Moreover, universities need to establish and strengthen
links with industry to help students who seek part-time
employment to find a job in fields related to their area of
specialisation. Most importantly, and in areas not just related
to combining study and work, greater support is required
for female students with families and children to
access opportunities at universities and in their workplaces.
References and notes
[1] Kapitál. (2013). 67% of students in the Republic of Kazakhstan
combine work and study at a university (67%
študentov v RK sovmeschayut rabotu i uchyobu v vuze).
Retrieved from https://kapital.kz/kapital-style/17552/67-
studentov-v-rk-sovmeshchayut-rabotu-i-uchebu-v-vuze.
html
[2] Kachalova, Y. (2020). In Kazakhstan the number of
students is rising (V Kazakhstane rastyot kolichestvo študentov)
Kursiv.kz. Retrieved from https://kursiv.kz/news/
obrazovanie/2020-02/v-kazakhstane-rastet-kolichest-
vo-študentov
[3] e.g. Bolashak scholarship program - http://bolashak.
gov.kz/en/home-page/, Nazarbayev University
[4] Jonbekova, D. (2019). The diploma disease in Central
Asia: students' views about purpose of university education
in Kazakhstan and Tajikistan. Studies in Higher Education,
https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2019.1628199
[5] Sagidullina, L., Xetayeva, G., Orynbasarova, K , Amanzholov,
X, & Novryzova, N. (2017). External factors affecting
the succession of students (Vneshnie faktory, vliyayushchie
na uspevaemost študentov). Vestník KazNMU, 4,
290-294. Retrieved from https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/
vneshnie-faktory-vliyayuschie-na-uspevaemost-studen-
tov-vuza/viewer
17 Higher Education in Russia and Beyond / Ns3(24) / Fall 2020
[6] Asylbek, B. (2020). Distance learning in universities:
lectures by mail and speed - one megabit per second
(Distantsionnoye obucheniye v vuzakh: lektsii po pochte
i skorost' — odin megabit v sekundu) Retrieved from
https://rus.azattyq.org/a/distance-learning-without-inter-
net-in-kazakhstan-/30863579.html
[7] Kenzhebekova, A. (2016). The student is looking for a
part-time job in the country of unemployment (Student
ishchet podrabotku v strane bezrabotitsi). Radio Azattyk.
Retrieved from https://rus.azattyq.org/a/studenty-al-
maty-podrabotka-bezrabotitsa-v-kazakhstane/27728703.
html
[8] Medelbek, R. (2016). Self-funded students have to
earn money (Studenty platnykh otdeleniy vynuzhdeny
podrabatyvat). PaflMO A3aTThiK. Retrieved from https://
rus.azattyq.org/a/studenty-platnykh-otdeleniy-rabo-
ta/28129951.html
[9] Namyssova, G., Tussupbekova, G , Helmer, J., Malone,
K., Afzal, M., & Jonbekova., D. (2019). Challenges and benefits
of blended learning in higher education. International
Journal of Technology in Education (IJTE), 2(1), 22-31.
Work and studies in
Finland during COVID-19
Jouni Helin
Project researcher: Finnish Institutefor Educational
Research, University ofjyvaskyla (Finland)
jouni.t.helin<a)jyu.fi
Joonas Hirvonen
Doctoral student: Jyvaskyla University School of
Business and Economics, University ofjyvaskyla
(Finland)
joonas.m.a.hirvonen<a)jyu.fi
Kristian Koerselman
Senior researcher: Finnish Institutefor Educational
Research and Jyvaskyla University School ofBusiness
and Economics, University ofJyvaskyla (Finland)
kristian.w.koerselman jyu.fi
Taru Siekkinen
Postdoctoral researcher: Finnish Institutefor
Educational Research, University of Jyvaskyla (Finland)
taru.siekkinen(a)jyu.fi
More than half of Finnish university students work during
the academic year, and even more do so during the summer
break [1]. The importance of work in Finnish student
life raises important questions about what happens when
many job opportunities disappear. This, for example, happened
in 2020, when the COVID-19 pandemic caused a
reduction in economic activity. In Finland, the number
of new job vacancies decreased and unemployment increased
especially among young people [2]. In this article,
we draw on our own experiences, on an expert interview,
and on national register data to show how under appropriate
student finance schemes, universities can mitigate
student unemployment risk and foster study progress even
at times of great societal uncertainty.
Why work?
Even though most Finnish university students have been
working already prior to their studies, they also work
during their studies in order to gain further labor market
experience [3]. Using Finnish data, Häkkinen [4] shows
that working while studying causes better labor market
outcomes immediately after graduation. This is however
something of a double-edged sword. Time spent working
is typically time that cannot be spent studying, and working
while studying thus delays graduation itself, resulting
in a zero net labor market benefit to students.
A second reason why students work is to finance living
expenses. At first glance, it is not clear that this would be
necessary in Finland as Finnish university students receive
government financial support during their studies,
including student grants, housing supplements, and government-guaranteed
student loans. Finnish students are
furthermore not required to pay tuition fees. In spite of
this, nearly half of students report having at least some
difficulties covering all of their expenses, with the main
expense being housing [5]. When students cannot work,
they must thus find a different way to finance their studies.
COVID-19 and student employment in Finland
Reported Finnish COVID-19 cases started to rise quickly
in early March 2020. On March 16, the Finnish government
declared a state of emergency and announced multiple
measures to prevent the further spread of the virus. Public
facilities such as schools and universities were closed, and
had to move to online teaching. Public meetings were limited
to 10 persons, and travel was restricted across internal
and external borders. Following a decline in the number
of daily new cases, most of these restrictions had been lifted
by July. While the economic impact of COVID-19 has
been smaller in Finland than in the eurozone as a whole,
Finnish unemployment rose quickly during the first half
of the year, and by June 2020, youth unemployment was at
twice the level it had been a year earlier [4].
