It has long been acknowledged that higher levels of educational attainment come with higher benefits for both individuals and societies. Individuals with higher education levels tend to earn higher incomes, be at lower risk of unemployment, and enjoy more stable, secure, prestigious, and interesting occupations. Outside of the sphere of work, they have healthier lifestyles, more stable partnerships, and live longer than their less-educated counterparts. Societies with more educated members often have higher GDP, are healthier, have lower rates of crime, and are less prone to political extremism. In many ways, then, educational expansion could be understood as a key driver of individual and societal improvement. Despite these benefits, expansion and massification – especially the expansion of the tertiary level of education – has repeatedly drawn criticism, typically in relation to the labour market. As the number of graduates rapidly increases, will they all be able to find appropriate jobs or will some of them be inevitably destined to accept jobs for which they are overqualified? In other words, could there be too many highly educated individuals? These considerations come to new, more urgent light in the context of the so-called Fourth Industrial Revolution or ‘Industry 4.0’. Rapidly evolving new technologies – robots and AI in particular – are predicted to be eventually able to replace human workers, both in manual and/ or routine work and in non-routine, creative occupations.