Students' labor income reduces the level of student financial
aid they can receive. At the same time, financial aid
is tied to course completion. Students thus face a choice
in allocating their time between work and studies. One
should expect a lack of immediate labor market opportunities
to increase both the time students have available to
spend studying, and the financial necessity to do so. Indeed,
student financial aid applications increased by over
a third in summer 2020 compared to the year before [5],
Higher Education in Russia and Beyond / Ns3(24) / Fall 2020 18
suggesting that many students were reallocating time from
work to studies. This mechanism can however fail when
courses are cancelled en masse. Furthermore, Finnish universities
normally only supply limited numbers of courses
during the summer break.
Universities respond
Although in theory, Finnish university students could easily
substitute work with studies when job opportunities
disappear, it requires universities to react quickly to new
circumstances. In our own experiences, this is exactly what
happened in Finland — a point of view shared by the dean
of the Jyvaskyla University School for Business and Economics.
At the business school, most immediate problems
related to moving teaching and research online had been
solved by the end of March, and the attention then shifted
to longer term planning. Lecturers were asked whether
they could consider teaching extra courses during the summer
break, when students might find themselves without
a job, and many lecturers did. Different scenarios for fall
term teaching were also prepared already in spring. Other
universities similarly expanded their course offerings [6].
The switch to online teaching was hard on some students,
but created new opportunities for others. Online teaching
allowed extra students to be added to otherwise oversubscribed
courses, and students living outside of Jyvaskyla
were able to take courses they had not originally been able
to take. From the university's perspective, what started out
as a crisis soon began to look more like an opportunity.
Students demanded more teaching, and the university was
able to supply it.
When we examine study progress at the national level, we
see a pattern that corresponds to our own experiences. We
measure study progress using data on study credits attained
[7] and on the number of students enrolled [8] in all Finnish
universities between 2016 and 2020, and find that monthly
credits per student were 2-3% higher nationally for the end
of the spring term 2020 compared to the same months in
earlier years, and 18-20% higher for June and July [9].
Conclusions
Finnish students routinely work while studying, especially
during the summer months. Such employment can be beneficial
to students by providing relevant work experience
as well as desired extra income. The number of jobs available
to Finnish students however rapidly declined during
the first half of 2020 as a consequence of the COVID-19
pandemic, and unemployment consequently increased.
Our experiences from spring and summer 2020 illustrate
that a flexible student financing system can dampen labor
market shocks by allowing students to substitute studies
for work. This however requires higher education institutions
to increase course offerings and respond quickly and
flexibly to changing circumstances. Since working while
studying delays graduation, and is thus not unambiguously
beneficial to students even in normal times, consideration
should be given to expanding course offerings also
during future summers, especially since courses can now
reliably be held online.
Acknowledgements
We thank the dean of the Jyvaskyla University School for
Business and Economics, Hanna-Leena Pesonen, for sharing
her thoughts on the events of the spring and summer
of 2020.
References and notes
[1] Eurostudent VI. (n.d.). Database (Data Reporting
Module). Retrieved October 15, 2020 from http://data-
base.eurostudent.eu/
[2] Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment of Finland.
(2020). Employment Bulletin, June 2020. Retrieved
fromhttp://urn.fi/URN:NBN:fi-fe202001243324
[3] Potila, A.-K., Moisio, J., Ahti-Miettinen, O., Pyy-Martikainen,
M . & Virtanen, V. (2017). Opiskelijatutkimus
2017. EUROSTUDENT VI -tutkimuksen keskeiset tulokset
[Student survey 2017. Key results of the Finnish
Eurostudent VI survey]. Opetus- ja kulttuuriministeriön
julkaisuja 2017:37. Retrieved from http://urn.fi/URN:IS-
BN978-952-263-500-6
[4] Häkkinen, I. (2006). Working while enrolled in a university:
does it pay? Labour Economics, 13(2), 167-189.
https://doi.Org/10.1016/j.labeco.2004.10.003 [5] Kela The
Social Insurance Institution of Finland, (n.d.). Financial
aid for students: Number of recipients and financial
aid paid out. Statistical database Kelasto. Retrieved October
30,2020 from http://raportit.kela.fi/ibi_apps/WFServ-
let?IBIF_ex=NIT090AL&YKIELI=E
[5] Kela - The Social Insurance Institution of Finland,
(n.d.). Financial aid for students: Number of recipients
and financial aid paid out. Statistical database Kelasto.
Retrieved October 30, 2020 from http://raportit.kela.fi/
ibi_apps/WFServlet?IBIF_ex=NIT090AL&YKIELI=E
[6] See e.g. Tampere University: A variety of studies offered
in the summer of Covid-19. https://www.tuni.fi/en/news/
variety-studies-offered-summer-covid-19 and University
of Eastern Finland: Yliopistot avaavat avointa opintotarjontaansa
tutkinto-opiskelijoille (Universities opened their
course offers to degree students). Retrieved from https://
www.uef.fi/fi/artikkeli/yliopistot-avaavat-avointa-opintotarjontaansa
-tutkinto-opiskelijoille
[7] Vipunen Extra - Education Statistics Finland. (2020).
Opintopisteet. VIRTA-opiniotietopalvelu. Retrieved October
20,2020 from https://extra.vipunen.fi (Authorized access)
[8] Vipunen - Education Statistics Finland. (2020). University
students. Education administration's and Statistics
Finland's information service contract. Retrieved October
20, 2020 from https://vipunen.fi
[9] A limitation of this comparison is that we do not know
whether these changes were caused by the response to
COVID-19 specifically. See the Online Appendix for a description
of our calculations: https://osf.io/sxca2
19 Higher Education in Russia and Beyond / Ns3(24) / Fall 2020
Student Employment in
Vocational and Higher
Education in Russia
Pavel Travkin
Deputy Vice Rector, Research Fellow: Laboratoryfor
Labour market studies,
Assistant Professor: Faculty of Economic Sciences,
HSE University (Moscow, Russia)
The combination of studies and work by the vocational
education students which is the start of a professional trajectory
for many, is discussed in this article and compared
with the situation in the higher education system.
To begin with, a few key points should be highlighted
about vocational education in Russia, since research is
more often focused on either higher education or school
education, while vocational education is ignored or used
as a basis for comparison, although the number of the vocational
education and higher education system graduates
among young people under 30 is almost equal. In other
words, these represent two equally important population
groups for the education system, for the labour market,
and for the state as a whole.
Vocational education trains workers, employees, as well as
mid-level professionals, and the share of students in the
qualified worker professions has fallen significantly over
the past fifteen years (from 45% in 2005 to 17.2% of all
vocational students in 2019). Where do graduates of the
vocational education system work?
Graduates of vocational education often have to compete
with university graduates. There is a range of professions
that are filled equally by young people with a university
degree and with vocational training. For example, construction
and manufacturing plant foremen, secretaries
and accountants, teachers in primary and preschool education.
This comparison is of course based only on the job
titles, while the content and professional responsibilities
may vary greatly, as do the educational requirements of
the applicants.
Key Premises
There are several premises that are important for understanding
the context of students combining work and
study. First, according to the data of Monitoring of Education
Markets and Organizations (MEMO) [1], families of
students in vocational education are usually less educated
and less financially secure than families of university stu-
dents.
The education of the vast majority of vocational education
students is state funded. According to federal statistics,
more than half of the students in the higher education system
study on a fee-paying basis, while only one in every
six vocational students pays for his or her education. The
main reason is the low income of vocational students' families.
This usually forces students to choose educational
programmes where they can study for free, rather than
those that are of particular interest to them.
The third important factor impacting the employment of
students in vocational education is the early choice of their
educational trajectory. They need to decide in the ninth
grade, while future university students have two more
years left. The lack of, or highly skewed, knowledge of the
labour market at this age may lead to early disillusionment
with the choice of educational trajectory.
Student Employment
After outlining these three important premises, the combination
of study and work can be discussed directly. The
majority of students in vocational education start their
studies immediately after the ninth grade (74%), meaning
that they are 15 to 16 years old, which significantly limits
the opportunities for employment in the first years of
study; this is important to consider when comparing the
employment data of university students. According to the
results of the MEMO, about half of students (44% in vocational
education vs. 55% in higher education in 2015)
gain work experience by the end of their studies, while according
to Rosstat, much fewer 2010-2015 graduates combined
study and work (21.9% in vocational education and
36.7% in higher education).
However, the proportion of those who gain work experience
related to their profession is extremely low (According
to federal statistics, 10% of all vocational education
graduates in 2010-2015). While studying and holding
down a job not related to their profession, a student accumulates
specific knowledge and skills that may not be
required for a potential job in his or her professional area.
Thus, the transition to a job in the student's field of study is
associated with costs (in terms of remuneration, the need
to retrain, etc.) that not everyone will be ready to bear. This
means that if a student has been working for several years
in a job that is not related to his or her education, then only
entry-level positions in their field of study will be available
to him or her upon graduation.
Conclusion
If the choice of the area of work is based on a student's personal
preferences about his or her future employment or
educational trajectory, then no problem exists. However,
the choice of employment is often made under the pressure
of external circumstances, be it a difficult financial situation
or lack of offers in the professional field of interest.
As a result, students choose jobs based on the salary, rather
than on their relevance. All these considerations are also
valid for university students from low-income families.
Students in vocational education and higher education
lack reliable information about what is happening in the
labour market, i.e. what prospects they will face after
graduation or what skills and knowledge are in demand.
One way to deal with the lack of such information is to
raise their awareness. Students can be taught how to use
Higher Education in Russia and Beyond / Na3(24) / Fall 2020 20
job search websites and given basic skills that are necessary
for a successful job search, such as, how to write
a CV, how to compose a cover letter, how to search for
vacancies, how to prepare for a job interview. Naturally,
all these skills are not directly related to the profession
or field of study, but without these skills, the chances of a
student finding a suitable job that would require the skills
and competencies acquired during education are reduced.
Graduates of vocational education often cannot afford
a lengthy search for a suitable job for financial reasons.
This is why a vocational graduate is forced to accept the
first job offers received while focusing on the promised
salary, and not on employment in his or her area of study
or career prospects. In fact, without the simple, perhaps
auxiliary, but still very necessary skills, the employment
effectiveness of graduates and, therefore, the effectiveness
of education as a whole, suffers.
Notes
[1] For more details on the methodology and questionnaires,
visit https://memo.hse.ru
To work or not to work
during a PhD?
Saule Bekova
Research Fellow: Centerfor Sociology ofHigher
Education, Institute of Education, HSE University
(Moscow, Russia)
bekova.sk<a>gmail.com
A critical number of highly skilled graduates is considered
a necessary condition for innovation, technological
development, and economic growth. Nevertheless,
despite the increasing number of PhD holders, a large
proportion of PhD students do not make it to their thesis
defense. The share of Russian PhD graduates who defended
their thesis within the expected period has been
steadily decreasing since 2007. Prior to then it was stable
at around 30%.
In 2019, the dropout rate hit an all-time high, with 89.5%
of graduates not defending their thesis on time. There are
not many studies of dropout factors in Russia but public
discussion views doctoral student employment, caused
by low financial support, as one of the key reasons for the
high dropout rate. Despite the widespread belief about the
negative effects of employment on graduation outcomes,
there is no empirical evidence for such a conclusion. This
study investigates how student employment and the balancing
of work and study relate to doctoral experience and
graduation outcomes.
Student employment and studying
process
In order to investigate the relationship between student
employment and studying process we analyzed the data
from a 2016 survey of PhD students at leading Russian
universities [1]. The aim of this cross-sectional study was
to assess the extent and types of their employment, their
experiences of balancing work and study, and the main
challenges that confront them. We explore how such factors
as the place of employment, the type of contract, and
the nature of the job affect their academic performance
and professional experience.
The survey showed that 90% of doctoral students combine
study with work. The most common type of employment is
full-time work off-campus (34%). The place of employment
has a significant correlation with career prospects. There
are more PhD students planning to pursue an academic
career among those who have a full or part time job at a
university. The sphere of employment plays significant role
in student perceptions of studying and university services.
Students employed on-campus are more satisfied and have
less difficulties with combining study and work. Those employed
off-campus reports more difficulties and lower levels
of satisfaction with the services provided by their university.
Usually there is little connection between their jobs
and their thesis topics, which can negatively affect their
study. These students also see their supervisors less often.
Most of these students plan to pursue a non-academic career
after their graduation and the share of those who do
not plan to defend their thesis is also higher in this group.
Student employment and graduation
outcomes
The studying process is different for PhD students with
different employment characteristics. But do these students
differ in their graduation outcomes? To answer this
question we collected a longitudinal dataset on doctoral
students who studied at HSE University between 2008 and
2017 [2]. The dataset combines data collected during doctoral
training and administrative data about students' outcomes,
gathered in 2018, after graduation. The final dataset
consists of 655 doctoral students. To characterize the relationship
between graduation outcomes and student employment,
a logistic regression was used with graduation
outcomes (defense or dropout) as the dependent variable.
Only 36% of students had defended their thesis by 2018.
Other students graduated without a defense (30%), were
dismissed (19%), or withdrew before graduation (15%).
Most doctoral students who get their degree defend their
thesis within the expected period (4 or 5 years) or the year
after (78% of full-time students and 79% of part-time students).
Theoretically, a student can work on their thesis
after withdrawal, but this is quite rare. The share of PhDs
among those who graduated is much higher than among
those who were dismissed or left the program (55% vs
5%). 39% of full-time students defended their thesis compared
to only 29% of part-time. There are no differences
21 Higher Education in Russia and Beyond / Na3(24) / Fall 2020
in completion rates between male and female students or
between students from different fields of study.
The results of the logistic regression models showed that
different factors play a significant role for students employed
on campus or off campus. Students employed on
campus have the highest completion rates. The critical
success factor for these students is their position at the
university. Students who have a research assistant position
defend their theses more often than students who
work as instructors or administrative staff at the university.
Students not employed on campus are divided further
into those not employed and those employed off campus.
Employment itself has a negative impact on the outcomes.
Non-working students have more chances of defending
their thesis in comparison with students employed off
campus. Among those employed off campus, those who
decide to pursue a degree to build an academic career and
plan to work in the university after graduation have more
chances of defending their thesis. Participation in the advanced
doctoral program, which has greater financial and
academic support, has a positive impact for both groups.
Summary
Both parts of the research showed that employment
does affect the process and the results of doctoral study.
Cross-sectional data analysis showed that the characteristics
of employment are connected with the doctoral students
experience and those students who are employed on
campus have more benefits during their study. Students
with full-time off-campus work are the most vulnerable
group in terms of the learning process. These students are
already less focused on their study, they plan to work in
non-academic fields, and they have the greatest difficulties
in combining study and work. A longitudinal study
showed that these students have less chance of defending
their thesis. Combining study with work negatively affects
the chances of a postgraduate student defending their thesis
and thus contributes to the dropout rate. The exception
is research positions at the university. Additional academic
and financial support by the university is also an important
factor of student outcomes. These findings might help
to define the groups of students that are at risk and who
should be targeted with support. In addition, they can be
used as a basis for policy changes at the university and national
levels.
References
[1] Bekova, S., Dzhafarova, Z. (2019). Komu v aspiranture
zhit' khorosho: svyaz' trudovoy zanyatosti aspirantov s
protsessom i rezul'tatami obucheniya [Who is Happy at
Doctoral Programs: The Connection between Employment
and Learning Outcomes of PhD Students]. Voprosy
obrazovaniya. Educational Studies Moscow, 1, 87-108.
[2] Bekova, S. (2019). Does employment during doctoral
training reduce the PhD completion rate? Studies in Higher
Education, 1-13. doi: 10.1080/03075079.2019.1672648
Differences in student work
according to educational
factors at a Hungarian
university
Zsofia Kocsis
Assistant lecturer: University of Debrecen (Hungary)
kocsis.zsofia<a>arts.unideb.hu
Prof. Dr. Gabriella Pusztai
Professor: University of Debrecen (Hungary)
pusztai.gabriella(a)arts.unideb.hu
Introduction
In Hungary, since the 1990s, we have been talking about
student employment as a phenomenon when students
start working during their university studies. They either
worked while studying or interrupted their studies and
took a job. The boundaries between studies, work, and
unemployment, and the output points have become increasingly
blurred, so the start of a career can no longer
be interpreted as a single closed process [1]. Student employment
is a complex phenomenon, and during this transition
period, student and employee status are constantly
changing.
Based on EUROSTUDENT VI data, 39% of students in
Hungary worked during the semester and 14% took up
casual work. Nearly 40% of Hungarian students worked
to cover their living expenses and would not be able to
continue their higher education without paid work. In
addition to financial reasons, gaining experience was an
important motivating factor, and this type of employment
was important for 25% of students. Gaining work experience
was typical of young people, those in full-time students
and students in a more favourable financial situation.
In terms of educational level, work experience was
typical for master's students [2].
According to previous large-scale studies investigating the
relationship between the field of education and student
employment, the proportion of working students is higher
in the social sciences, arts, natural sciences, computer
science and agriculture, while students studying medicine
work less [2]. Study-related work is typical for students in
the fields of computer science, engineering and economics,
as employers in these fields are more interested in hiring
students. However, according to EUROSTUDENT VI
data, students in health care have often study-related jobs
too [2].
In our research, the PERSIST 2019 database was used. We
focused on the employment habits of students from the
University of Debrecen (N=803), which has almost 30,000
students in 14 faculties.
Higher Education in Russia and Beyond / Na3(24) / Fall 2020 22
Field of study and student work
Our results are consistent with previous research which
shows that employers in some areas are more likely to
recruit students. Regular work is typical for students in
engineering, humanities and nursing, while students in
medical, dental and pharmaceutical work less or have never
worked. There are differences between nursing students
and medical students, as the former can perform many
professional tasks before graduating. While the performance
of certain work in the professions of pharmacy,
medicine or dentistry is dependent on the acquisition of
a degree and a professional examination—students cannot
gain relevant professional experience before obtaining
their degree [3]. It can be assumed that medical students
do not work because of curriculum inflexibility or training
requirements. They are less dependent on an additional income
from work or are less willing to risk success in their
studies by working.
The Hungarian higher education system consists of three
interdependent educational cycles: bachelor's, master's
and doctoral studies. However there is also "undivided education",
which means that in some majors it is possible
to obtain a Master's degree in 10-12 semesters, whereby
the student graduates with a Master's degree. According to
earlier studies, students studying for a Master's degree tend
to work during the semester, while two-thirds of students
studying for an undivided degree do not work during the
semester [2]. According to our results, Master's students
worked more often than students in Bachelor's and undivided
degrees, and they are also characterized by the correspondence
between work and study. Our analysis also
showed that bachelor's students rarely work in their first
year; usually starting work in their second or third years.
This decision can be explained by the fact that the first year
is spent taking the basic exams and subjects and familiarising
oneself with university life. Masters' students already
have a university degree and a routine that makes it easier
to combine work and study; it is also more important for
them to gain work experience [2].
The frequency of employment is significantly influenced
by the form of funding for education. If students do not
have parental support or do not take out a student loan,
they are more likely to take a job. Fee-paying students take
up work more often than state-funded students. In addition
to covering tuition fees, fee-paying students have a
desire to acquire new skills and new friends, which is also
reflected in the fact that fee-paying students more often
have a study-related job. This raises the question of whether
these students should plan their university careers more
consciously? It cannot be ruled out that as fee-paying students
already pay for their education, they do not change
majors, and, if they already work, gain professional work
experience.
Motivation for work
In 2019, a scale of 1 to 4 points was used to examine the
motivations of student employment (the higher the score,
the more consistent the motivation). Based on PERSIST
2019 data, independence from parents was the most important
motivating factor, 66% of the students cited this
factor, wanting to be independent from their family. Although
independence from parents in all majors was a significant
incentive for students to work, the main motivating
factor for students in medical and sports studies was
the funding of recreational/leisure.
The motivation to work is related to the socio-cultural
background of the students, and we found that medical
students and law students are in the best financial positions.
This also explains why medical students work less,
not only because of the training requirements, but also
because they are less often required to work. There is a
significant difference in that the second most important
motivating factor for IT and art students was gaining work
experience.
Limitations and conclusion
Our research results show that there are differences between
majors in both the frequency and motivation of
employment. Some research has highlighted that study-related
work has a positive effect, while non-study related
work has a negative effect on student performance. For a
successful university career it is therefore important for
students to have study-related work as it can benefit them
professionally, but the match between work and study is
typical only for a small proportion of students.
Fee-paying students are more likely to work, and previous
results have shown that three times as many students drop
out of university as fee-paying students than as state-funded
students [4]. There was also a difference in work motivation,
with IT students being most motivated to gain
work experience. This is also important because 55% of
IT students have a below-average persistence (adj.res.=3,
p=0,035). In IT, the dropout rate is 49-55% [5].
Our previous research found that low persistence, negative
perceptions of education, and student employment
can encourage students to interrupt or abandon their
studies. Student employment can be a possible factor in
dropping out, so further research is needed to examine
the institutional factors (contact with teachers, satisfaction
with teaching, etc.) that reinforce or mitigate the negative
effects of employment in addition to training areas and re­
quirements.
References
[1] Bocsi, V. (2013). Munkaértékek a felsóoktatásban. In:
Darvai T. (szerk.), Felsóoktatás és munkaerópiac - eszményektól
a kompetenciák felé, 67-87. Szeged: SETUP Belvedere
Meridionale.
[2] Masevičiúté, K., Šaukeckiené, V. & Ozolinčiúté, E.
(2018). Combining Studies and Paid Jobs. Thematic review.
UAB "Araneum", Vilnius (Lithuania), 7-67. ISBN
978-609-468-169-1.
[3] Girasek, E. (2010). Fiatal munkavállalók az
egészségúgyben, fiatal egészségúgyiek a munkaerópiacon.
23 Higher Education in Russia and Beyond / Na3(24) / Fall 2020
In: Garai O., Horvath X, Kiss L., Szep L. &Veroszta Zs.
(szerk), Diplomas Palyakovetes IV.Frissdiplomasok 2010.
Diplomas Palyakovetes Iv.Frissdiplomasok 2010Educatio
Tarsadalmi Szolgaltato Nonprofit Kft.Felsooktatasi Osztaly,
287-301.
[4] Fonai, M . (2018). Hallgatoi lemorzsolodas a Debreceni
Egyetemen. In: Pusztai G. & Szigeti F. (szerk.), Lemorzsolodas
es perzisztencia a felsooktatasban, 239-250.
Debrecen: Debreceni Egyetemi Kiado.
[5] Oktatasi Hivatal (2020): Lemorzsolodasi Vizsgalatok a
felsooktatasban - Osszefoglalo tanulmany. Budapest: Oktatasi
Hivatal.
Wages of Czech graduates:
The positive effects of work
experience gained before
graduation
Martin Guzi
Assistant Professor: Department of Public Economics,
Masaryk University (Czech Republic)
Martin.Guzi&econ.muni.cz
Introduction
This study evaluates the wage effects of student employment.
According to the 2016 Eurostudent survey more
than half of university students in the E U combine studies
and paid work [1]. The motives to work are primarily
financial but gaining experience is also important [1,2].
Previous research mostly finds that student employment
increases wages after graduation [3,4]
Masaryk University alumni survey
This empirical analysis employs data from a Masaryk University
alumni survey conducted in April 2020. Masaryk
University is the second-largest university in Czechia with
approximately 33,250 students enrolled in 10 faculties. The
invitation to participate in the survey was sent to all graduates
of Master's level programs graduating in 2017 and
2018 i.e. graduates were surveyed one or two years after
graduation. In total 805 graduates replied (22.5%). Presumably,
the COVID-19 pandemic was one of the factors
contributing to low response rate.
Descriptive evidence
The data include the individual and employment characteristics
of graduates. The final sample is restricted to
graduates who report working at least 20 hours per week
(N=684). Importantly, the survey includes job search
questions, which identify graduates who worked before
graduation and continued the same employment after
graduation (N=265) and those who started employment
after graduation (N=419). The results reveal that the wages
of graduates with work experience are 17% higher relative
to those without work experience. First, the difference in
wages may arise due to favourable characteristics that allow
graduates to find paid work during their studies and
to advance their careers after graduation. For instance,
males and students in STEM subjects may find it easier to
find employment during their studies and earn more after
graduation. Second, the difference in wages is attributed to
better job characteristics. Graduates who gain work experience
during their studies are employed more in private
and foreign firms (rather than in public sector or NGOs),
run their own business, or work in supervisory positions.
Results from the wage regression
The wage effects of student employment are further tested
by estimating the wage equation. The dependent variable is
the logarithm of gross monthly wage, and control variables
include gender, field of study, year of graduation, academic
performance during studies (GPA), city size, logarithm of
working hours per week, type of company (public sector,
Czech private firm, foreign firm, self-employment) and an
indicator for a supervisory position. Estimates show that
wages are 8% higher for graduates with work experience in
the full model. A surprisingly high gender pay gap (23%)
has emerged within two years of graduation. Graduates
with STEM education earn on average 16% more, and
wages do not depend on GPA. Self-employed graduates
and those working in foreign companies earn 22-24%
more than graduates employed in public sector or in private
Czech firms. Graduates in supervisory positions earn
9% more, and those settled in towns with less than 100,000
residents earn 12% less. Graduates graduating in 2017 earn
6% more than the cohort graduating in 2018 which reflects
a steep wage increase in the early career of graduates.
Conclusion
University students are attractive to businesses struggling
to find skilled workers. This research shows that students
who worked before graduation and continued the same
employment after graduation earn 8% more relative to
graduates who started a new employment after graduation.
The results are robust to the inclusion of controls for
student academic performance, education specialization,
and job characteristics. A striking result is that a high gender
pay gap (over 20%) emerges very early in the career
of university graduates and persists in the Czech labour
market [5].
The study has several limitations. First, the survey does
not include information about the quality and length of
the work experience before graduation. Second, the low
response rate may influence the representativeness of
collected data. Third, talented and more able students
are more likely to combine study and work [2] and also
Higher Education in Russia and Beyond / Na3(24) / Fall 2020 24
to earn more after graduation. Fourth, combining study
and work delays the graduation and negatively influences
student academic performance [1,3]. In our sample graduates
with working experience have worse GPA but findings
from wage equation show that the GPA has no association
with wages. These shortcomings should be challenged in
future research.
Acknowledgements
Financial supported from Grant Agency of Masaryk University
(specific research funding) is gratefully acknowl­
edged.
References
[1] Masevičiuté, K., Šaukeckiené, V., Ozolinčiuté, E.
(2018). Combining Studies and Paid Jobs. German Centre
for Research on Higher Education and Science Studies,
Vilnius.
[2] Roshchin, S., Rudakov, V. (2017). Patterns of student
employment in Russia. Journal of Education and Work,
Routledge, 30(3), 314-338.
[3] Häkkinen, I. (2006). Working while enrolled in a university:
Does it pay?. Labour Economics, 13(2), 167-189.
[4] Geel, R , Backes-Gellner, U. (2012). Earning While
Learning: When and How Student. Labour, 26(3), 313—
340.
[5] Filipova, L., Pytlíková, M . (2017). Gender differentials
on the Czech labour market - development over 25 years
since the Fall of Iron Curtain, in Razzu, G. (Ed.), Gender
Inequality in the Eastern European Labour Market: Twenty-Five
Years of Transition Since the Fall of Communism,
Routledge.
Student employment in
Poland: evidence from the
Polish Graduate Tracking
System
Tomasz Zajac,
Research Fellow: Institutefor Social Science Research,
The University ofQueensland
t.zajac<a>uq.edu.au
Student employment has not been at the centre of the debate
on higher education in Poland and remains under-researched.
The discussion on the relationship between
university education and the labour market focuses on
graduate employability. However, recent regulatory changes
led to the inclusion of pre-graduation employment records
in the Polish Graduate Tracking System (ELA),
which offers a glimpse into student employment in Poland.
Educational expansion
The Ministry of Science and Higher Education created
ELA in response to concerns about graduates' labour market
prospects that arose after the previously elitist higher
education system massified within two decades. The
liberalisation of tertiary education in Poland in the early
1990s, which was a part of the transformation after the fall
of communist rule, created the conditions for the rapid expansion
of the sector by allowing increases in enrolment
at public institutions and the creation of new private institutions.
The changes enabled the university sector to respond
to society's demand for university credentials. The
result was an almost fivefold increase in the number of students
between 1990 and 2006 [1]. Since then, enrolment
has been slowly declining, primarily due to demographic
dynamics [2].
The breakneck growth in the number of students resulted
in a deterioration of the labour market advantage of HE
graduates [3]. This sparked a heated debate on graduate
employability and the merits of at least some degrees. One
of the consequences of this debate was the establishment
of the ELA system in 2015, which monitors post-graduation
labour market outcomes. It supports evidence-based
policymaking and guides prospective students in their
choice of educational paths.
Data on student employment
The ELA system utilises administrative records collected
in POL-on, the Polish integrated system of information
on science and higher education, linked to data extracted
from the database of the Social Insurance Institution
(ZUS) [4]. The primary goal of the system is to track
post-graduation labour market performance. However,
the latest edition includes ZUS records on the pre-graduation
employment and self-employment histories of graduates
stretching back to their first enrolment recorded in
POL-on. This change created an opportunity to measure
the extent to which students undertook economic activity
before graduating and ascertain the effects of such activity
on their post-graduation outcomes. Accordingly, this paper
focuses on the youngest cohort of graduates, i.e. those
who finished their studies in 2018, for which the data are
most accurate [5].
Employing administrative data has tremendous benefits,
chief among them is access to detailed records on the entire
population. Unfortunately, those benefits come at a
cost. Researchers have little impact on data collection. For
student employment analysis, the most significant caveat
is that the data do not include records of any civil law contracts
of students. A civil law contract is a kind of work
arrangement usually meant for casual work. Its flexibility
and cost efficiency, especially when employing students,
led to its adoption in situations of extended employment
as well. Therefore, the actual share of working students is
likely even higher.
25 Higher Education in Russia and Beyond / Ns3(24) / Fall 2020
Figure 1. Graduates with experience of pre-graduation employment or self-employment and difference in earnings between
graduates with and without experience by level and field of study
First-cycle (Bachelor)
Sport s.
Forestry s. Law
Mathematics Pharmaceutical s. T heology Donomics
Humanities
Technology
Social studies
Biologi
Agricultural s.
Earth s.
cal s.
Medical s
Health s.
Physical s.
CD
CD
O
CD
i t
20 30 40 50
Second-cycle (2yr Master)
•
Theology
Mathematics
Forestry s
Medical s.
Physical s.
Health s.
Physical s.
Technology
Economics
LawTechnology
Economics
Law
Humanities
Chemical s.
Humanities
Social studies
Agricultural s. Sport s.
Biological sEarth s. Pharmaceutical s.
20
30 40 50 60 70
Integrated (5yr Master)
Social studies
1 3 W
Medical s.
Humanities
•
Veterinary s.
Theology
Pharmaceutical s.
20 40 60
% of graduates with pre-graduation employment or self-employment experience
Number of gradautes Broad field of study
• 10000 Agricultural, forestry and veterinary sciences
9 20000 • Biological sciences
# 30000 Humanities
0 40000 Medical, health and sport sciences
Science
Social studies
Technological sciences
Data source: Polish Graduate Tracking System
Higher Education in Russia and Beyond / Ns3(24) / Fall 2020 26
Student employment and self-
employment
Among graduates of first-cycle (3-year bachelor-level)
programmes who finished their studies in 2018, 40% had
experience of pre-graduation employment (or self-employment).
Almost half of this group had employment
preceding the commencement of studies. The share of
graduates with such experience is even higher among
second-cycle (2-year master-level) programme graduates.
60% of them were employed before graduation, and
40% had episodes of work before the beginning of their
last studies. There is one more type of studies, five-year
master-level studies reserved only for selected disciplines,
such as Medical Science, Law, and Psychology. Graduates
of these programmes make up 13% of all graduates and are
least likely to have pre-graduation work experience.
Previous research documented differences between fields
of study in post-graduation labour market performance.
The new ELA data provide evidence that the divergence
in professional paths occurs at a much earlier stage. In the
case of both first- and second-cycle studies, graduates of
social sciences and health sciences are most likely to have
experience of pre-graduation employment. Science graduates
occupy the other end of the spectrum (see the x-axis
in Figure 1).
Graduates of five-year programmes are generally less likely
to have pre-graduation work experience than their second-cycle
peers. The difference is starkest in the case of
medical science. While second-cycle students in this field
are most likely to work before graduation (74%), those
enrolled in five-year programmes are least likely to do so
(7%).
Impact on post-graduation outcomes
Figure 1 also presents the difference in earnings between
graduates with and without experience, expressed as the
percentage of the average earnings of graduates without
experience (y-axis). Unsurprisingly, graduates who have
pre-graduation work experience have higher incomes in
the first year after graduation. The difference varies widely
between fields. In extreme cases, graduates with experience
earn 80% more than those without it. In the case of
larger disciplines, it rarely exceeds 50%.
Importantly, the share of graduates having work experience
does not seem to be related to the increase in average
earnings. There is no link between the percentage of graduates
with work experience and how well, on average, the
graduates of a discipline perform on the labour market.
Conclusion: Next steps
The results show that regardless of the academic discipline,
Polish graduates with work experience enjoy a significant
labour market advantage in the first year after graduation.
The effects of pre-graduation work experience will probably
wane with time. However, further research is needed
to estimate the size of the effect and to ascertain for how
long it lasts.
References and notes
[1] Central Statistical Office. (2015). Higher Education Institutions
and their Finances in 2014. GUS.
[2] Statistics Poland, & Statistical Office in Gdansk. (2019).
Higher education institutions and their finances in 2018.
[3] Rokicka, M . , Klobuszewska, M . , Palczynska, M . ,
Shapoval, N., & Stasiowski, J. (2015). Composition and cumulative
disadvantage of youth across Europe. Retrieved
from http://www.except-project.eu/working-papers/
[4] Detailed information on data sources, linkage, and
methodology can be found on the project's website: https://
ela.nauka.gov.pl/en/experts/source-data
[5] Pre 2014 POL-on records are deemed likely to be incomplete.
There is a higher risk that some groups of graduates
were not properly reported by universities. This means
that the older the graduate cohort, the shorter on average
the observation window during which employment or
self-employment is captured.
Reading list
Research on student employment focuses on the incidence,
determinants and motivation of combining study
and work, and its educational and labour market outcomes.
There are several research questions related to the
determinants and motivation of student employment, including
what type of students from which socio-economic
backgrounds are likely to combine study and work, and
whether the main motivations of student employment are
financial or the accumulation of work experience. Studies
of the educational outcomes of student employment
explore its effects on the quality of education, academic
achievement and dropout rates. Studies of labour market
outcomes of combining of study and work are focused on
graduate employability, salaries and returns to education
and consider the phenomenon of student employment using
the approaches of human capital and job market signaling
theories.
We have prepared a list of selective academic publications
which explore the problem of student employment and
might be of particular interest to our readers.
Determinants and patterns of student
employment
• Beerkens, M., Magi, E., & Lill, L. (2011). University
studies as a side jobxauses and consequences of
massive student employment in Estonia. Higher education,
61(6), 679-692.
• Darmody, M . , & Smyth, E. (2008). Full-time students?
Term-time employment among higher education
students in Ireland. Journal of Education and
Work, 21(4), 349-362.
27 Higher Education in Russia and Beyond / Na3(24) / Fall 2020
• Ford, I., Bosworth, D., & Wilson, R. (1995). Parttime
work and full-time higher education. Studies in
Higher Education, 20(2), 187-202.
• Hall, R. (2010). The work-study relationship: experiences
of full-time university students undertaking
part-time employment. lournal of education and
Work, 23(5), 439-449.
• Lucas, R., and N. Lammont. 1998. "Combining Work
and Study: An Empirical Study of Full-time Students
in School, College and University", lournal of Education
and Work, 11(1), 41-56.
• Moreau, M . P., and C. Leathwood. 2006. "Balancing
Paid Work and Studies: Working (-class) Students
in Higher Education". Studies in Higher Education,
31(1), 23-42.
• Roshchin, S., & Rudakov, V. (2017). Patterns of student
employment in Russia, lournal of Education
and Work, 30(3), 314-338.
Student employment and educational
outcomes
• Baert, S., Marx, I., Neyt, B., Van Belle, E., & Van
Casteren, I. (2018). Student employment and academic
performance: an empirical exploration of the
primary orientation theory. Applied Economics Letters,
25(8), 547-552.
• Hovdhaugen, E. 2015. "Working while Studying:
The Impact of Term-time Employment on Dropout
Rates", lournal of Education and Work, 28(6), 631-
651
• Kalenkoski, C. M., and S. W. Pabilonia. 2010. "Parental
Transfers, Student Achievement, and the Labor
Supply of College Students", lournal of Population
Economics, 23(2), 469-496.
• Neyt, B., Omey, E., Verhaest, D., & Baert, S. (2019).
Does student work really affect educational outcomes?
A review of the literature, lournal of Economic
Surveys, 33(3), 896-921.
Student employment and labour market
outcomes
• Baert, S., Rotsaert, O., Verhaest, D , & Omey, E.
(2016). Student employment and later labour market
success: No evidence for higher employment chances.
Kyklos, 69(3), 401-425.
• Ehrenberg, R. G., & Sherman, D. R. (1987). Employment
while in college, academic achievement, and
postcollege outcomes: A summary of results, lournal
of Human Resources, 22(1), 1-23.
• Van Belle, E., Caers, R., Cuypers, L., De Couck, M . ,
Neyt, B., Van Borm, H., & Baert, S. (2020). What do
student jobs on graduate CVs signal to employers?
Economics of Education Review, 75, 101979.
Higher Education in Russia and Beyond / Na3(24) / Fall 2020 28
About HERB
Higher Education in Russia and Beyond (HERB)
is a quarterly informational journal that has been
published by the National Research University
Higher School of Economics since 2014. HERB is
intended to illuminate the transformation process
of higher education institutions in Russia and
countries of Eastern Europe and Central Asia. The
journal seeks to voice multiple-aspect opinions
about current challenges and trends in higher
education and share examples of the best local
practices.
Our audience represents a wide international
community of scholars and professionals in the
field of higher education worldwide. The project
is implemented as part of cooperation agreement
between the Higher School of Economics and the
Boston College Center of International Higher
Education.
Editorial Board:
Maria Yudkevich — Editor-in-chief, HSE Vice
Rector, CInSt Director, Associate Professor at the
Department of Applied Economics
Yulia Grinkevich — Editor, HSE Director of
Internationalization
Igor Chirikov — Editor, Senior Research Fellow
at HSE Institute of Education, SERU-I Managing
Director at the Center for Studies in Higher
Education, UC Berkeley
Manja Klemencic — Editor, Postdoctoral Fellow in
Sociology at Harvard University (USA)
Philip G. Altbach — Editor, Founding Director,
Center for International Higher Education at Boston
College (USA)
Coordinator: Polina Bugakova
Translator: David Connolly
Designer: Vladimir Kremlev
Contact info: E-mail: herb.hse@gmail.com
www.herb.hse.ru/en/
Editorial and publisher's address:
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To be distributed free of charge
Subscribtion to a web version:
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F A L L
2020